Chapter 4 – HUMAN GROUP
THE CONCEPT OF GROUP
1. A group is composed of two or more persons
interacting with each other, guided by a set of
norms.
2. A group is a specified number of individuals where
each recognizes members as distinct from non-
members; each has a sense of what others do and
think, as well as the purpose of the association or
grouping is.
3. The term “group” always implies three meanings:
a. to refer to a set of individuals with some similar
characteristics; social category – emphasizes the
sharing of traits
b. any number of individuals who meet occasionally
or regularly and have a sense of who is present or
absent; stresses two conditions of group life –
common presence and a minimum awareness of
others
c. to mean a specific number of individuals, where
each recognizes members from non-members,
each has a sense of what others do and think as
well as what the purpose of the association is;
emphasizes three elements – common
association, awareness of others, and socially
shared goals
Social aggregates
- people who happen to be in the same place but share
little else
- do not interact with one another, nor consider their
temporary association to have any meaning
- do not share a purpose
Statistical group
- people classified together because they share certain
characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS
o Permanence beyond meetings and members, that is,
even when members are dispersed
o Means for identifying members
o Mechanisms for recruiting new members
o Goals or purposes
o Social statuses and roles
o Means for controlling members’ behavior
Property of JENNY R. ABARQUEZ | SOCSCI011-K1
Characteristics identified by Fichter (1977):
1. must be identifiable as such, both by its members
and by outside observers
2. has a social structure in the sense that each member
or person has a position related to other positions
3. there are individual roles
4. reciprocal relations; there must be a contact and
communication among the members
5. has norms of behavior that influence the way in
which the roles are enacted
6. have certain common interests and values among
the members
7. group activity, if not, the very existence of the group
itself must be directed toward social goal/s
8. have relative permanence – a measurable duration
over a period of time
COMMON BASES FOR GROUPS
 Common ancestry
- traditionally the strongest tie that binds beings in
their social relations
- blood groups
 groups based upon common ancestry
 members are related by birth, marriage, or
adoption
 Territorial proximity
- territorial groups
 the sociological neighborhood, not merely an
aggregate, and the true community
 identified with the name of the place where
they are
 Similar bodily characteristics
- In the primitive societies, similarity of biological
characteristics is closely allied to the facts of
common ancestry and territory
- In the complex, modern societies, common racial
features are still the basis of imposed social
groupings
 Common interests
- interest group
 sociologically more significant than the other
groups
BASIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOCIAL GROUPS
 Primary groups
- characterized by intimate face-to-face relationship
and close association and cooperation
1
 - is a we; involves the sort of empathy and mutual - IN-GROUP
identification for which we is the natural  a group that members use a point of reference
expression  there is a we-feeling generated among
- relationships are spontaneous, personal, and members, who are immediately aware of those
intimate who do not belong – the they-group
- Three Basic Primary Groups (Cooley, 1963) - OUT-GROUP
o family  do not belong to the in-group which exists in
o children’s play groups the perceptions of the in-group members
o neighborhood or community groups  people who do not have the same standing as
the in-group from the perspective of the in
 Secondary groups group
- relationships are impersonal and widely separated
- much less intimacy among the members and  Informal and formal groups
usually have specific goals that are formally - INFORMAL GROUP
organized and impersonal  arises spontaneously out of the interactions of
two or more persons
Primary Group Secondary Group  unplanned, have no explicit rules for members
1. Physical Conditions and recruitment, and do not have specific
 Small number  Big number objectives to be attained
 Long duration  Short duration  members are bound by emotions and
2. Social Characteristics sentiments
 Intrinsic valuation of  Extrinsic valuation of - FORMAL GROUP
the relation the relationship  the purpose and objectives are explicitly
 Intrinsic valuation of  Extrinsic valuation of labeled; roles and statuses of the members are
other persons other persons specifically defined
 Inclusive knowledge  Specialized and  have names and are often governed by
of other persons limited knowledge of constitutions and by-laws
 Feeling of freedom other persons
and spontaneity  Feeling of external  Gemeinschaft and gesellschaft
- espoused by Ferdinand Tönnies
 Operation of constraints
- GEMEINSCHAFT
informal controls  Operation of formal
 members do not live together but also develop
controls
strong, shared memories and experiences
3. Sample Relationships
 Mechanical Solidarity – a social unity based on
 friend – friend  clerk – customer
similarity of objectives, traits, and experiences
 husband – wife  announcer – listener
of members (Durkheim)
 parent – child  performer – - GESELLSCHAFT
 teacher - pupil spectator  social relationships tend to be impersonal and
 officer - subordinate segmented
4. Sample Groups  social ties become associational, springing from
 play group  nation an elaborate division of labor
 family  church hierarchy  work environment is governed by contract and
 village or  professional highly specialized roles
neighborhood association - VERBINDUNGSNETZCHAFT
 work team  corporation  added by Canadian sociologist, Richmond
 social and communication networks
 In-groups and out-groups  a characteristic of post-industrial societies
- distinctions may be based on unique racial, ethnic,  interactions are not depended on the face-to-
religious, or social class characteristics or on face model that is bounded by territorial
special interests, residential location, or unique community
common experiences  do not even involve participation in formal
organizations

Property of JENNY R. ABARQUEZ | SOCSCI011-K1 2

GROUP’S INFLUENCE ON AN INDIVIDUAL
Social Facilitation
- a situation in which an individual is stimulated by the
presence of others
Social Inhibition
- a situation in which the presence of others blocks or
retards one’s performance
Group pressure
- exerts a powerful influence on the member’s opinions
Group discussion
- important in shaping one’s attitude and behavior
- Mao Tse-tung recognized its importance in using
public confession as a way to punish acts of deviance
and in publicly reorganizing the inviolate nature of the
group norms
Reasons for not violating the norms:
o Norms develop and conformity occurs because
individual seek others with similar characteristics
o Based on Aristotle’s notion of distributive justice, it
can be said that rewards in society are passed out
according to what one does
o Conformity is seen to be rewarding because it
confers social acceptance; whereas, deviancy is
viewed as costly because it brings social discomfort
and results in various forms of punishments
LINKAGES IN GROUP
 Diagramming Social Relationships
SOCIOMETRY
- approach that studies the mix of feelings that
persons have about one another in any social
relationship
- helps us understand how people interrelate in social
relationships in which everyone knows
everybodyelse
SOCIOGRAM
- a graph in which social choices or ties are
diagrammed
 Social Networks
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING ONE’S SOCIAL
NETWORKS:
o Social networks help people who are interested in
the adoption of innovations or the transmission of
information to people.
Property of JENNY R. ABARQUEZ | SOCSCI011-K1
o Network analysis may be used to understand
which people have power in a community and how
corporations are interlocked through the members
of their board of directors.
o Social networks can provide data about social
structure.
o Social networks provide data on people’s
interrelationships. They provide social and
emotional support to people in a complex society.
o Sociologists and anthropologists may utilize
knowledge of social networks in order to
categorize the societies in which they are found.
DIMENSIONS OF GROUPS (Champion, 1984)
 Size
- affects the quality of interaction in any group
- greater interaction is expected in a group with fewer
members as compared to a larger group of people
 Structure
- refers to the patterning of actual behavior
- BUREAUCRACY
 a formal organizational structure of large
organizations in contemporary society
 Nature of goals
- Social relationships are geared toward achievement
of specific goals or ends.
 Identity of members
- persons interact with people they know intimately –
such people are crucial in marking their social
identity, their community of friends, and their sphere
of daily activity
 Cohesiveness
- refers to the intensity of conformity or the degree to
which members of a group cooperate and show
social participation, feelings of satisfaction, and level
of productivity in a group
- Group cohesiveness is usually measured through:
o Researchers ask individuals to list a specified
number of friends. The more friends common by
members, the higher the cohesiveness of the
group.
o Individuals are asked to rate their feelings toward
the group as an entity. The greater the esteem
directed, the greater the cohesiveness.
o Individuals are asked to evaluate their sense of
belonging to the group. The more individuals feel
rooted, the greater the cohesiveness.
o Individuals ranks whether they want to remain in
the group. The greater the commitment, the
greater the cohesiveness.
3
 Leadership styles
- Sociologists found that groups in which the leaders
and followers had similar personality styles such as
autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire, generally get
along better than groups in which the personality
styles of the leaders and followers differ.
- Both autocratic and democratic groups could get
tasks performed efficiently. But democratic groups
were marked by a sense of cooperation, friendliness,
and supportiveness; whereas, autocratic groups
were less cooperative, more dependent on leaders
for directions and guidance, and quite critical of
lower-esteemed members.
FORMAL STRUCTURE: BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy
- refers to a formal, rationally organized, and highly
organized social structure with clearly define patterns
of activity in which, ideally, every series of action is
fundamentally related to the organization’s purpose
- Bureaucratic pattern
 a pyramid of personnel who could conduct
rationally the work of a large organization
- Features of Bureaucracy:
o specialization
o merit appointment
o impersonality
o chain of command to see that orders are faithfully
followed
- Max Weber provided the first detailed study of the
nature and origins of bureaucracy.
WEBER’S MODEL OF BUREAUCRACY
Ideal type
- Weber’s model of bureaucracy
Six Characteristics of Bureaucracies:
 A clear-cut division of labor
- Activities are clearly broken down into clearly
defined, limited tasks. This requires a great deal of
specialization and a high degree of expertise.
 Hierarchical delegation of power and responsibility
- Each position is given sufficient power to do
assigned work adequately and compel
subordinates to follow instructions.
 Rules and regulations
- The rights and duties attached to various positions
are clearly stated in writing and governing the
Property of JENNY R. ABARQUEZ | SOCSCI011-K1
behavior of all individuals who occupy the
positions. All members know what is expected of
them, and each person can be held accountable for
his/her behavior.
 Impartiality
- No exceptions are made on the rules and
regulations because of social and psychological
differences among individuals. The positions
belong to the organization itself; they cannot
become the personal property of those who
occupy them.
 Employment based on technical qualifications
- People are hired because they have the ability and
skills to do the job, not because they have personal
contact within the organization. Advancement is
based on how well a person does the job.
Promotion and job security go to those who are
most competent.
 Distinction between public and private spheres
- The employee’s personal life is distinguished from
his/her working life.
BUREAUCRACY TODAY: THE REALITY
Less than ideal bureaucracy may result in the following:
 Alienation
- used by Karl Marx to describe the sense of loss and
disconnectedness that is supposed to be present
among workers in the capitalistic societies
- comes about because automation and division of
labor eliminate the pride and self-expression that
workers would normally derive from the products
of their labor
 Ritualism
- overconformity to rules
- rules may take on a symbolic meaning far beyond
their original rational intent
 Incompetence
- bureaucracies often are havens for the inept
- Peter Principle
 popularized by Laurence J. Peter and Raymond
Hull
 in bureaucracies, employees are promoted until
they rise to their level of incompetence
- many unqualified persons manage to reach high-
level jobs where they often try to hide their
incompetence by becoming ritualistic devotees of
the rules and regulations
4