Module 1 Printj

MODULE -1
PRINCIPLES OF COMBINATION
LOGIC
GANESH Y
Dept. of ECE RNSIT
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Module -1
Principles of Combination Logic
SYLLABUS
Principles of combination logic: Definition of combinational logic, canonical forms,
Generation of switching equations from truth tables, Karnaugh maps-3,4,5 variables,
incompletely specified functions (Don’t care terms) Simplifying Max term equations,
Quine-McCluskey minimization technique, Quine-McCluskey using dont care terms,
Reduced prime implicants Tables. (Text 1, Chapter 3)
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Truth Tables of Basic Logic Gates
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GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 1

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Minimization of Boolean Expression

The number of gates required and the number of input terminals for the gates for the
implementation of a Boolean function, in general, get reduced considerably if the
Boolean function can be simplified.
Therefore, the simplification of Boolean function is very important as it saves the
hardware required and hence the cost for design of specific Boolean function.

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Definition of Combinational Logic

 When logic gates are connected together to produce a specified output for certain
specified combinations of input variables, with no storage involved, the resulting
circuit is called combinational logic. In combinational logic, the output variables
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are at all times dependent on the combination of input variables.

 A combinational circuit consists of input variables, logic gates, and output variables.
 The logic gates accept signals from the input variables and generate output signals.
This process transforms binary information from the given input data to the
required output data.
 Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of a combinational circuit. As shown in Fig. 1, the
combinational circuit accepts n-input binary variables and generates output
variables depending on the logical combination of gates.

 In the combinational circuit, let X be the set of n input variables {x0, x1, ... , xn- 1}, and
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Y be the set of m output variables {y0, y1, ... , ym-1} . The combinational function F,
operate on the set X, to produce the output variable set, Y. The output is thus related
to input as
Y = F (X)
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 The relationship between the input and output variables can be expressed in
equations, logic diagrams, or truth tables. A truth table specifies the input
conditions under which the outputs are true or false (1 or 0).
Problem Statements to Truth Tables
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Fig. 2 General logic design sequence

Fig.2 illustrates the sequence of design tasks in a general way:
• The first task is to define the problem to be solved. Nothing can occur until that
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is correctly accomplished.
• The problem is then "rewritten" in the form of a truth table.
• From the truth table, the switching equations can be written and simplified and
the logic diagram drawn.
• The logic diagram can be realized using any one of the three-main digital
integrated circuit families: transistor- transistor logic (TTL), emitter coupled
logic (ECL), or complementary metal-oxide silicon (CMOS).

Example 1: A combinational logic circuit with three input variables that will produce a
logic 1 output when more than one input variables are logic 1. Derive the truth table.
Solution: Given problem specifies that there are three input variables and one output
variable. We assign A, B and C letter symbols to three input variables and assign Y
letter symbol to one output variable. The relationship between input variables and
output variable can be tabulated as shown in truth table. The truth table specifies the
output state (either O or 1) for all possible combinations of input variables.
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Example 2: An electric motor powering a conveyor used to move material is to be turned
on when one of two operators is in position, if material is present to be moved and if the
protective interlock switch is not open.
Solution: Input and output variables are to be expressed in binary; that is, if operator1
is in position then the associated variable is a logical 1. The motor is running (on) if its
output control variable is a 1, and the motor is off if the variable is a 0.
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Fig. 3 shows a simple diagram of the conveyor system. The first task is to identify the
input and output variables and to assign names to them.
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Fig. 3 Conveyor system for Example 2

 Variables a and b signify that the two operators are in position:
a, operator 1 is in position
b, operator 2 is in position
 Let the motor variable be signified by M and the interlock switch be specified by s.
If the interlock switch is closed, then s is true, 1. Let the material present variable
be m.
M is the signal to turn the motor on and off
s means the interlock switch is closed
m means material is present
a, b, s, and m are input variables; M is an output variable
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 Because four input variables exist we know that 16 combinations can occur;
24=16.The truth table describing the input/output relationship is illustrated in
fallowing table
 To turn on the motor one of the two operators must be present, material must be
present, and the interlock switch must be closed. Such a system may be found in any
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number of industrial environments. The actual control may be implemented in any
number of ways.
 Each element in the set of conditions that causes the output to be a logical 1 is a
term in the output equation, which is written
ESM= a'bms + ab'ms + abms
 When either one or both of the two operators, represented by variables a and b, is
present, material is present (m = 1), and the interlock switch is closed (s 1), then
the motor, represented by the output variable M, is started.
a b m s M
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0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
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0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
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1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Example 3: A NASA system consists of three computers, two of which are on-line
(connected to the system) at any given time. The system uses three computers to ensure
safety in spacecraft operation through redundancy. If one computer experiences a
problem it is taken off-line and another computer is brought on-line. Self-checking
diagnostics determine each computer's operating status and generate an output in the
event of failure. When one computer fails it must be switched off-line.
No more than two computers are to be on-line at any given time. Design the control logic
to connect or disconnect the computers. In the event that two computers are unavailable,
generate a warning and allow the third computer to come online. If all three computers
are unavailable, generate a second warning signal that invokes emergency procedures.
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Solution:
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Example 4: A conveyor system brings raw material in from three different sources. The
three sources converge into a single output conveyor. Sensors mounted adjacent to each
source conveyor indicate the presence of raw material. All four conveyors have separate
motors so they can be individually controlled. Each source conveyor can have a different
speed. The output product flow rate is fixed; it can be turned only on or off. The output
product rate must match the source flow rates. To accomplish this. the following
conditions must be met.
If source l has product, then sources 2 and 3 must be turned off; if source 1 is empty, then
either 2 or 3 or both can be turned on. In the event that no product is available from the
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three sources, the output conveyor must be turned off. If no product is available, the
respective source conveyor must be turned off.
Solution: A diagram illustrating the conveyor system with the product switches and
motor helps us to visualize the problem and define the variables.
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truth table for this example is given below.

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In summary, the process of converting a verbal problem statement into a truth table
involves the following steps:
1. Determine the input variables and output variables that are involved.
2. Assign mnemonic or letter or number symbols to each variable.
3. Determine the size of the truth table; how many input combinations exist:
2x= y
where x = number of input variables and y = number of combinations.
4. Construct a truth table containing all of the input variable combinations.
5. By careful reading of the problem statement determine the combinations of
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inputs that cause a given output to be true.
Deriving Switching Equations

Literal: A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement. For instance, let X be a binary
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variable, then both X and X' would be literals.
Product term A product term is a literal or the logical product (AND) of multiple
literals. For instance, let X, Y, and Z be binary variables. Then a representative product
term could be X, XY, or X'YZ.
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Sum term A sum term is a literal or the logical OR of multiple literals. For instance, let
X, Y, and Z be binary variables. Then a representative product term could be X, X’+Y, or
X'+Y’+Z.
Sum of products A sum of products (SOP) is the logical OR of multiple product terms.
Each product term is AND of binary literals. For example, XY' + X' + YZ+ XY'Z' is a SOP
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expression.
Product of sums A product of sums (POS) is the logical AND of multiple sum terms.
Each sum term is OR of binary literals. For example (X + Y') (X + Y + Z')(Y' + Z') is a POS
expression.
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Minterm A minterm is a special case product (AND) term. A minterm is a product term
that contains all of the input variables (each literal no more than once) that make up a
Boolean expression.
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Maxterm A maxterm is a special case sum (OR) term. A maxterm is a sum term that
contains all of the input variables (each literal no more than once) that make up a
Boolean expression.
Canonical sum of products A canonical sum of products is a complete set of minterms
that defines when an output variable is a logical 1. Each minterm corresponds to the
row in the truth table where the output function is 1.

Canonical product of Sums A canonical product of sums is a complete set of maxterms
that defines when an output variable is a logical 0. Each maxterm corresponds to the
row in the truth table where the output function is 0.
Note that an input variable is complemented when it has a-value of 0, if we are writing
minterms. The input variables are complemented when they have a value of 1, if we
are writing max terms.
Lower case m is used to denote a minterm and uppercase M is used to denote maxterm.
The number subscript indicates the decimal value of the term.
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Minterm and maxterm designations for three variables
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CANONICAL FORMS
Often switching equations are written in a sum-of-products (SOP) form, or in a
product-of-sums form (POS) that is not canonical. By this we mean that each term may
not contain all of the original variables used to express the output variable.
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To place a SOP equation into canonical form using Boolean algebra, we do the
following:
1. Identify the missing variable(s) in each AND term.
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2. AND the missing term and its complement with the original AND term,
xy (z + z').
Because (z + z') = 1, the original AND term value is not changed.
3. Expand the term by application of the property of distribution, xyz + xyz'.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated product terms if any. Because A+ A= A.

To place a POS equation into canonical form using Boolean algebra, we do this:
1. Identify the missing variable(s) in each OR term.
2. OR the missing term(s) and its complement with the original OR term,
x + y' +zz'
Because zz' = 0, the original OR term value is not changed.
3. Expand the term by application of distributive property,
(x + y' + z) (x + y' + z').
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated sum terms if any. Because A . A = A.
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Example 1:
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Example 2:
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Example 3:
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GENERATION OF SWITCHING EQUATIONS FROM TRUTH TABLES
Consider the canonical SOP equation
P = (ab' c + ab' c' + abc' + abc + a'bc)
If we were to decode each of the minterms based on the binary weighing of each variable
and produce a list of decimal decoded minterms, the result would be
P = ∑(5, 4, 6, 7, 3)
To keep the input variable notation from being lost in a minterm list the relationship
P = f(a. b, c) is used.
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This means that output variable P is a function of the set of input variables {a, b, c}, with
input variable a being the most significant one.
The π (pi) sign is used to indicate product of sums canonical (POS) form.
Example 1: Write the canonical minterm and maxterm expressions for the following
table
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a b m s M
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
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0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
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1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
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1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
The minterm expression for the output variable, M, is
M = f(a, b, m, s) = a'bms + ab’ms + abms = ∑(7, 11, 15)
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The maxterm expression for the output variable, M, is

Example 2: Express the following SOP equations in a minterm list (shorthand decimal
notation) form:
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Example 3: Express the following POS equations in a maxterm list (decimal notation)
form:
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Example 4: It is not necessary to first write switching equations in a variable name

format and then convert to a minterm or maxterm list (decimal format).
It is easier to write the canonical output equations directly from the truth table in a
minterm or maxterm numerical list than to write the equations using input variable
names. For example, consider the canonical equations in fallowing Table

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KARNAUGH MAP (K-Map)
 The Karnaugh map is a matrix of squares. Each square represents a minterm or
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maxterm from a Boolean equation. The arrangement of the matrix square permits
identification of input variable redundancies, which helps reduce the output equation.
 The Karnaugh map identifies all of the cases for a given set of input variables where
groups of minterms may contain redundant variables of the form of x + x' = 1.
 When these groups are identified, the redundant variables can be eliminated,
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resulting in a simplified output function (abc + abc' = ab).
 If a given switching equation contains a minterm, then a 1 is entered into the square
that represents that term. A maxterm is represented by a 0.
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One-Variable, Two-Variable, Three-Variable and Four-Variable Maps

The basis of this method is a graphical chart known as Karnaugh map (K-map). It
contains boxes called cells. Each of the cell represents one of the 2n possible products
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that can be formed from n variables.

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Some books follow different approach of arranging variables as shown below
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 It is important to note that when we move from one cell to the next along any row or
from one cell to the next along any column, one and only one variable in the product
term changes (to a complemented or to an uncomplemented form).
Representation of truth table on K-map
Figure below shows K-maps plotted from truth tables with 2, 3 and 4 variables. Looking
at the Figure we can easily notice that the terms which are having output 1, have the
corresponding cells marked with 1s. The other cells are marked with zeros.
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Representing Standard SOP on K-Map

A Boolean expression in the sum of products form can be plotted on the Karnaugh map
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by placing a 1 in each cell corresponding to a term (minterm) in the sum of products

expression. Remaining cells are filled with zeros. This is illustrated in the following
examples.
Example 1: Plot Boolean expression Y = A BC’+ A BC+ A’B’C on the Karnaugh map.
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Example 2:
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Representing Standard POS on K-Map
A Boolean expression in the product of sums can be plotted on the Karnaugh map by
placing a 0 in each cell corresponding to a term (maxterm) in the expression. Remaining
cells are filled with ones.
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Grouping Cells for Simplification
Once the Boolean function is plotted on the Karnaugh map we have to use grouping
technique to simplify the Boolean function.
The grouping is nothing but combining terms in adjacent cells. Two cells are said to be
adjacent if they conform the single change rule. i.e. there is only one variable difference
between co-ordinates of two cells. For example, the cells for min terms ABC and A’BC
are adjacent.
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When adjacent 1s are grouped then we get result in the sum of products form; otherwise
we get result in the product of sums form.

Grouping Two Adjacent Ones
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Grouping Four Adjacent Ones
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Grouping Eight Adjacent Ones
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Illegal Grouping

Generalized procedure to simplify Boolean expressions as follows:
1. Plot the K-map and place ls in those cells corresponding to the ls in the truth table or
sum of product expression. Place 0s in other cells.
2. Check the K-map for adjacent ls and encircle those 1s which are not adjacent to any
other l s. These are called isolated ls.
3. Check for those ls which are adjacent to only one other 1 and encircle such pairs.
4. Check for quads and octets of adjacent ls even if it contains some ls that have already
been encircled. While doing this make sure that there are minimum number of groups.
5. Combine any pairs necessary to include any l s that have not yet been grouped.
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6. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all the groups.
Example 1:
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Example 2:
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Step 1: Fig. (a) shows the K-map for four variables and it is plotted according to the
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given expression.
Step 2: Cell 2 is the only cell containing a 1 that is not adjacent to any other 1. It is
referred to separately as group 1.
Step 3: 1 in the cell 9 is adjacent only to 1 in the cell 13. This pair is combined and
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referred to as group 2.
Step 4: There is no octet, but there is quad cells 4, 5, 12 and 13 form a quad. This quad
is combined and referred to as group 3.
Step 5 : All l s have already grouped.
Step 6: Each group generates a term in the expression for Y. In group 1 variable is not
eliminated. In group 2 variable B is eliminated and in group 3 variables A and D are
eliminated and we get,
Y = A’B’CD’ + AC’D + BC’

Rules for Simplifying logic function using K-map are:
1. Group should not include any cell containing a zero.
2. The number of cells in a group must be a power of 2, such as 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16.
3. Group may be horizontal, vertical but not diagonal.
4. Cell containing 1 must be included in at least one group.
5. Groups may overlap.
6. Each group should be as large as possible to get maximum simplification.
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7. Groups may be wrapped around the map. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped
with the rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell.
8. A cell may be grouped more than once. The only condition is that every group must
have at least one cell that does not belong to any other group. Otherwise, redundant terms
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will result.
9. We need not group all don't care cells, only those that actually contribute to a maximum
simplification.
10. All above rules are stated considering the SOP simplification. In case of POS
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simplification all rules are same except O (zero) takes place of 1 (one).
Example 3: Reduce the following four variable function to its minterm sum of products
form: Y=f(A,B,C,D)=∑(0,2,3,8,10,11,12,14)
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Step 1 : Fig. (a) shows the K-map for four variables and it is plotted according to the
given expression.
Step 2 : There are no isolated ls.
Step 3: There are no such ls which are adjacent to only one other 1.

Step 4: There are three quads formed by cells 0, 2, 8, 10, cells 8, 10, 12, 14 and cells 2,
3, 10, 11. These quads are combined and referred to as group 1, group 2 and group 3
respectively.
Step 5: All ls have already been grouped.
Step 6: Each group generates a term in the expression for Y. In group 1 variables A and
C are eliminated, in group 2 variables B and C are eliminated and in group 3 variables A
and D are eliminated and we get,
Example 4: Y=f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1,5,6,7,11,12,13,15)
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Example 5:
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Example 6: Reduce the following function using Karnaugh map technique
Solution: The given function is not in the standard sum of products form. It is converted
into standard SOP form as given below.
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Example 7: Reduce the following function using Karnaugh map technique

Y=f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (0,1,4,8,9,10)
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Essential Prime Implicants
After grouping the cells, the sum terms which appear in the K-map are called prime
implicant groups. It is observed that some cells may appear in only one prime implicant
group; while other cells may appear in more than one prime implicant group.
ln the K-map shown above, cells 1, 4, 9 and 10 appear in only one prime implicant group.
These cells are called essential cells and corresponding prime implicants are called
essential prime implicants.
Note: In the following examples placing of MSB and LSB variables is different
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Example 8: Example 9:
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Example 10:
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Example 11:
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Example 12 (a) & 12 (b):
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Example 12 (c) & 12 (d):
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Example 12 (e) & 12 (f):
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Example 12 (g):
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Incompletely Specified Functions (Don't Care Terms)
When an output value is known for every possible combination of input variables, the
function is said to be completely specified.
However, when an output value is not known for every combination of input variables,
usually because all combinations cannot occur, the function is said to be incompletely
specified.
This means that the truth table does not generate an output value for every possible
combination of input variables. The minterms or maxterms that are not used as part of
the output function are called don't care terms.
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For example, consider the truth table of odd-parity generator for a 4-bit BCD Number
Example 1:
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Truth table for odd parity generator with 4-bit BCD input
The Boolean function for odd parity generator with 4-bit BCD input can be expressed in
minterm canonical formula as,
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P=f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1, 2, 4, 7, 8) + ∑ d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)

Example 2: Find the reduced SOP form of the following function.
f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1, 3, 7, 11, 15) + ∑ d (0, 2, 4).
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To form a quad of cells 0, 1, 2 and 3 the don't care conditions 0 and 2 are replaced by 1s.
The remaining don't care condition is replaced by 0 since it is not required to form any
group. With these replacements, we get the simplified equation as
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Example 3: Reduce the following function using Karnaugh map technique.
f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (5, 6, 7, 12, 13) + ∑ d (4, 9, 14, 15)
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To form a octet of cells 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14 and 15 the don't care conditions 4, 14 and15
are replaced by ls. The remaining don't care condition 9 is replaced by 0 to get simplified
function as,
f (A, B, C, D) = B

f (A, B, C) = ∑ (0, 1, 3, 7) + ∑ d (2, 5)
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To form two quads both the don't care conditions are replaced by ls and we get,
f (A, B, C) = A′ + C
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f (W, X, Y, Z) = ∑ (0, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12) + ∑ d (2, 5, 13).
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In this example, all don't cares are replaced by 1s and we get,

f (W, X, Y, Z) = X′ Z′+ W′X Z+ WY′
Example 6: Using K-map find the minimized expression for the following function and
implement it using basic gates:
f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (2, 4, 8, 11, 15) +∑ d(l, 10, 12, 13).

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Example 6: Using K-map find the minimized expression for the following truth table for
conversion of binary to EX-3 BCD and implement it using basic gates :
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Writing the equations for output variables A, B, C, and D, including the don't care terms,
we get
A = f(W, X, Y, Z) = ∑(5,6, 7, 8, 9) + ∑d (10, 11. 12, 13, 14, 15)
B = f(W, X, Y, Z) = ∑(l, 2, 3, 4, 9) + ∑d (10, 11. 12, 13, 14, 15)
C = f(W, X, Y, Z)= ∑ (0,3, 4, 7, 8) + ∑d (10, 11. 12, 13, 14, 15)
D = f(W, X, Y, Z) = ∑( 0,2, 4, 6, 8) + ∑d (10, 11. 12, 13, 14, 15)
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Binary to EX-3 code converter

Five variable K-map
Five-variable maps are formed using two connected four-variable maps. A five-variable
K-map contains 32 squares, one for each possible minterm or maxterm. The same rules
and principles that applied to three- and four-variable maps apply here as well. The added
"trick" is to see the logical adjacencies with more squares in the map.
Different versions of Five variable K-map
1. Stacked numbering version of five-variable K-map (note the change in MSB & LSB)
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2. Alternative stack numbering version of the five-variable K-map
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3. Mirror Image version
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Example 1: Simplify the Boolean function.
f (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑ (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 21, 25, 27, 29, 31)
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f (A, B, C, D, E) =A′B′E′+AD′E+BE
Example 2: Simplify the Boolean function.
f (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑ (0, 5, 6, 8, 9, ,10, 11, 16, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31)

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Exercise Problems
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Simplifying Maxterm Equations
Procedure to simplify POS expressions is as follows:
1. Variables that are contained in an essential prime implicant, which are not
eliminated, are complemented. If input n is a 1 for all maxterms in an EPI, then it
would be read as n'. If n were a 0 for all maxterms in an EPI, then it would be read
as n.
2. Each remaining variable, n, is ORed with the other remaining variables, nm, so that
a term n0 + n1 +……….. + nm is formed.
3. Each EPI contains a set of maxterms that when reduced form a constant (0 or 1), a
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variable (n); or a set of variables (n0 + n1 +……….. + nm) ORed together.
4. Each reduced EPI (ORed term) is ANDed with any other OR terms
(xa + …… + xn) (xb + ……….+ xm)
Example 1: Simplify the function G = f(a, b, c, d) = π (0, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15)
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G=( a′+d′) (b′+d′) (c+d)

Example 2: Simplify the function G = f(a, b, c, d) = π (1, 3, 8, 10, 12,13, 14, 15)
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G=(a+b+d′) (a′+b′) (a′+d)

Example 3: Simplify the function L = f(a, b, c, d, e) = π (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14,
16, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27)
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Another way to view simplification of maxterms is to consider them as minterms (i.e., as
if they were 1s), write the simplified expression, which gives the complement of the
desired function, and then apply DeMorgan's theorem to complement the result.
Example 4: Simplify the function f(a, b, c, d) = π ( 0, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15)
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Extra problems
1) f (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑ (1, 4, 8, 10, 11, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26) + ∑ d (0, 12, 16, 17)
Y
H
2) Design a logic circuit with inputs P, Q, R so that output S is high whenever P is
ES
zero or whenever Q = R = 1.
N
A
G

3) (A, B, C, D) = π (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13) + d (1, 15)
Y
4) Design a logic circuit that has 4 inputs, the output will only be high when the
H
majority of the inputs are high. Use K-map to simplify.
ES
N
A
G
5) The input to a combinational logic circuit is a 4-bit binary number. Design the
logic circuit with minimum hardware for the following.
i) Output y1 = 1 if the input binary number is 5 or less than 5.
ii) Output y2 = 1 if the input binary number is 9 or more than 9.

Y
H
ES
N
A
G

6) Using K-map obtain the minimal sum of products and the minimal product of sums
form of the function f (a, b, c, d) = ∑ ( 1,2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8,13).
Y
H
7) Using K-map, determine the minimal sum of product expression and realize the
ES
simplified expression using only NAND gates.
f (w, x, y, z) = π (0, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10)
The above expression can be written as f(w, x, y, z) = ∑ (1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
N
A
G

8) Get the minimized sum of products expression for f (a, b, c, d) = ∑ (0,1,5,6,7,8,9)
with don't cares: ∑ (l0,11,12,13,14,15). Use Karnaugh map for simplification.
Y
H
9) f (a, b, c, d) = ∑ (1,2,3,5,6,7,11,12,13,14,15)
for the above expression:
ES
i) Draw the logic diagram using AOI logic for minimal sum. Obtain minimal sum
using K-map.
ii) Find all the prime implicants and essential prime implicants.
N
A
G

10) Identify all prime implicants and essential prime implicants of the following
functions using K-map.
i) f(a,b,c,d) = ∑ (0,1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10,13,14,15)
ii) f(a,b,c,d) =π (0,2, 3,8,9,10,12,14)
Y
H
ES
N
A
G
11) Find minimal sum and minimal product for the following function using K-map
f (a, b, c, d) =∑ (6,7,9,10,13) + ∑ d (1,4,5,11,15).

Y
H
Limitations of K-Map method
The map method of simplification is convenient as long as the number of variables does
not exceed five or six. As the number of variables increases it is difficult to make
ES
judgements about which combinations form the minimum expression.
In case of complex problem with 7, 8, or even 10 variables it is almost an impossible
task to simplify expression by the mapping method. Another important point is that the
K-map simplification is manual technique and simplification process is heavily depends
on the human abilities.
To meet this need, W. V. Quine and E. J. McCluskey developed an exact tabular method
N
to simplify the Boolean expression. This method is called the Quine-McCluskey, or
Tabular method.
A
G

QUINE-McCLUSKEY MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUE or TABULAR METHOD.
The Quine-McCluskey minimization technique is an algorithm that uses the same
Boolean algebra postulates that were used with Karnaugh maps but in a form suitable for
a computer solution
The way to develop an understanding of the Quine-McCluskey approach is to follow an
example.
D = f(a, b, c, d) =- ∑(0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15)
Step 1: Arrange all of the minterms, in a list of increasing order, so that groups of, terms
Y
contain the same number of ls.
H
ES
N
A
Group 0 contains no ls equal to 0; group 1 contains only those minterms that have a single
1 { 1, 2, 8}; group 2 contains minterms with two ls {3, 6, 9}; group 3 contains minterms
with three ls {7, 14}; and group 4 contains minterms with four ls {15}.
G
Step 2: Create a new table showing the minterms in group n that matched with those
from group n + 1 such that they differ in only one position. This is the equivalent to x +
x' = 1; that is, ab' + ab = a.
Eliminated variable bit positions are indicated by the dash (-). This corresponds to
a′b′c′d' + a'b'c'd = a′b'c′(d + d') = a′b′c′-
When all of the minterms in group 0 have been compared with those in group 1, we
compare the minterms in group 1 with those in group 2. This process is repeated until all
of the minterms in each group have been compared to those in the next higher group.

When a minterm in a group is combined with a minterm in an adjacent group, a dash (-)
is used to indicate an eliminated variable. The combined min terms are grouped together
in Table as shown below
Y
H
ES
N
As each minterm from a group, combines with a minterm in the next higher group it is
checked (✓), indicating that it is now part of a larger group. If a minterm did not combine
A
with another, then no check would be made. If a term does not simplify, it is a prime
implicant.
Step 3: All of the adjacent minterm groups are compared to see if groups of four can be
G
made. The criteria for forming groups of four are as follows:

The dashes in the groups of two must be in the same bit position and only one variable
change (0 in one group and 1 in the other) is allowed.
A comparison is made of each minterm in group n with each minterm in group n + 1.
Those that meet the criteria are combined in a larger group.

Y
Step 4: Repeat the process outlined in step 3. In this case both dashes (-) must be in the
same bit position with only one other variable allowed to change. The creation of a new
table further groups the sets of minterms. This same process is repeated until no further
combination of minterm groups is possible.
H
Step 5: All nonchecked minterm groups are now considered to be prime implicants.
Step 6: All of the prime implicants are formed into a prime-implicant table as shown
The prime implicant table lists each of the minterms contained in the original switching
ES
equation across the top of the table. Each prime implicant is listed vertically in two forms,
PI terms and the decimal list of minterms that make up the PI.
N
A
G
Step 7: Evaluate the prime implicants by circling those minterms that are contained in
only one prime implicant (only one x in a column).
Note that minterms {8, 9, 14, 15} meet this condition. Circled minterms represent
essential prime implicants (EPI). Minterms {0, 1, 8, 9} and {6, 7, 14, 15} are essential
prime implicants. Minterms { 2, 3} are contained in two prime implicants, {0, 1, 2, 3}
and {2, 3, 6, 7}. We need one or the other of these prime implicants to cover minterms
in the equation but not both. This implies that two equally simplified results are possible.
We can take our pick:

D = b' c' + bc + a'b′
or
D = b' c' + bc + a' c
Quine-McClusky Using Don't Care Terms
Consider the following problem: ·
S = f(w. x, y, z) = ∑ (1, 3, 13, 15) + ∑ d (8, 9, 10, 11)
Step 1: Construct a list of minterms and don't care terms classified according to the
Y
number of ls. Indicate the don't care terms by using a * symbol. Don't care terms are
never included as prime implicants by themselves.
H
ES
N
Step 2: Compare terms in group n, including don't care terms, with terms in group n + 1,
looking for a single variable change. Treat don't care terms as a 1 in finding prime
implicants.
A
G

Step 3: Repeat step 2. creating an additional table indicating groups of four minterm/don't
care term groups. Repeat step 3 until no further grouping can occur.
Y
Step 4: Construct a prime implicant chart and determine essential prime implicants. Treat
H
any don't care terms not part of a group containing a minterms as 0s. They do not need
to be covered.
ES
N
Each is a candidate for becoming an EPI. However. set {8*, 9*, 10*, 11 *} contains only
don't care terms and is, therefore, not a PI.
A
The resulting simplified equations is

S = x'z + wz
In this example, all of the PIs were also EPIs.
G

Reduced Prime Implicant Tables
Consider an example
F (x1, x2, x3, x4 ,x5 ) = ∑ (1,3,4,5,6,7,l O,J L,12,13,14,15,18,19,20,21,23,25,26,27)
the prime-implicant table for above example is
Y
H
ES
The reduced prime-implicant table obtained by removing the essential rows and the
N
columns covered by the essential prime implicants is shown in Table (b).
A
G

Some of the rows in this table dominate other rows and may be deleted. For example,
row 7 (prime implicant x3′x4x5 ) has a cross in the columns for minterms m11 and m19 ,
while row 8 only has a cross in the column for m9. Therefore, row 7 dominates row 8 and
we remove row 8 from the reduced table.
Likewise, row 9 can be removed because row 7 dominates row 9; and rows 4 and 6 can
be removed because they are dominated by rows 3 and 5, respectively.
Y
H
The final reduced table, shown in Table(c), contains two columns with a single cross.
Therefore, the corresponding rows must be contained in some minimal sum. These rows,
ES
marked with a double asterisk, are called secondary essential rows. Note that, while
essential prime implicants occur in every minimal sum, secondary essential prime
implicants may not occur in some of the minimal sums.
After removing from Table (c) those columns that have a cross in the rows corresponding
to the secondary essential prime implicants, we obtain an empty table. Thus, a minimal
sum for F is
N
A
G

Extra Problems
(1) F (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13).
Y
H
ES
N
(2) F (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (2, 4,5, 9, 12, 13)
A
G

(3) Y (A,B,C,D) = ∑ (1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d (4, 8, 11).
Y
H
ES
N
A
G

(4) f (A,B,C,D)= ∑ ( 0, 1, 9, 15, 24, 29, 30) + d (8, 11, 31)
Y
H
ES
N
A
G

(5) f (A,B,C,D,E) = ∑ (4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 27, 30) + ∑ d (1, 17, 25, 26, 31)
Y
H
ES
N
A
G

(6) f (A,B,C,D) = ∑ (0,1,4,5, 9,10,12, 14,15) + ∑d (2, 8, 13)
Y
H
ES
N
(7) f(a,b,c,d)= ∑ (0,1,2,3,8,9)

A
G

Y
H
ES
N
A
G

Y
H
ES
N
A
G

Y
H
ES
N
A
G

Y
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ES
N
A
G


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MODULE -1

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 1

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 2

Minimization of Boolean Expression

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 3

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 4

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 5

Definition of Combinational Logic

are at all times dependent on the combination of input variables.

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 6

Fig. 2 General logic design sequence

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 7

Fig. 3 Conveyor system for Example 2

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 8

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 9

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 10

truth table for this example is given below.

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 11

Deriving Switching Equations

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 12

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 13

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 14

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 15

The maxterm expression for the output variable, M, is

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 16

Example 4: It is not necessary to first write switching equations in a variable name

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 17

One-Variable, Two-Variable, Three-Variable and Four-Variable Maps

that can be formed from n variables.

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 18

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 19

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 20

Representing Standard SOP on K-Map

by placing a 1 in each cell corresponding to a term (minterm) in the sum of products

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 21

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 22

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 23

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 24

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 25

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 26

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 27

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 28

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 29

Example 4: Y=f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1,5,6,7,11,12,13,15)

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 30

Example 7: Reduce the following function using Karnaugh map technique

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 31

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 32

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 33

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 34

P=f (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1, 2, 4, 7, 8) + ∑ d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 35

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 36

In this example, all don't cares are replaced by 1s and we get,

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 37

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 38

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 39

Binary to EX-3 code converter

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 40

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 41

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 42

GANESH Y, Dept. of ECE RNSIT 43

G=( a′+d′) (b′+d′) (c+d)