Ramos, Gerrold A.

E4C
Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics
Torricelli's theorem
Hydraulic Coefficients
Hydraulic Coefficients include Coefficient of contraction, Coefficient of velocity, Coefficient of
discharge and Coefficient of resistance. The following are the hydraulic coefficients:
1. Coefficient of contraction (Cc). It is defined as the ratio of area of jet at *vena contracta (ac)
to the area of orifice (a).
The point at which the streamlines first become parallel is called vena contracta. The cross-
sectional area of the jet at vena contrata is less than that of the orifice. The theoretical velocity

of jet at vena contracta is given by

This expression is called Torricelli's theorem.
2. Coefficient of velocity (Cv). It is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of the jet at vena
contracta (v) to the theoretical velocity.
3. Coefficient of discharge (Cd). It is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge through the
orifice (Q) to the theoretical discharge (Qth). The coefficient of discharge is equal to the product
of Cc and Cv.
4. Coefficient of resistance (Cr). It is defined as the ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the head
of water available at the exit of the orifice.
Note: The coefficient of velocity is determined experimentally by using the following relation,
i.e.
where
x = Horizontal distance,
y = Vertical distance, and
H = Constant water head.

OBJECTIVE:
(i) To determine the hydraulic coefficients, coefficient of discharge (Cd) coefficient velocity ( Cv)
and coefficient contraction (Cc) of the given orifice fitted on a tank.
(ii) To draw the graph Cd vs Hw.
EQUIPMENT:
a) The given orifice plate fitted on a tank size 0.3 m x 0.3 m x 1.0 m, provided with piezometer
and scale arrangement with zero of the coinciding with the centre of the Orifices &
Mouthpieces with overflow outlet and drain plug and with provision for fixing interchangeable
Orifice & Mouthpiece.
b) A measuring tank size 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 0.6 m, arranged with to overflow arrangement and
provided with gauge glass, scale arrangement and a drain valve.
c) A scale and sliding apparatus to measure the X and Y co-ordinates of the jet suitable hook
gauge & Horizontal scale are mounted on the supply tank for convenience of handling.
d) Stop Watch.
BASICS :
Water is allowed to flow through the orifice keeping the head constant by adjusting the inlet
valve. The actual discharge Qa is determined using the measuring tank.
Co-efficient of discharge
Actual discharge

Where
a – Area of measuring tank in cm2
h – Height differences in piezo meter in cm.
t – Time to collect water for a height difference of h cm, measured in seconds
Theoretical discharge

Where:
Qa – Actual discharge = Ax h / t
a – Area of the measuring tank.
H – Rise of water level (say10cm) in meters.
T – Time in seconds for raise of water level.
D – Diameter of the orifice
A – Area of the Orifice (or Mouthpiece) = ? / 4 d2
H – Height of liquid above the centre of the Orifice (or Mouthpiece).
Coefficient of discharge

Co-efficient of Velocity

X = Horizontal co-ordinate of the jet at the measuring point

Y = Vertical co-ordinate of the jet at the measuring point
H = Height of liquid above the centre of the Orifices.
Co-efficient of contraction
Cc = Cd / Cv
PROCEDURE:
i. Open the inlet valve and maintain the head constant ( at supply tank ) over the orifice.
ii. Allow water to flow through the orifice and note the maximum head over the orifice that
permits the water jet to flow into the measuring tank. Divide this head to approximately 7 steps
of readings.
iii. Regulate the inlet valve to obtain a constant head Hw over the orifice and note the time
taken for collecting water to a height ‘h’ in the measuring tank.
iv. Note X1 and Y1 co-ordinates using the pointer gauge at the centre of vena contracta (taken
as 0.5 time the diameter outside the orifice opening).
v. Measure the X2 and Y2 coordinates at any point on the centre of the jet, preferably at the
farthest point.
vi. Adjust the head over the orifice and repeat the experiment.

Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem

OBJECTIVE:
To verify Bernoulli’s theorem
EQUIPMENT:
a)Apparatus for the verification of Bernoulli’s theorem
b)measuring tank and
c)a stop watch
BASICS:
Bernoulli’s theorem states that for a stream lined, steady, frictionless and incompressible fluid
flow, the sum of pressure head, velocity head and potential head is a constant
Water at constant head from a tank is allowed to flow through a horizontal pipe line of varying
cross section. The pressure heads Hp1,Hp2, etc are noted from piezometers fitted at cross
sections A1,Aa2Etc .By measuring the actual discharge ,the actual velocities of flow at A1,A2 etc
are calculated.
The actual discharge

Where
a-area of measuring tank in cm 2.
h-Level difference of water in the measuring tank in cm.
tm-The mean time to collect water
The velocity of flow at the cross section A1 is given by

The velocity head

Assuming that the pipe line has negligible frictional loss in flow , Bernoulli’s equation for the
horizontal pipe at cross section A1, can be verified as :
Pressure head Hp1+ velocity head Hv1=constant
OBSERVATIONS:
Constants
1.Measuring tank size,a m2
2.The height ( h m )for which the time t1 and t2 are noted to collect water in the measuring
tank.
3.The areas of cross section A1,A2, etc
Variables
1.The piezometer readings HP1,HP2 etc in m of water
2.Time tm seconds required to collect water for a height of h m in the measuring tank as mean
value of readings t1 and t2

PROCEDURE
1.Open the inlet valve to supply tank and allow water to fill up to a maximum head of H m.
2.Open the outlet valve of the apparatus to have flow through the testing pipe.Then regulate
both the inlet and out let valves so that the head H is maintained constant.This condition is
reached only if the inlet is equal to outlet.
3.Note the time in seconds to collect water for a rise of h m in the measuring tank twice as t1
and t2.If the difference in readings exceeds 10%, take a third reading within the range.
4.Note the pressure head Hp at the cross sections A1,A2 etc.
5.Repeat the experiment for medium and low heads in the supply tank