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The Mentor-Protégé Relationship

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 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.

STATEMENTS
The Mentor-Protégé Relationship

Stuart T. Haines, PharmD

School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland

Mentoring is a time-honored method for learning in graduate education and professional development.
Mentoring is a symbiotic relationship between a mentor - protégé pair who assist each other to meet
mutual career objectives. Close mentor-protégé relationships often play a critical role in the lives of
successful individuals in academia and business. Effective mentoring is an intentional activity requir-
ing conscious effort. Mentors teach, sponsor, encourage, counsel, and befriend their protégés. Four
distinct periods exist in most mentor - protégé relationships over time. Mentors are typically 15 to 20
years older than the protégé. Females report having more difficulty forming mentoring relationships
and the most suitable mentor candidates are usually males. The framework for effective mentoring is
grounded in social and invitational learning theories. The successful protégé eventually develops the
self-regulating behaviors that enable autonomous performance and mastery. Formal mentoring pro-
grams are commonplace but data supporting this practice are scant.
Keywords: mentor, protégé

INTRODUCTION mentoring relationship played in the lives of 40 success-

Mentoring is among the primary means by which
adults gain new knowledge and skills.1 Mentoring has
held a time-honored and important role in human
learning, particularly in graduate education, profes-
sional training, and business.2 Doctor of Philosophy
candidates conduct their research under the guidance
of a “major” professor. Recent graduates of pharmacy
and medical schools seek residency and fellowship
training with experienced, well-respected practitio-
ners. Business leaders often speak of someone who
was particularly influential in their professional de-
velopment.3
It is Homer who is credited with introducing the
concept of mentoring in his literary epic the Odys-
sey.4,5 Ulysses asks his trusted servant, Mentor, to
provide for his son, Telemachus, an education that
covered “every facet of life — physical, intellectual,
moral, spiritual, social, and administrative develop-
ment.”6 In the oft cited work “The Seasons of a Man's
Life,” Levinson described the prominence that a close
Corresponding Author: Stuart T. Haines, PharmD.
Mailing Address: University of Maryland School of
Pharmacy, 100 Penn Street, Room 240H, Baltimore,
Maryland 21201-1082. Tel: (410) 706-1865. Fax: (410)
706-4725. E-mail: shaines@rx.umaryland.edu.
ful men in the business world.3 Paul Pierpaoli describes
the role of the mentor in pharmacy as “the highest call-
ing within our professional ranks. Nurturing the growth
and self-actualization of a health professional who will
ultimately contribute to the health and well-being of so-
ciety-at-large is one of the greatest contributions that
any of us can make to humanity.”7
As the complexities of the workplace and higher
education have increased, there is growing recognition
that formal mentoring programs are needed to enable
adults to be successful throughout their careers. Surveys
of business executives, lawyers, chemists, and university
faculty demonstrate a strong correlation between the
presence of a mentoring relationship and self-perceived
career satisfaction and success.5 A high percentage of
researchers in medicine indicate that a mentor was the
single most important influence in the selection of their
research career.8 Women in academic medicine who
have a mentor were more productive, as measured by
the number of research publications, than women who
had no mentor.9 Finally, individuals who are mentored
early in their careers are more likely to mentor others in
the later stages of their careers.10 Thus, mentoring activi-
ties are self-perpetuating.
This paper will examine the nature of the mentor-
protégé relationship including the theoretical basis that

1
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
Table 1. Attributes of Successful Mentor-Protégé Relationships
Mentor Qualities
Strong interpersonal skills
Technical competence / expertise
Knowledge of organization and profession
Status / prestige within the organization and profession
Willingness to be responsible for someone else’s growth and development
Ability to share credit
Patience
Protégé Qualities
Self-perceived growth needs
A record of seeking / accepting challenging assignments
Receptivity to feedback and coaching
Willingness to assume responsibility for own growth and development
Ability to perform in more than one skill area
Relationship Qualities
Voluntary
Mutual benefits perceived and derived from the relationship
No conflicts of interest / competition between mentor and protégé
Not confined to merely professional or business interests

supports mentoring as an effective educational strat-
egy and some practical considerations for formal
mentoring programs.
The Mentor — Protégé Relationship
Mentoring is often described as a symbiotic rela-
tionship between two adults who assist each other to
meet mutual career objectives in an organization or
professional discipline. Anderson and Shannon de-
fined mentoring as:
a nurturing process in which a more skilled or
more experienced person, serving as a role
model, teaches, sponsors, encourages, coun-
sels, and befriends a less skilled or less ex-
perienced person for the purpose of promoting
the latter's professional and personal devel-
opment. Mentoring functions are carried out
within the context of an ongoing, caring rela-
tionship between the mentor and protégé.11
Several key attributes are essential ingredients in
a successful mentor-protégé relationship (Table 1).
Mentoring is an intentional activity whereby the men-
tor carries out his/her responsibilities with conscious
effort. It is a nurturing relationship wherein the men-
tor fosters the full maturation of the protégé’s poten-
tial capabilities by giving feedback on observed
performances. This implies that the mentor recognizes
the protégé’s current level of ability and actively en-
gages the protégé in growth producing activities. The
mentor determines how best to assist the protégé by
considering the total personality of the individual being
nurtured. In addition, the mentor acts with the belief that
the protégé has the capacity to develop into fuller matur-
ity. As a role model, the mentor serves as an example to
the protégé and provides him/her with a sense of what
they will become.12
Under this definition, the mentor stands ready to ful-
fill five functions — specifically teaching, sponsoring,
encouraging, counseling, and befriending.11 As a
teacher, the mentor assists the protégé to acquire the
new knowledge, skills, and, importantly, attitudes
needed in the specific professional discipline or work
environment to succeed. Likewise, the protégé actively
seeks to acquire and apply the mentor's wisdom.
As a sponsor, the mentor uses his/her power and
professional status to help the protégé to reach career
goals such as obtaining employment, promotion, or ap-
pointments. In this capacity, the mentor “vouches for the
great ability of the candidate for admission”13 and helps
the protégé to establish a network of influential col-
leagues within the organization and professional asso-
ciations.7 Sometimes these activities are done behind the
scenes without the protégé's knowledge.14 In the role of
sponsor, the mentor also seeks to protect the protégé
from potential threats in the environment. For example,
preventing the protégé from being assigned to more
work than can be reasonably accomplished or confront-
ing those who wish the protégé ill.11
The mentor also serves to encourage the protégé by
affirming, challenging, and inspiring. The mentor

2
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
Table 2. Benefits and Pitfalls of the Mentor-Protégé Relationship36
Mentor
Benefits Enhanced self-esteem
Revitalized interest in work
Advanced standing in organization or
profession
Fulfill own developmental needs
Increased job satisfaction
Enhanced quality of life through close
personal relationships
Leave a legacy
Potential Lack of time
pitfalls Protégé lacks requisite skills to meaning-
fully contribute
Protégé does not take coaching or feedback
seriously
Protégé “plays” mentor against supervisor,
boss, or associates
Protégé becomes resentful
affirms by continually acknowledging the protégé’s
strengths and successes; challenges by inviting the
protégé to participate in growth-producing activities;
and inspires the protégé by words and example.11 To
be effective, the mentor also counsels and befriends
the protégé. When a particularly troublesome problem
is faced by the protégé, the mentor serves as a coun-
selor by actively listening, probing, clarifying, and
advising. As a friend, a mentor demonstrates accep-
tance, understanding, and trust through words and
actions.11
There are several potential benefits and pitfalls to
a mentor-protégé relationship (Table 2). Mentors of-
ten express feelings of greater self-esteem and worth.
Through mutual effort, the mentor’s work becomes
more rewarding and meaningful. Mentors frequently
enjoy advanced standing within the profession or or-
ganization, particularly if the protégé makes signifi-
cant contributions. Further, mentors can create a leg-
acy after they leave the profession or organization
through their protégé(s). For the protégé, the mentor
can ease the transition into the profession and the or-
ganization by increasing awareness of its culture and
structure. Pierpaoli7 suggests that one of the desired
consequences of mentoring young health profession-
als is to assist them to embrace an appropriate attitu-
dinal profile, including a sense of responsibility and a
desire to help others. These attitudes are acquired
through the protégé's direct observations of the men-
tor's professional and personal interactions with oth-
3
Protégé
Ease transition from school into profession
Increased awareness of profession and
organization
Accelerated assimilation into the
professional and organizational culture
Higher earnings
Increased job satisfaction
Increased likelihood of success
Unrealistic expectations about advancement
or promotion
Jealousy and gossip
Mentor takes credit for protégé’s work
Mentor does not keep commitments
Mentor becomes possessive of the protégé’s
time
Mentor won’t “let go” when protégé is ready
for independence
ers. It is the mentor who introduces the protégé to the
prevailing culture of the profession, its standards of
practice and system of beliefs, which in turn enable the
protégé to enjoy early career success, greater opportuni-
ties, and higher wages.
While the mentor-protégé relationship can be mutu-
ally rewarding, it can be potentially destructive.15
Campbell points out that the mentor has great power to
shape and mold a new person.16 The potential risk, of
course, is that this power can be used for the mentor's
own selfish purposes rather than meeting the protégé
needs. In addition, mentoring relationships can limit the
potential of the participants. Mentors may inadvertently
stifle the maturation of the protégé by discouraging
autonomous work; the protégé may not develop self-
monitoring skills and grow dependent on the mentor.
Given the limited access that women and minorities of-
ten have to work with the most influential and effective
mentors, another potentially destructive aspect of a men-
toring system is the creation of an “old boys network.”
Four distinct periods in the mentor-protégé relation-
ship have been described (Table 3).14,17 During the first
few weeks of the relationship, a period called the initia-
tion phase, the mentor and protégé begin challenging
work together.17 During this phase, the protégé provides
technical assistance to the mentor and demonstrates a
strong desire to be coached. In a reciprocating manner,
the mentor recognizes the protégé's respect for his/her
work and encourages opportunities for interaction
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
Table 3. Stages of Mentor-Protégé Relationship17
Stage
(typical duration) Characteristics

Initiation Mutual interests identified

(weeks) Task-centered relationship
Invitation(s) extended
Cultivation Frequent and meaningful interactions
(years) Strong professional AND personal relationship
Transformative learning occurs
Highly productive
Mutual growth
Separation Conflict
(months) Professional AND personal relationship disrupted
Possible feelings of resentment, abandonment, or hostility
Transformation Independence
(years) Peer-like relationship
Feelings of mutual gratitude and appreciation

centered on work-related tasks. In the second period,
called the cultivation phase, the mentor-protégé rela-
tionship widens to encompasses its maximum psycho-
social functions over a period of two to five years.17
Through frequent and meaningful interaction, both
individuals derive numerous professional and per-
sonal benefits from the relationship. Deep intimate
and emotional bonds are formed in this phase. Even-
tually the protégé no longer requires the mentor's
guidance and seeks to work more autonomously. Dur-
ing this stage, the separation phase, feelings of re-
sentment or hostility may erupt.17 The mentor may
feel abandoned or the protégé may feel stifled. While
some mentor-protégé relationships end during the
separation phase, many shift into a peer-like friend-
ship. The transformation phase is characterized by a
mutual sense of gratitude and appreciation.14 It is dur-
ing this period that the mentor recognizes that the pro-
tégé no longer needs the parent-like protection and
nurturing that once characterized the relationship.
The typical mentor is 15 to 20 years older than the
protégé.18 While some experienced mentors are able
to mentor more than one individual at a time, given
the intensity of the relationship, most mentor-protégé
pairs are exclusive during the cultivation phase of the
relationship.19 Over the course of a career, individuals
may have multiple mentors and protégés. Males typi-
cally form a mentoring relationship with another
male.18 Females relate that they often have difficulty
forming mentoring relationships and frequently find
that the most suitable mentor candidates — those in-
dividuals who are successful and powerful in the or-
ganization — are males.20 While cross gender mentor-
protégé relationships are possible, the male mentor and
female protégé relationship is fraught with difficulties.21
Frequently, colleagues have misperceptions regarding
the nature of male-female mentoring relationships, be-
lieving that such pairings must involve some sexual in-
terest. Even the earnest invitations of a potential male
mentor can be perceived as a sexual overture by a poten-
tial female protégé.
Mentoring relationships vary in their scope of influ-
ence. Some authors contend that the mentor-protégé re-
lationship should be limited to the educational and/or
career interests of the two parties.18,22 Others feel that
the true spirit of mentoring is to be concerned about the
welfare of the protégé in a holistic manner.11,23 The men-
tor and protégé are inclined to share experiences outside
the conventional academic or professional setting. Such
a relationship is exemplified by William Osler, famed
Johns Hopkins physician, and his protégé Harvey Cush-
ing, who became a legendary clinician and medical edu-
cator himself.5 During his years as an intern and junior
faculty member, Cushing lived next door to the Oslers
on West Franklin Street in Baltimore and was given
keys to the Oslers' home. The Oslers played a critical
role in Cushing's marriage. Further, it was Cushing who
attempted to save Osler's son's life after he was fatally
wounded in battle during World War II. Indeed, the
mentor-protégé relationship has been likened to a “sub-
stitute parent for an adult child.”11
The interpersonal characteristics that attract mentors
and protégés together are unclear. The mentor-protégé
relationship has been compared to falling in love.24
Some authors suggest that mentors seek protégés who

4
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
have similar personalities and behavioral style. Per-
sons with similar personality traits may work more
easily together, particularly in circumstances requir-
ing a prediction of behavior without full information.
Perhaps mentors primarily extend a mentoring invita-
tion based on the protégé’s perceived abilities, history
of hard work, or a recent accomplishment. Kelly
found that young men who perform an important,
visible, but risky task within an organization were
three times more likely to have a mentoring relation-
ship than those who did not.17 Indeed, of those who
had a strong mentoring relationship, 72% indicated
that performing an important and visible task played a
significant role in the initiation of the mentoring rela-
tionship. Some authors suggest that mentors select as
protégés those individuals with personality character-
istics that offset the mentor's self-perceived weak-
nesses. However, these contentions are not supported
by empiric data. In a study examining the background
characteristics and personality profiling of 50 adult
pairs, Alleman and Newman found that mentor-
protégé pairs were no more alike or dissimilar than
control pairs.24 While protégés were more likely to
describe their mentor using adjectives they use to de-
scribe themselves, the difference in perceived simi-
larities between mentor-protégé pairs and the match
controls was small, accounting for only 8.5% of the
variance. Not surprisingly, protégés were more likely
to describe their mentor using superlatives, indicating
that protégés often idealize their mentors and identify
with them.
Effective mentoring relationships are made by
choice and based on mutual respect.1 The novice
likely seeks assistance from individuals perceived as
successful within the organization or professional dis-
cipline and who send welcoming overtures. Many
successful and powerful individuals are not willing or
able to serve as mentors to others. These individuals
likely avoid or have limited contact with novices or
perhaps signal that they are unwilling to share re-
sources or experiences. On the other hand, individuals
who are kind and helpful but not perceived as suc-
cessful are likely to become close friends or col-
leagues rather than mentors.
THEORETICAL ASPECTS
The basis for mentoring as an effective means to-
ward higher levels of cognitive development is
grounded in the social learning theories championed
by Lev Vygotsky.25 Vygotsky's research revealed that
children and adults primarily learn from their social
interactions with the people around them. According
to Vygotsky, learning only occurs with the assistance
5
of a skilled and nurturing mediator.26 Effective instruc-
tion requires the teacher to lead the student into the zone
of proximal development, a concept describing the dif-
ference between the learner's actual level of develop-
ment and potential level of development with guidance.
As the learner proceeds through the zone of proximal
development, the more knowledgeable person initially
provides direct supervision and guidance but, more im-
portantly, assists the learner to develop self-regulating
behaviors. These self-regulating behaviors enable the
learner to gradually perform without assistance and
eventually to automate and fossilize the newly learned
capacity.
Effective mentoring is also grounded in the princi-
ples of invitational learning.27 The precepts of invita-
tional learning state that all students are valuable and
responsible persons who have untapped potential and it
is the teacher's responsibility to personally and profes-
sionally invite development. Furthermore, invitational
learning sees teaching as a cooperative activity. Mentor-
ing requires a more experienced individual to invite a
novice to participate in the business, research, or clinical
activities of the organization. This invitation is to par-
ticipate at a level that is above and beyond the assigned
duties or requirements. The mentor makes a conscious
effort to send inviting messages to the protégé that
he/she is valued and able. The mentor and protégé rec-
ognize that their mutual activities are meaningful and
worthwhile.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Many businesses and educational institutions be-
lieve that mentoring is important to foster the develop-
ment of its employees or students and enhance career
satisfaction. How can organizations capitalize on men-
toring to meet institutional goals? Many have attempted
to implement formalized mentoring programs.12 In such
programs, all newcomers are systematically assigned to
experienced members of the organization with the hope
that effective mentoring relationships will develop.28
These types of formal advising or mentoring programs
are commonplace in health professional and graduate
education.29-32 Unfortunately, such programs have met
with mixed success.33,34 To develop a successful and
effective mentoring program, a few fundamental fea-
tures likely must be present.28 First, potential mentors
who participate in a formal mentoring program should
possess a strong desire to participate. Individuals who
are “forced” by company or university policy to serve as
mentors are unlikely to send the inviting messages that
are vital for an effective mentor-protégé bond to initially
develop. In addition, the mentor-protégé pair must share
a common area of interest, the mentor and protégé
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
Table 4. How to be an Effective Mentor37
Provide Support
Listen
Create a structure
Express positive expectations
Serve as an advocate
Share yourself
Make special gestures to foster the relationship
Provide Challenge
Assign challenging tasks
Engage in discussion
Explore dichotomies
Construct hypotheses
Set high standards
Provide Vision
Model exemplary behavior
Develop new language and new ways of thinking
Nurture the protégé’s self-awareness
must spend sufficient time together, and the mentor
must possess a sufficient level of expertise to guide
the protégé.34
Valadez and Duran analyzed the effectiveness of
22 mentorship teams at the University of North Caro-
lina.22 Each mentorship team consisted of at least 1
faculty member, 1 graduate student, and 1 under-
graduate student who worked collectively on one or
more research projects. The findings revealed that
mentoring was most effective when the mentor and
protégé engaged in work, in this case research pro-
jects, of mutual interest and common purpose. Men-
torship teams that worked separately on distinct re-
search initiatives were less effective and found less
satisfaction in their interactions. The level of faculty
participation in the research project also correlated
with the protégé's perceptions of effective mentoring.
The greater the amount of time the mentor and pro-
tégé spent interacting with one another, the greater the
sense of satisfaction and accomplishment. Further,
consistency and regularity of interaction with the
mentor contributed to a perception of success.
What implications do these findings have for
health education and professional development pro-
grams? First, if it is the intent of the institution for
students, residents, or junior faculty to develop effec-
tive mentoring relationships, arbitrarily assigning stu-
dents to faculty members is unlikely to succeed. Many
faculty members may not be inclined to serve as men-
tors or may not have sufficient time to devote to men-
toring activities. Therefore, faculty participation in a
formal mentoring program should be voluntary.
6
Likewise, students, residents, and employees should be
free to seek mentors who share their professional inter-
ests. Newcomers to an organization or institution will
likely need general advice during their first few months.
Such advice can be provided by a “generalist,” someone
who is sufficiently familiar with the culture of the or-
ganization and can introduce the newcomer to potential
mentors. After a period of acclimation, the novice
should be encouraged or, in some cases, required to
formally select a mentor.
Despite the potential pitfalls, formal mentoring pro-
grams can meet their intended goals.21 Organizations
that establish formal mentoring programs send a mes-
sage to those within the organization that mentor-
protégé relationships are encouraged and valued. “For-
mal” declaration of a mentor-protégé pair encourages
mentors to take their responsibilities seriously and re-
duces the opportunities for mentors to “use” the protégé
purely for there own gain. Lastly, formal mentoring
programs can open doors for women and minorities,
groups that historically have been excluded and fre-
quently have difficulty finding effective mentoring part-
ners.35
CONCLUSION
Mentoring is an important and effective adult learn-
ing strategy. Qualitative research and case studies of
successful individuals in business, professional, and
higher education settings indicate that mentoring has a
profound influence on professional development. As a
role model, the mentor teaches the protégé the knowl-
edge, skills, and attitudes necessary to be successful. To
be most effective, the mentor must approach this task in
 American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2003; 67 (3) Article 82.
a systematic manner and consider the many factors
that influence the protégé’s development. The effec-
tive mentor recognizes the protégé's potential and ex-
tends an invitation to engage in hands-on learning
experiences of mutual interest. The mentor provides
support, challenges, and vision (Table 4). Eventually,
the successful protégé develops the self-regulating
behaviors that enable autonomous performance and
mastery.
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