NOTRE DAME OF DADADIANGAS UNIVERSITY

MARIST AVENUE, GENERAL SANTOS CITY

COMPILATION OF THEORIES
(THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND LEARNING PRINCIPLE)

SUBMITTED BY

GILLIAN REIGN C. MONTANEZ

SUBMITTED TO:

MRS. MARY JUNE B. GONZALES

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1

(THE CHILD AND THE ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND LEARNING PRINCIPLE)

RIGHTS OF THE CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSON

Previously ravaged by armed conflicts and natural catastrophes, the Philippines are
today undergoing a development that is much more promising and encouraging for the
future. Children’s Rights have followed a similar trajectory, and while they are far from
being fully guaranteed, the country’s openness and willingness to change has given its
people hope that soon even greater improvements will be made.

The main problems faced by children in Philippines

Poverty. In the Philippines, close to 1 out of every three individuals lives below the
poverty line, while the country itself is in full economic expansion. Although this is
encouraging for the future, the present situation remains bleak for a great many
households. Poor families frequently suffer from hunger or malnutrition from which
follow numerous health problems, particularly among children who are physically more
vulnerable than adults.

Health, The infant mortality rate is particularly high in the Philippines. Furthermore,
more than 1 out of every 5 newborn children exhibits dietary deficiencies from the
moment of birth. Childbirth is risky both for the infant and for the mother. In fact, the
number of mothers who die during childbirth remains considerably high—especially
since many young girls, through lack of both information and contraceptives, face
unwanted pregnancies. Furthermore, access to healthcare remains difficult in the
country’s more remote regions. Of course, it is in these areas that undernourishment
and resulting problems are the most virulent.Finally, no one takes responsibility for
children who suffer from mental health problems. They remain marginalized and do not
receive the appropriate care.
Child Labour. More than 10% of Filipino children are compelled to work so as to support
the needs of their family.

Close to a million Filipino youths work as garbage scavengers in public dumps. The
working conditions are utterly filthy and often have serious effects on the health of these
individuals.

Other children find employment in rural sectors. They work nonstop on sugar, rice or
tea plantations as the case may be. Filipino youths also work in their nation’s fishing
sector which is highly developed.

Right to non discrimination. Children born out of wedlock : They are the object of
considerable discrimination in the Philippines. The law, for example, still refers to them
as “illegitimate” children—a term that is largely negative and unjust, seeing how they did
not choose to be born under such conditions. Furthermore, their right to an inheritance
is considerably limited. They clearly do not stand on equal footing with children born to
married parents.

Native People : The children of these minorities are frequently the victims of racist acts,
nor does legislation protect them. Their opinions are hardly ever taken into account,
although much progress has been made concerning the children of nonindigenous
peoples throughout the country.

With regard to education, healthcare or even the right to life, indigenous children are
routinely treated less favorably than others.

Young Girls : They too are unable to fully enjoy their rights. Young girls are the object
of notorious discriminatory practices that often continue throughout their entire lives.
Mentalities must undergo a serious amount of change if the idea of equality between the
sexes is ever to become a reality.

Handicapped Children : They are very numerous in the Philippines, owing to nutrition-
and hygiene-related problems. The country has yet to set up a sufficient number of
establishments that can adequately attend to the needs of such children.
Consequently, their access to educational and healthcare services remains severely
limited.

Child Soldiers. The Philippines number among 20 countries in which children are often
deployed as soldiers in armed conflicts. Certain armed groups have recently stated that
they will no longer use children in this capacity; however, the total absence of child
soldiers is far from being verified. Totally prohibited by the International Convention of
Children’s Rights, the use of child soldiers is an abhorrent practice whose effects on the
health and well-being of children are wholly negative. Such children are caught up in a
violent and cruel environment where they are in constant danger of being killed. Their
role models are brutal and aggressive men whose influence on their development will
clearly be far from positive.

Child Marriage. 14% of young women in the Philippines get married before the age of
18. One prepares them very early in life for their future role as a wife. However, these
marriages often have grave consequences for the health of these young girls who do
not understand what such a marriage entails.

Violence against Children. Corporal punishment is frequently practiced in the

Philippines, notably within the family. It is not the object of any explicit legislation.
Thus, many children suffer daily from violence at the hands of their parents who treat
them in a cruel and humiliating manner.

Children are equally the victims of sexual abuse in certain families. These are serious
crimes and all too often they are not condemned, nor does the justice system
adequately protect children from threats and intimidation on the part of criminals.

Justice for Minors. The Committee of Children’s Rights has expressed profound
concern about justice for minors. With regard to armed conflict, there have been
numerous executions and extrajudicial imprisonments involving children. The killing of
children is a serious violation of the Convention of Children’s Rights; yet the crimes
themselves remain unpunished. The Philippines thus needs to make a more concerted
effort to put a stop to these practices and to actively see to it that the authors of these
atrocities are held responsible for their acts. As it stands, the pursuit of justice in
relation to such crimes is insufficient and the results are profoundly deceiving.

In addition, there are hundreds of people who are the victims of forced disappearances
in the Philippines. When they do return (which is very rare), they suffer from both
physical and mental trauma as a result of their experience.

Children who are in prison are not de facto protected as they ought to be. Although the
country’s legislation forbids inhuman and degrading treatment, numerous reports leave
one with the impression that children in prison are still being subjected to torture.

Right to an Identity, 17% of births are not officially registered in the Philippines. The
country has made some progress on this issue. However, not all children are able to
benefit from these improvements. Indeed, most Muslim and indigenous children still
lack an official identity.This leads to great difficulties for such individuals because, owing
to their official nonexistence in the eyes of society, they will be unable to enjoy their
rights.

REFERENCE:

HUMANIUM (2019). CHILDREN OF PHILIPPINES RETRIEVED AUGUST 12, FROM

https://www.humanium.org/en/philippines/
 CHAPTER II

(DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS)

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT

At each stage of development your child is learning in several areas at the same time. A
toddler is learning to walk (physical), learning colors (intellectual), is uncomfortable with
strangers (social), expressing feelings of independence (emotional), and becoming
aware of adult disapproval for misbehavior (moral).

There are five areas of human development:

Physical development: the changes in size, shape, and physical maturity of the body,
including physical abilities and coordination.

Intellectual development: the learning and use of language; the ability to reason,
problem-solve, and organize ideas; it is related to the physical growth of the brain.

Social development: the process of gaining the knowledge and skills needed to interact
successfully with others.

Emotional development: feelings and emotional responses to events; changes in

understanding one's own feelings and appropriate forms of expressing them.

Moral development: the growing understanding of right and wrong, and the change in
behavior caused by that understanding; sometimes called a conscience.

What is child development?

Child development is a process every child goes through. This process involves
learning and mastering skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes.
Children learn these skills, called developmental milestones, during predictable time
periods.
Children develop skills in five main areas of development:

Cognitive Development

This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems. For example, this includes a two-
month-old baby learning to explore the environment with hands or eyes or a five-year-
old learning how to do simple math problems.

Social and Emotional Development

This is the child's ability to interact with others, including helping themselves and self-
control. Examples of this type of development would include: a six-week-old baby
smiling, a ten-month-old baby waving bye-bye, or a five-year-old boy knowing how to
take turns in games at school.

Speech and Language Development

This is the child's ability to both understand and use language. For example, this
includes a 12-month-old baby saying his first words, a two-year-old naming parts of her
body, or a five-year-old learning to say "feet" instead of "foots".

Fine Motor Skill Development

This is the child's ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and fingers, to
pick up small objects, hold a spoon, turn pages in a book, or use a crayon to draw.

Gross Motor Skill Development

This is the child's ability to use large muscles. For example, a six-month-old baby learns
how to sit up with some support, a 12-month-old baby learns to pull up to a stand
holding onto furniture, and a five-year-old learns to skip.

The National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities has recently
launched a campaign to promote child development. For more information on child
development, visit the Act Early website: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/actearly/.
What is a developmental milestone?

A developmental milestone is a skill that a child acquires within a specific time frame.
For instance, one developmental milestone is learning to walk. Most children learn this
skill or developmental milestone between the ages of 9 and 15 months.

Milestones develop in a sequential fashion. This means that a child will need to develop
some skills before he or she can develop new skills. For example, children must first
learn to crawl and to pull up to a standing position before they are able to walk. Each
milestone that a child acquires builds on the last milestone developed.

To find out more information about age-appropriate developmental milestones click on a

specific age below. If you are concerned your child has not met a developmental
milestone, click here to learn more.

What are typical milestones, or skills, children learn at different ages?

We now know that our brains are not fully developed at birth. In fact, a baby's brain
weighs about one quarter (1/4) of what an adult's brain weighs!

The brain grows very rapidly during the first several years of life. During this time, your
child is learning all sorts of new skills.

Because children usually acquire developmental milestones or skills during a specific

time frame or "window", we can predict when most children will learn different skills. The
pages below describe the types of skills children usually learn at different ages. If you
are concerned your child has not met a developmental milestone, click here to learn
more.

What if my child does not meet a developmental milestone?

Each child is an individual and may meet developmental milestones a little earlier or
later than his peers. You may have heard people say things like, "he was walking before
he turned 10 months, much earlier than his older brother" or "she didn't say much until
she was about 2 years old and then she talked a blue streak!" This is because each
child is unique and will develop at his or her own pace.

However, there are definitely blocks of time when most children will meet a milestone.
For example, children learn to walk anytime between 9 and 15 months of age. So, if
your child is 13 months of age and not yet walking, there is no need to worry if he is
crawling and pulling to a stand. He has acquired the skills he needs to learn to walk and
may begin walking soon. However, if you have a child 15 months of age who is not yet
walking, it would be a good idea to talk with your child's pediatrician to make sure there
aren't any medical or developmental problems since age 15 months is outside of the
normal "window" or time frame in which children learn to walk.

In this website, we will provide you with some information about these "windows" or
blocks of time when children usually develop a skill. We also will share with you some
warning signs or "red flags" to watch for that may mean your child is not meeting
developmental milestones. We will also give you the names of some books and
websites about child development that you may find helpful.

However, whenever you have questions, do not hesitate to ask a professional like your
child's doctor, nurse practitioner, or a trained child development or behavioral specialist.
There are also several clinical specialists who are specifically trained in various areas of
development who can be consulted. These include speech pathologists, occupational
and physical therapists, developmental psychologists and audiologists.

How can I help my child meet these developmental milestones?

As parents, we all want our children to succeed and be the best they can be. We know
from research that two factors influence how your child succeeds and grows: genes and
environment.

One of the factors that influence our child's development is their genetic makeup or
"genes." Some people refer to this as "nature." Genes are the genetic material we pass
onto our children. Children are born with their "genes" in place. These genes act like a
blueprint for what characteristics a child may have. For example, genes determine if a
child will have blue eyes or brown eyes; they also determine if he will be left- or right-
handed.

The other factor that influences child development is the environment. This includes
experiences children have in their home, school and community environments. Some
people refer to this as "nurture." The environment can either improve or harm a child's
genetic blueprint. For example, malnourished children who live in third world countries
may not reach their IQ potential because of the impact of their environment on their
brain development.

We often think we need to run out and buy special toys, music and games to stimulate
our child's development, but we have to remind ourselves that it is more important to
provide the following, every-day activities you can do with your child to encourage brain
development.

Give your child lots of love and attention. No matter what a child's age, holding,
hugging, and listening are important ways to show your child they matter.

Interact with your child by talking, singing, playing, eating, and reading with your child.
Your child will grow up feeling special and important to you. You will also learn a lot
about your child's interests and skills.

Read, read, read. Research has shown that children who are read to by their parents
have a larger vocabulary than other children. Reading also provides children with new
perspectives about the world we live in.

Learn some simple parenting skills for helping your child to learn how to behave. The
most important parenting skills are having consistent rules, rewarding behaviors you
want to see your child do more of, and having consequences for behaviors you do not
want your child to continue to do.

Limit TV time and video time to no more than 1-2 hours of educational viewing per day.

Download C3's informational handout on supporting your child's development.

Ask for help when you need it from your spouse, partner, family, friends, and your
child's doctor or nurse practitioner. Parenting is wonderful but it is not always easy.

REFERENCES

Child Development: Areas of Development Retrieved August 12, 2019

https://depts.washington.edu/allcwe2/fosterparents/training/chidev/cd03.htm

How Kids Develop Retrieved August 12, 2019

http://www.howkidsdevelop.com/developSkills.html
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth and development are similar words but different from each other

though it is not possible to separate them totally.

It is a whole process which includes growth of the body as well as growth

of various aspects of child's personality, e.g., the physical, emotional, social

and cognitive development.

Development is a progressive change the child undergoes which

increases the physical, social, mental and emotional capacities of the child.

The difference between growth and development Growth and development are similar
words but different from each other though it is not possible to separate them totally.

It is a whole process which includes growth of the body as well as

growth of various aspects of child's personality, e.g., the physical,

emotional, social and cognitive development.

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES CHANGE- The human being is never static. From the
moment of conception to the time of death, the person undergoes continued and
progressive changes. At every age, some of the developmental changes are just
beginning, some are at the peak and others are in the process of decline. 2.
DEVELOPMENT IS CONTINUOUS - One stage of development lays the foundation for
the next stage of development. Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before
grasping an object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves increasing skills from holding on
to walking alone 3. EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS MORE CRITICAL THAN LATER
DEVELOPMENT The environment in which children live during early formative years of
life has a strong impact on their hereditary potentials. Favorable relationships with
members of the family, liberal child training methods, a stimulating environment result in
the development of better adjusted individual in the later life. 4.DEVELOPMENT IS
PRODUCT OF MATURATION AND LEARNING Maturation refers to the sequential
characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in
sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous
system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system
help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. 5. THE
DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERN IS PREDICTABLE 1. Development proceeds from the
head downward. This is called the cephalocaudal principle. This principle describes the
direction of growth and development. According to this principle, the child gains control
of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head
and face movements within the first two months after birth. 2. Development proceeds
from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of proximodistal development
that also describes the direction of development. This means that the spinal cord
develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and
the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. 6. DEVELOPMENT
PROCEEDS FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC In motor development, the infant will be
able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.
The infant’s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive,
waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. 7. THERE
ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPMENT Although the patterns and
sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates
at which individual children reach developmental stages will be different. Some children
are more active while others are more passive 8. THE CHILD DEVELOPS AS A
UNIFIED WHOLE His intellect is related to his physical well-being. Physical well-being
is affected by his emotions and emotions are affected by his successes and failures in
school and by the environment in the family. The children who are physically weak are
slow in the development of mental processes also. 9. DEVELOPMENT FOLLOWS AN
ODERLY PROCESS The development of the child takes place in an orderly sequence.
A child learns to stand before he walks, he babbles before he speaks clearly and he
learns to sit before he stands. 10. EACH DEVELOPENT TAKES PLACE IN STAGES
The development of the child takes place in stages. Each stage has certain unique
characteristics and in each stage, certain types of behaviour or traits are more
conspicuous than others. The entire period of development is divided into following five
stages: 1. PRENATAL-PERIOD- It is mainly physiological and consists of growth of all
body parts. 1.INFANCY- This is a period of newborn. Growth is temporarily at a
standstill. 2. BABYHOOD- At this stage, the babies are completely helpless during the
early part. Gradually they learn to control the muscles so that they can become
independent. 3. CHILDHOOD- This period lasts from two to thirteen years of age. It is
subdivided into two parts: . EARLY CHILDHOOD- The child learns to gain control over
the environment and starts learning to make social adjustments. . LATE CHILDHOOD-
It is the period when sexual maturity occurs and adolescence begins. The major
development is socialization and is referred as‘gang age’. 5. ADOLESCENCE- It is
twelve years onwards till the individual assumes adulthood. It is again divided into two
stages: . EARLY ADOLESCENCE- Physical growth is rapid in both boys and girls.
There is enhanced mental activity in general. . LATER ADOLECENCE- it is
characterized by tapering off of physical growth but the psychological development
continues in many complex ways preparing him to adjust to the demands of society as
an adult. 6. ADULTHOOD- By this time, physical changes are nearly complete but the
psychological adjustments continue throughout the entire stage. 11. EACH
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE HAS CERTAIN CHARACTERISTIC TRAIT- There are
some peculiar traits that are observed in children at a particular developmental stage
and go away after some time. The child’s behaviour should be understood against the
expected behaviour of his age. 12. THERE ARE PERIODS OF ACCELERATED
GROWTH AND DECELERATED GROWTH During babyhood and the early pre-school
years the growth is rapid. During the school years, the growth rate decreases. Growth is
again rapid during adolescence but physical growth tapers off during the later part of
adolescence and by the time, an individual touches adulthood. 13.DEVELOPMENT IS
INFLUENCED BY HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT A child’s genetic inheritance (i.e.,
heredity) provides the basic foundation for many physical and personality attributes, but
the influences of social, cultural, and familial variables (i.e., environment) also contribute
to development. 14. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS AT DIFFERENT RATES FOR
DIFFERENT BEHAVIOUR Development of mental and physical traits is continuous but
is never uniform for the entire individual. Development of memory and understanding is
fast during childhood while abstract thinking, reasoning and capability to take decisions
is at its peak during adolescence.

REFERENCES:

Principle of growth and development Retrieved August 12, 2019

http://cms.gcg11.ac.in/attachments/article/88/PRINCIPLES%20OF%20GROWTH%20A
ND%20DEVELOPMENT.pdf
FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

Early child development is influenced by a wide variety of both biological and

environmental factors. Certain biological factors including genetics, nutrition, and
gender can play a particularly important role in the course of early development. These
factors influence a child both in positive ways that can enhance their development and
in negative ways that can compromise developmental outcomes. These factors can
impact kids throughout the course of development, particularly at critical periods of
development during the prenatal period and early childhood.

Biological factors include such things as genetic influences, brain chemistry, hormone
levels, nutrition, and gender. In what way can these factors influence the course of
development?

Research conducted at Rutgers University demonstrated how prenatal factors affect

linguistic development and how postnatal factors are key components contributing to a
child’s cognitive development.1

Gross motor development is widely considered to be the result of innate, biological

factors, with postnatal factors contributing to a lesser extent.

Two specific biological factors that affect children's development are nutrition and
gender.

Nutrition

Proper nutrition becomes a vital factor in a child’s overall development. Prior to birth, a
mother’s diet and overall health play a role in a child’s development. Folic acid intake of
400 micrograms (mcg) daily for three months prior to conception and during early
pregnancy significantly decreases the risk of certain birth defects of a baby’s brain
(anencephaly) and spine (spina bifida).2

These birth defects occur in the first few weeks of pregnancy, which is why it is
important for women in their childbearing years to ensure they are getting at least 400
micrograms of folic acid daily—waiting until a woman finds out she is pregnant can be
too late.

Gender

Most people possess 23 pairs of chromosomes in their cells (with the exception of
special reproductive cells called gametes). The first 22 pairs are called autosomes,
which are the same in boys and girls. Therefore, males and females share most of the
same set of genes. However, the 23rd pair of chromosomes is what determines the
gender of an individual. Boys typically have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome
while girls have two X chromosomes. Hence, gender differences at the biological level
are found on the Y chromosome.

Gender can influence development in a variety of ways. For example:

Gender plays a factor in cognitive maturation in that boys tend to develop and learn
differently than girls. Research suggests that boys have lower levels of school readiness
than girls.3

Other determinant factors include looking at gender stereotyping and how society views
men and women from various cultures and backgrounds.A child’s physical body has
distinctive reproductive organs and becomes further differentiated as special sex
hormones are produced that play a role in gender differences. Boys typically produce
more androgens (male sex hormones), while females produce estrogens (female sex
hormones).

Scientists have studied the effect of excessive amounts of sex hormones on a child’s
behavior. They have found that boys with higher than normal androgen levels play and
behave similarly to their male peers with normal androgen levels. However, girls with
high androgen levels typically exhibit more gender-stereotypic male traits than do girls
who have normal androgen levels.4

Interactions
It is important to remember that biological factors do not act in isolation. Genes, for
example, can interact both with other genes as well as the environment. Some genes
may dominate and prevent others from being expressed. In other cases, certain
biological influences might impact genetic expression. Improper nutrition might cause
children to not grow tall, even though they have inherited genes for height.

In order to understand child development, it is essential to consider all the many factors
that may play a role. Healthy development is not the result of a single influence.

The first three years of a child’s life is a period of tremendous growth and development.
Many scientists believe that the first three years have a major impact on a child’s
progress and success later in life. It is characterized by rapid development, particularly
of the brain where connections between brain cells (neurons) are being made and
provide the necessary building blocks for future growth and development.

In order for children with disabilities to be able to best learn, become resourceful, and
independent-minded, it is important to devote attention to early childhood development.

REFERENCE:

Biological fators affecting child Retrieved August 12, 2019 from

https://www.verywellfamily.com/biological-factors-affecting-child-development-2162219
EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

There are children as well as adults who are exceptionally different from the other
normal human beings. These differences are on the basis of possession of some skills
and talents or on the basis of any kinds of disorders, difficulties and impairments. The
children who are suffering from any kinds of disorders or impairments or disabilities
make use of the assistant services and devices, so that they are also able to enhance
their educational and literacy skills and understand. Braille large print books, canes,
hearing aids, proper sitting facilities and so forth are the various kinds of devices that
are used in order to facilitate the learning of the children with disorders, disabilities and
impairments. On the other hand, exceptional children are also considered to be the
children who possess some skills and talents from their early childhood stage. In this
research paper, focus has been put upon exceptional development of children. The
main areas that have been highlighted are, understanding exceptional development,
exceptional development of communication, categories of exceptionality, services to
exceptional development, and exceptional student education for gifted children. In
understanding of exceptional development, there are two important areas that need to
be understood, the categories that come under exceptionality and the services that are
available to exceptional development. It is vital for the individuals who are researching
upon this area to know the definitions, causes, psychological and behavioural
characteristics, and educational approaches. Exceptional development is an important
concept in all societies and countries, the parents and the individuals who are working
with these children should illustrate enthusiasm and interest in their work.

Keywords: Exceptional Development, Children, Teachers, Behaviour,

Communication, Impairments

Introduction

Exceptional children are those who are different from certain norms to such an
extent that they require adjustment of school practices or special educational services
or interventions. They normally differ in various aspects, such as their behaviours,
attitudes, ways of communication from the other children and require some kind of
assistance. The assistance may be medical, educational, family and so forth, with the
aim of fulfilling their potential. There have been various areas, in which children differ,
these areas are with respect to intellectual giftedness and special talent, variations in
the behaviour, such as children who are emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted
usually experience attitudinal and behavioural problems. Learning difficulties are
experienced by these kinds of children, and they undergo problems in communicating
with the other individuals such as speech and language disorders (Heeraman, n.d.).

There are other kinds of problems that make these children differ from the other
children, these are, sensory differences, hearing, vision, or mild, i.e. they are not able to
see the writing on the blackboard within the classroom or are unable to hear the
instructions clearly, if they are sitting behind in the class. These problems may assume
a severe form, when more specialized attention is needed. Physical impairments are
another reasons that lead to differences in conduct. Chronic health problems, such as
asthma, diabetes or allergies etc. does affect the health of an individual. Children who
are abused and neglected are quite introverted in nature and also possess different
behavioural traits (Heeraman, n.d.).

Understanding Exceptional Development

The differences between normal children and exceptional development of

children are understood with respect to their behaviours, ways of communication and
learning. When a child is normal, then he is able to understand gradually the world
around him, he is able to identify certain objects, he learns how to communicate
effectively, he identifies his family members and goes to school and learns. The learning
of the child begins with play and he is able to feel fascinated by various kinds of
playthings. On the other hand, children who experience exceptional development, they
depict various kinds of problems with respect to their behaviours, they are not able to
communicate with the other individuals in a normal manner due to problems such as,
autism, hearing impairment, language impairment, speech impairment and learning
disability. Learning disability is a disorder, which is because of the problems such as
vision impairment, hearing impairment, cultural and language differences, emotional
disturbances, brain injury, brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia, and
perceptual handicap.

A young child always requires care and affection from his parents, other family
members and teachers in school, when a child is deprived of care and affection, he
develops anger, frustration, stress and other emotional problems within himself. He
does not take interest in studies nor play activities and usually feels depressed and
possesses an introvert nature. In India and in other countries of the world as well, there
are children who are neglected and abused, these children turn out to be depicting
behavioural and attitudinal problems. The children who are only children of their parents
and do not have siblings, they too sometimes develop behavioural problems. Only
children turn out in an unpleasant manner, they are at times not adjustable, they face
problems in interacting with the other people around and in making friends, they at
times do not possess a caring and a sharing nature and usually think of themselves,
they are achievement oriented, and think how they can do well in all kinds of activities
that they undertake.

There are children who depict developmental disabilities and delays. In majority
of the cases, children start out with developmental delays (Laffranchini, n.d.),
developmental delay is when an older child behaves like a child of a much younger age,
when a fifteen year old child enjoys playing with toys of a three year old child, then it
shows that he is suffering from developmental delay and is also suffering from abnormal
growth. There are certain procedures and methods that are required to be adopted in
order to treat these kinds of children, they take remedies and solutions to the problems,
and with the course of interventions, their problems get solved and they turn out to be
normal. There are some impairments that are serious but they do not prove to be
hindrances within the course of the individual’s development, for instance, there are
children who suffer from visual impairments, but their parents and they themselves
contribute in developing certain skills and talents amongst them such as music,
painting, singing etc. Children with visual impairments achieve higher education and
usually get engaged into various tasks and functions with their dedication and hard
work.
 Exceptional Development of Communication

Communication is considered to be the most imperative area for every individual,

whether he goes to school or gets involved with the family members or gets engaged in
any other activity, he is required to communicate with the other people around him.
Exceptional children do experience problems in communicating and these have been
classified as follows: (Categories of Exceptionalities and Definitions, 2001).

Autism – It is a severe learning disorder that is characterized by problems within

the course of educational development. A person experiences problems in relating to
the environment; other areas such as mobility, perception, speech and language of a
person is not completely normal and there is lack of representational symbolic
behaviour that precedes language. The major problems of the children with autism are,
speech problems and behavioural problems.

Hearing Impairment – This is an impairment, when an individual experiences

hearing problems. When he is not able to adequately listen to what the other people are
speaking to him, then this is referred to as hearing impairment. It is an impairment that
is characterized by deficits in language and speech development due to the weakened
or non-existent auditory response to sound.

Language Impairment – It is a learning disorder that is characterized by an

impairment in comprehension and or use of verbal communication and written
communication. These are associated with neurological, psychological, physical or
sensory factors. In this case, an individual may suffer from the problems of language
delay, dysfluency and voice and articulation development, which may or may not be
organically or functionally based. It may also involve one or more form of language in
communication.

Speech Impairment – It is the disorder in the language formulation that may be

associated with neurological, psychological, physical or sensory factors, that involves
perceptual motor aspects of conveying oral messages. In this case, individuals
encounter problems in their speech; the characteristics may be impairment in
articulation, voicing, regularity, rhythm and stress.
 Learning Disability – It is a disorder in both academic and social situations that
involves one or more processes that may be vital for the efficient utilization of the
communication process and understanding of signs and symbols. There are various
signs of learning disabilities, such as, deficits in intellectual abilities, reading, writing and
solving numerical problems; unable to identify cultural differences, unable to recall and
remember certain things that have been communicated earlier, having problems in
language processing, such as conceptualizing, thinking and integrating and undergoing
emotional disorders.

Categories of Exceptionality

Various other categories that identify the exceptionality of the individuals have
been stated as follows: (Categories of Exceptionalities and Definitions, 2001).

Behaviour – Behaviour has multiple meanings, it is referred to the actions,

performances, conduct, manners, activities and comportment of the individuals. The
problems that are associated with one’s behaviour are considered to be the learning
disorders that develop over a period of time. These behaviour problems prove to be
adverse and negatively affect any kinds of tasks and activities that a person is involved
in. The educational performance of an individual gets affected, i.e. he is not able to
score well in class tests and assessments; he suffers from the inability to maintain
interpersonal relationships; a person experiences excessive fears and anxieties, he
sometimes feels troubled in even going outside his house; and he experiences
inabilities to learn and understand various things, such as any kinds of skills or
proficiencies.

Intellectual – The intellectual abilities amongst the individuals develops into an

unusually advanced levels of intellectual abilities that requires differentiated learning
experiences in the depth and breadth. These individuals possess the intellectual
abilities that are beyond the school curriculum. They possess the general knowledge
that is actually beyond the regular capacity of children from their age. Mild intellectual
disability is a learning disorder that is characterized by possession of the ability to gain
academically within a regular classroom with the help of considerable curriculum
modification and supportive service. Another point is the inability to gain because of
slow intellectual development and possession of a potential for academic learning,
autonomous social adjustment and economic self-support. Another area is
developmental disability, individuals experience intellectual disabilities because of slow
intellectual development; there is establishment of special education programs, so that
students are able to benefit from them and this problem makes provision of less room
for academic learning, autonomous social adjustment and economic self-support.

Physical – Physical disabilities are the disabilities that requires the utilization of
particular devices in order to learn and understand in an operative manner. It is a
condition of serious physical limitation and deficiency that requires special assistance
within the learning situations. The special assistance services and the devices are
utilized in order to make provision of the opportunities for educational attainment that is
equivalent to the individuals without any kinds of exceptionalities who are of the same
age or developmental level. Visual impairment is considered to be an imperative area
that is under the category of physical exceptional development. It is a condition of partial
or total impairment of sight or vision, that affects the educational performance of an
individual in an opposing manner. Hearing impairment is another area, in this case,
normally the hearing aids are put into the years of an individual in order to facilitate
listening.

Multiple – Under multiple exceptionalities, it is a combination of learning and

other disorders, impairments and physical disabilities. The main objective of the
individuals is to attain educational qualifications, learn and develop their intellectual
abilities, in spite of suffering from learning disabilities and various other kinds of
impairments and problems. In this case, the skills and services are utilized of the
teachers who are trained in the field of special education. There are educational
programs related to the area of special education, in this, knowledge and information is
provided to the individuals regarding how to deal and work with children who are
suffering from disorders, impairments and physical disabilities. When special education
instructors are involved with these children, they make provision of support services and
devices that are useful for such disorders, difficulties, impairments, problems and
disabilities.

Services to Exceptional Development

The working with children that are experiencing some kinds of disorders,
impairments and disabilities, require various kinds of specialized services and these
have been stated as follows:

Classroom Instruction – The learning and instructional methods that are initiated
within the classroom should be formulated in such a manner that should be clearly
understood by the individuals and they should face any kinds of problems in listening
and understanding of the concepts. The classroom teacher is required to meet with the
exceptional students, able to acquire instructional materials and equipment that may be
utilized in an adequate manner and should prove to be beneficial. The teachers should
demonstrate the use of the materials, equipment and the devices to the parents of the
children that is available in the classroom in order to facilitate learning, so that the
parents as well as the children acquire satisfaction (Hallahan, & Kaufman, 1980).

Special Educator – In majority of these cases, the regular classroom teacher and
the parents are required to consult a special educator, who is aware of how to deal with
these children. In addition to the availability of special equipment, materials and
methods, the special educator may provide instructions regarding how to deal with
exceptional students in various kinds of circumstances and situations. For instance, a
class assignment has been given and a student is not willing to perform, then in this
case also, there are procedures regarding how to deal with him in order to make him or
her perform the assignment and efficiently learn the concept.

Resource Teacher – The resource teacher makes provision of services for the
teachers and students in only one school. The resource teacher assesses the needs
and requirements of the children and their teachers. They identify the areas that need to
be worked upon in order to enhance the growth and development of the children. The
main function of the resource teachers is to improve any kinds of flaws and
inconsistencies; they are considered to be consistent consultants to the regular
teachers and advise them on the instructional techniques and management of the child
within the classroom, and sometimes even by demonstrating instructional techniques.

Diagnostic Prescriptive Centres – In this case, the children are placed for a short
period of time in a special class in a school or in any other facility so that their problems
and requirements can be adequately assessed and plan of action is initiated in
accordance to the diagnostic findings. After an educational prescription is written for the
child, the recommendations may be formulated and would include all the areas from
appropriately placing the child within a classroom setting, taking care of improving his
intellectual abilities and ensuring that he is able to adjust well and does not feel
vulnerable (Hallahan, & Kaufman, 1980).

Home-based Instruction – In an individual’s house, family members are the ones

who play an imperative part in communicating all kinds of information and knowledge to
the children that are required for their development. Cultures, norms, values, ethics,
good manners and principles are taught to the children by their parents. Children with
learning disorders, impairments and disabilities are also communicated cultural traits as
well as academic concepts. When a child is not able to attend educational institutions
due to physical or psychological conditions, then home-based instruction is provided to
him. In most cases, teachers and instructors visit one’s home in order to make provision
of training and other instructional methods to the children.

Exceptional Student Education for Gifted Children

Exceptional students comprises of two categories of students, the students who

are gifted and the students who are experiencing various kinds of disabilities. Children
who are considered gifted, are those children with greater intellectual development and
those who are capable of rendering a high performance. The main purpose of
exceptional student education is to provide assistance to each child with an
exceptionality to perform well in school and also to prepare for a successful living after
the completion of education (What is Exceptional Student Education for Children who
are Gifted? 2011). In this kind of education, there are specially designed services in
order to meet the needs and requirements of exceptional students. The exceptional
students who are experiencing various kinds of disabilities, have special requirements
such as making use of devices, equipment and apparatus that would facilitate their
learning.

Exceptional students who possess greater intellectual development, always

make their parents feel honoured and when they depict their skills and talents, they
obtain appreciation, and gratitude. There are examples of various talents and skills
which children acquire when they just reach the age of three years such as playing
musical instruments, drawing, artworks, singing and some children even begin to learn
dancing from the age of three, some children illustrate good acting skills and some
depict intellectual knowledge. Therefore, on the basis of their skills and abilities from the
initial stage, they do well in school and when they grow up, their skills prove to be the
major strengths that contribute in the facilitation of their living conditions. The needs and
requirements of the children may undergo transformations, therefore, it is important that
these children should continue to practice their skills.

Conclusion

There are two categories of exceptional students, first is the category of children,
who experience some kinds of disorders, disabilities and impairments. These problems
normally exist with respect to communication, within the area of communication, an
individual may experience several disorders, which may prove to be hindrances within
the course of communication. These are, autism, hearing impairment, language
impairment, speech impairment and learning disability. Other categories are with
regards to, behaviour, intellectual, physical and multiple. The children who are suffering
from these problems require specialized assistive services and devices such as, special
attention and care, hearing aids, visual aids, services of speech therapists,
physiotherapists, medical practitioners and so forth. Besides, these services and aids,
the other services that are available are, classroom instruction, special educator,
resource teacher, diagnostic prescriptive centres and home based instruction.

The study of exceptional children is the study of similarities, exceptional children

are not considered different from the normal children, in each and every manner; for
instance, there are some areas that depict similarities, such as, enjoying playing the
same kinds of games, enjoying watching similar kinds of television shows, having
similar liking in case of food items, clothing and so forth. The teachers in school are
required to deal with exceptional students, taking into account proper care and
consideration, but they first tend to identify the differences between the exceptional and
the non-exceptional students; in order to solve the problems of the exceptional students,
it is vital to recognize the areas in which they are different from the other non-
exceptional students. In the present existence, more focus has been laid upon the
identification of the similarities between the exceptional and the non-exceptional
students. There have been similarities in three areas, their characteristics, needs and
ways of learning.

The other category of exceptional students are the students who possess some
exceptional talents and abilities, which is also referred to as child prodigy. The
possession of exceptional talents and abilities always prove to be gratifying and
beneficial to the children, their family members and teachers. It is important for the
children to continually practice their skills, may make use of them in various areas, such
as competitions, events and functions, so that they are able to acquire reward and
satisfaction. It can be stated in conclusion that exceptional categories of students and
children should always be supported and treated with care, courtesy and compassion,
so that they are able to adequately cope up with all their problems and difficulties.

REFERENCE:

Introduction to Exceptional Development Retrieved August 12, 2019 from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323733469_Introduction_to_Exceptional_Dev
elopment
 CHAPTER III

(COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENT)

THEORY OF JEAN PIAGET

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding
how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1
Piaget's stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7

Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11

Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much
like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about
the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student,
publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to
the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test. Much of
Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his
budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult
minds. Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think
is different from the way adults think.Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something
that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think
more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative
and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older
children.Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent
than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so
simple only a genius could have thought of it." Piaget's stage theory describes the
cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive
process and abilities.2 In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

The Stages

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations. Children learn
about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence). They are separate beings from the people and objects around them They
realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them During
this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at
the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor
responses.It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of
dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are
continually making new discoveries about how the world works. The cognitive
development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of
time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about
language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down
into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage
that early representational thought emerges. Piaget believed that developing object
permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even
when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development. By
learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence
of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach
names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.The foundations of language
development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of
language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development.Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. At this
stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of
view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One
piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake
shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that
piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass. Their thinking becomes more
logical and organized, but still very concrete.Children begin using inductive logic, or
reasoning from specific information to a general principle. While children are still very
concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much
more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear
as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.While
thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also
be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.During this stage, children also become less egocentric and
begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete
operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and
that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems. Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and
abstract reasoning. Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information. The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic,
the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this
point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and
think more scientifically about the world around them.The ability to thinking about
abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of
cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about
hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is
important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to
their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a
qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding
and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge
and the process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new
information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the
child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are
small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous
dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing
schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation- The process of taking in new information into our already existing
schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we
tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.
In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the
animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation- Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing

schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences.5

New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration- Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is
important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration
helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next

REFERENCE

Piaget 4 stages of Cognitive Development Retrieved August 12 2019 from

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
THEORY OF LEV VYGOTSKY

Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist who is best known for his
sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children's
learning. Through such social interactions, children go through a continuous process of
learning. Vygotsky noted, however, that culture profoundly influences this process.
Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning all play a critical part in his theory.

Vygotsky's Early Life

Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western region of the
Russian Empire.

He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in law in

1917. He studied a range of topics while attending university, including sociology,
linguistics, psychology, and philosophy. However, his formal work in psychology did not
begin until 1924 when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow.

He completed a dissertation in 1925 on the psychology of art but was awarded his
degree in absentia due to an acute tuberculosis relapse that left him incapacitated for a
year. Following his illness, Vygotsky began researching topics such as language,
attention, and memory with the help of students including Alexei Leontiev and
Alexander Luria.

Vygotsky's Career and Theories

Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing six books on psychology topics over a ten-year
period. His interests were quite diverse but often centered on issues of child
development and education. He also explored such subjects as the psychology of art
and language development.

The Zone of Proximal Development

According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is "[The] distance between

the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the
level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers."—Lev Vygotsky, Mind in Society,
1978. Essentially, this zone is the gap between what a child knows and what he does
not yet know. The process of acquiring that information requires skills that a child does
not yet possess or cannot do independently, but can do with the help of a more
knowledgeable other.Parents and teachers can foster learning by providing educational
opportunities that lie within a child's zone of proximal development. Kids can also learn
a great deal from peers, so teachers can foster this process by pairing less skilled
children with more knowledgeable classmates.

The More Knowledgeable Other

Vygotsky conceived the more knowledgeable other as a person who has greater
knowledge and skills than the learner. In many cases, this individual is an adult such as
a parent or teacher. Kids also learn a great deal from their interactions with their peers,
and children often pay even greater attention to what their friends and classmates know
and are doing than they do to the adults in their life.

No matter who serves as the more knowledgeable other, the key is that they provide the
needed social instruction with the zone of proximal development when the learner is so
sensitive to guidance. Children can observe and imitate or even receive guided
instruction to acquire new knowledge and skills.

Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky also suggested that human development results from a dynamic
interaction between individuals and society. Through this interaction, children learn
gradually and continuously from parents and teachers.

This learning, however, can vary from one culture to the next. It's important to note that
Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the dynamic nature of this interaction. Society doesn't
just impact people; people also affect their society.
Contributions to Psychology

Vygotsky's life was cut tragically short on June 11, 1934, when he died of tuberculosis
at the age of 37.

He is considered a formative thinker in psychology, and much of his work is still being
discovered and explored today. While he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov,
Freud, and Piaget, his work never attained their level of eminence during his lifetime.
Part of this was because the Communist Party often criticized his work in Russia, and
so his writings were largely inaccessible to the Western world. His premature death at
age 37 also contributed to his obscurity.

Despite this, his work has continued to grow in influence since his death, particularly in
the fields of developmental and educational psychology.

It wasn't until the 1970s that Vygotsky's theories became known in the West as new
concepts and ideas were introduced in the fields of educational and developmental
psychology. Since then, Vygotsky's works have been translated and have become very
influential, particularly in the area of education. In a ranking of eminent psychologists,
Vygotsky was identified as the 83rd most frequently cited psychologist during the 20th
century.

Vygotsky vs. Piaget

Piaget and Vygotsky were contemporaries, yet Vygotsky’s ideas never became as well-
known until long after his death. While their ideas shared some similarities, there were
some significant differences, including:

Vygotsky did not break down development into a series of predetermined stages as
Piaget did.

Vygotsky stressed the important role that culture plays, suggesting cultural differences
can have a dramatic effect on development. Piaget’s theory suggests that development
is largely universal. Piaget’s theory focuses a great deal of attention on peer interaction
while Vygotsky’s theory stresses the importance of more knowledgeable adults and
peers. Vygotsky’s theory heavily stressed the role that language plays in development,
something that Piaget largely ignored.