ia

ur
ak
Electrostatics
Th
Pankaj Thakuria

September 17, 2017

aj
nk
Pa
 ii

Pa
nk
aj
Th
ak
ur
ia
Contents

ia
Message v

ur
1 Electrostatics 1
1.1 Concept of Charge and Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Comparison with gravitational force . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ak
1.1.2 Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Electric field due to charge distribution
1.1.4 Electric Lines of force . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6
7
11
Th
1.2 Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Concept of solid angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Integral form of Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.4 Electric Potential concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
aj
nk
Pa

iii
 iv

Pa
nk
aj
Th
ak
ur
ia
CONTENTS
Message

ia
Dear all,
Please convey me the mistakes in the notes to me. I am writing this

ur
text in a hurry, so, obviously there will be a lot of mistakes. Please
do not hesitate to inform me. I will include some concept related
text next time. You can consider further reading text books.

ak
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics by D. J Griffiths

2. Electricity and Magnetism by D. C Tayal

Th
3. Fundamentals of Magnetism and electricity by D. N Vasudeva

4. Classical Electrodynamics by J. D Jackson

All the best for your Mid-term examination.

Regards
aj

Pankaj
nk
Pa

v
 vi

Pa
nk
aj
Th
ak
ur
ia
MESSAGE
Chapter 1

ia
Electrostatics

ur
1.1 Concept of Charge and Coulomb’s Law
ak
Human being are fascinated by the various phenomenon occurring in nature,
Th
many phenomenon were scary and people attributed to various unknown
things, like lighting, thunders etc. Curiosity in some people started finding
reason for all these phenomenon. Amber a material used in jewelery is known
to human being from ancient time and they observed that when rubbed with
silk cloth they acquire a strange property to attract some piece of paper.
Similarly glass when rubbed with silk cloth can also attract small pieces of
aj

paper. Interestingly glass and amber both repel each other after they were
rubbed with silk cloth. People at that time did not have a modern day
nk

atomic picture. Some people thought that there is some internal fire respon-
sible for it, because fire was a visible thing to people at that time. When
they have excess fire they are positive and when less fire they are negative.
Another group of people thought they are different types of fluid. American
Pa

statesman Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 to April 17, 1790) thought
that they are same fluid under different pressure. That time both type of
electricity was termed as ”vitreous” and ”resinous” electricity. Pressure, tem-
perature, mass etc were the measurable fundamental quantities at that time.
Franklin was the first person to label them as positive and negative. Also
like thermal conduction through certain materials, concept of conductor was
introduced. Charles Augustin de Coulomb a French physicist 1784 published
a law now known as Coulomb’s law to explain the force between two charges.
The SI unit of charge is attributed to his name Coulomb. The CGS unit
statecoulomb is also attributed to Benjamin Franklin and is called franklin
(Fr).

1
 2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Th
aj

Figure 1.1: (a) Force F~21 on charge q2 due to charge q1 separated by a

distance ~r. (b) equal and opposite forces acts on both the charges.
nk

The Coulomb’s law Many people (Joseph Priestley, John Robison

Henry Cavendish etc) observed that the force between two charged bodies
follows the reciprocal of square of distance the two charged bodies. Coulomb
Pa

published everything as a law based on his experimental results using a tor-

sion balance. The law states that the force between two pint chrages is
directly proportional to the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional
to the square of distances. In a scalar form we can write the force F between
two point charges as
q1 q2
F ∝ 2 (1.1)
r
In the vector form we can write
q1 q2
F~ ∝ rb (1.2)
|~r|2
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 3

This rb is a unit vector defining the direction of force and can be written as
~
r
|~
r|
and the Coulomb’s law can be written as

q1 q2
F~ ∝ ~r (1.3)
|~r|3

Let us define the poistion vectors ~r1 and ~r2 of the two point charges q1
and q2 at position A and B with respect to a origin point O as shown in Fig:
1.1 (a). Now the vector joining both the charges ~r21 can be written as ~r2 − ~r1

ia
and the force acting on charge q2 due to charge q1 can be written as
q 1 q2 q 1 q2
F~21 ∝ (~r2 − ~r1 ) ∝ rb21 (1.4)

ur
(~r2 − ~r1 ) 3 (~r2 − ~r1 )2
−~
The direction of force is along the unit vector rb2 1 defined as rb21 = |~~rr22 −~
r1
r1 |

sown in Fig: 1.1 (b).

Units of charge
ak
The magnitude of charges on each other is equal but opposite in direction as
Th
We can use a constant β in Eq. 1.7 to find the magnitude of Force.
q1 q2
F~21 = β rb21 (1.5)
(~r2 − ~r1 )2
aj

The value of β depends upon the units of measurements

nk

In C.G.S. unit In C.G.S. or electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) value of β is

given by
1
β= (1.6)
K
Pa

K is the dielectric constant of the medium where both the charges are kept.
Therefore, in C.G.S. system coulomb’s law can be written as
q1 q2
F~21 = rb21 (1.7)
K(~r2 − ~r1 )2

For air value of k is 1, and we can find the unit of charge by equating 1 unit
of force on 1 unit of charge separated by 1 unit distance. In C.G.S. system
unit of chrage is 1 statcoulomb. One e.s.u. or one statcoulomb or one
Franklin of charge can be defined as the amount of charge when
placed in air, at a distance of 1 cm from a similar charge, is
repelled with a force of 1 dyne.
 4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

In S. I. unit In S.I. unit the value of the constant β is given by

1
β= (1.8)
4π0 r
r is the relative permeability of the medium and 0 is the permeability
of free space. Relative permeability r = /0 of the medium is defined
as the ration between permeability of the medium to the permeability of
free space. permeability of free space is a known quantity and its value is
0 = 8.854 × 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2 . Putting this value in Eq. 1.8 for air (r = 1)

ia
we get
1

ur
β= (1.9)
4π × 8.854 × 10−12
= 8.9875 × 109 ≈ 9 × 109 N m2 C −2

ak
One Coulomb of charge can be defined as the amount of charge
when placed in air, at a distance of 1 m from a similar charge,
is repelled with a force of 9 × 109 N. The relation between coulomb and
Th
statcoulomb is
1coulmb = 3 × 109 statcoulomb
In C.G.S. unit the unit of β is arbitrarily chosen but in SI unit β is
deduced from units of current.
aj

Superposition of charges
If more than one charge is present we then the force on one charge is the
nk

vector sum of all the forces on the charge from all other charges and they are
independent of each other. Mathematically we can write
n
qi X qj
Pa

F~i = r~ij (1.10)

4π j6=i |r~ij |3

This principle is used to find out various parameters for a distribution of

charges

Distribution of charges
So far we have considered discrete charges, but charge may be continuously
distributed in a region. We can define small charge dq in the region and find
the force due to this small charge on a point charge q1 . Now we can add the
forces due to each of small charge element dq vectorially. Total force can be
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 5

ia
ur
ak
Figure 1.2: Force due to continuous surface charge distribution

found by integrating (since continuous charge distribution) From Coulomb’s

Th
law we can write
Z
q 1 dq
F~ = rb (1.11)
4π ~r2
aj

rb is a variable unit vector that connects each of the charge elements dq to the
point charge q1 . We can define the charge distribution as a point function
nk

Linear charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.12)
Pa

∆l→0 ∆l

Surface charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.13)
∆S→0 ∆S

Volume charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.14)
∆v→0 ∆v
 6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Th
Figure 1.3: A test charge q2 in the electric field of charge q1

1.1.1 Comparison with gravitational force

aj

Both the forces work in vacuum, follows inverse square of distance law, path
independent and central forces but electrostatic force can be both attractive
and repulsive. Let us consider the strength of both the forces. we can
nk

calculate the ratio of the forces acting on one electron by one proton.

Fe 9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2

=
Fg 6.67 × 10−11 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.67 × 10−27
Pa

= 2.26 × 1039

Thus electrostatic force is enormous compared to gravitational force.

Food for brain: Why electrostatic force has little role in astronomical
world?

1.1.2 Electric field

A charge placed near another charge feels the attractive or repulsive forces
but a single isolated charge do not feel any force from its charge. Like Gravi-
tational filed the concept of electric field was introduced. Electric field region
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 7

of a charge is the region where its influence can be realized. Two charges
feels attraction or repulsion forces due to interaction of their electric fields,
modern day physics explains the interaction in terms of exchange of field
particles called photons. The strength of the electric field is measured in
terms of electric field intensity. To measure the electric field intensity a test
charge as small as possible is placed at a distance r from the charge whose
intensity is to be measured. The test charge is a imaginary concept which is
made as small as possible so that it does not influence the behavior of the
charge whose intensity is to be measured.

ia
If a test charge q0 experience a force F~ due to the charge q then electric
intensity can be written as

ur
~ = lim F = 1 q1 rb
E (1.15)
q0 →0 q0 4π r2
In terms of position vectors

~ = 1
E
ak
q1
4π |~r − r~1 |3
(~r − r~1 ) (1.16)
Th
~ can be calculated by super-
For many charges at points r1 , r2 , r3 ......rn etc E
position of charges
n
X qi (~r − r~i )
~ = 1
E (1.17)
4π i=1 |~r − r~i |3
aj

1.1.3 Electric field due to charge distribution

nk

For a uniform linear charge distribution Let us consider a solid

∆q
rod with a uniform charge distribution λ = lim ∆L as shown in Fig:1.4 (a).
∆L→0
We need to find electric field intensity at a point p in the axial line of the
Pa

rod. Since we know that Coulomb’s law holds good for a point charge, we
can not use it directly for a rod. We can take the help of law of superposition
of charges. Let us consider a small segment of the rod ∆x and now we can
use Coulomb’s law here. Considering the positive direction of the Cartesian
coordinate system as x the electric field intensity at point p due to this
segment can be written as
1 λ∆x
∆E = x (1.18)
4π0 x2
b

Since all such small segments have electric field intensity in the same direction
using superposition of charge principle we can sum up the intensity due to
 8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Th
Figure 1.4: Electric intensity at a point P due to a uniformly charged rod.

all such segments.

aj

X X 1 λ∆x
E= ∆E = x (1.19)
4π0 x2
b
nk

For ∆x → 0, and continuous charge distribution we can replace the summa-

tion sign by integration and we can write
Z −a Z −a  
1 λdx λ dx λ 1 1
Pa

E= 2
= = − (1.20)
−(a+L) 4π0 x 4π0 −(a+L) x2 4π0 a a + l

Let us make the problem a little more complex, we need to find the
intensity at an arbitrary point p. Let us consider ~r to be the distance between
the element dx and the point p. We can resolve the intensity along x and y
directions as a function of the angle θ that ~r makes with the y direction. The
all y directional components are along same direction so we can integrate
them:
Z a+l
λdx cos θ
Ey = (1.21)
a 4π0 r2
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 9

We have three variables here, so we resolve r2 = x2 + b2 and cos θ = b/r in

Eq. 1.21
" #a+L
Z a+L
bλ dx bλ x
Ey = = (1.22)
4π0 a (b2 + x2 )3/2 4π0 b (x + b2 )1/2
2 2
a
 
λ a+L a
= − 2 (1.23)
4π0 b [(a + L)2 + b2 ]1/2 (a + b2 )1/2

ia
1
The integration in Eq. 1.22 is a standard integral.
The y component Ey can be found out similar way where sin θ = x/r

ur
Z a+L
1 λx
Ex = (1.24)
4π0 (x2 + b2 )3/2
a
 
λ 1 1
=
4π0
−
ak
+
[(a + L)2 + b2 ]1/2 (a2 + b2 )1/2

From Eq. 1.25 it is evident that for a = −L/2 ı.e. p is at the perpendicular
(1.25)
Th
bisector of the rod, Ex = 0, meaning both in positive and negative x -direction
intensity cancels each other.
Let us consider a condition b >> L. We can write
λL q
Ey = = (1.26)
4π0 b2 4π0 b2
aj

Evidently Ex = 0. Thus, the rod behaves as a point charge when we find the
intensity at a large distance.
nk
Pa

Figure 1.5: Electric intensity due to a (a) charged loop (b) uniformly charged
disc
1
1
 10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

For a uniformly charged loop and disc Let us consider a uniformly

charged loop with radius a and charge distribution λ as shown in Fig. 1.5
(a). We will find the intensity at a point p in the axial line at a distance x
from the center of the loop O. Similar to previous problem we can resolve
the components in two parts Ex along x direction and Ey along y direction.
The component in the x direction due to a small element dl can be written
as (Ex due to all components are in same direction so we can integrate or
vectorially add.)

ia
Z E Z
λdl cos θ
Ex = dE cos θ =

ur
0 4π0 r2

ak
We can use r2 = x2 + a2 and cos θ = x/r
Th
Z
λx
E= dl
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2
λx2πa
=
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2
λq
aj

= (1.27)
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2
nk

When the point p is at very long distance x >> a the loop behaves like a
point charge and we obtain similar results as point charges.
Pa

q
E= (1.28)
4π0 x2

The intensity in the Y- direction Ey is zero, as the components placed at

opposite end of the loops have opposite directions and cancels each other.
This problem can be extended to a disc of uniform charge distribution.
Let us define the width of the loop (da) with radius a inside a bigger disc of
radius R of uniform charge density σ. Here also Ey is zero. We can write Ex
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 11

as
Z
1 σdlda
Ex = E cos θ =
4π0 r2
Z Z
σ cos θ
= da dl
4π0 r2
Z
σ x
= 2πa
4π0 r3
σx R
Z
ada

ia
=
20 0 (x2 + a2 )3/2
" #R
σx 1

ur
= −
20 (x2 + a2 )1/2 0
" #
σ x

1.1.4 Electric Lines of force

=
ak20
1−
(x2 + R2 )1/2
(1.29)
Th
If we know the electric field at every point then we can find out how a small
positive charge placed in a a particular point will move, and we can draw
some vectors at each point and can be joined together to get electric lines
of force. These are imaginary lines whose tangent at each point gives the
direction of electric field at that point. Electric field follows inverse square
aj

law, there can be a perception that by drawing uniform lines we are loosing
the information concerning the strength of electric field, but the magnitude
nk

of electric field is given by the density of lines of force. In three dimension if

we normalize the number of lines of force by surface area of the sphere (4πr2 )
then it follows the inverse square law.
Pa

Properties of Electric Lines of force

• No lines of force ends in space around a charge, it originate from a

positive charge and terminates in a negative charge.

• Lines of force are always perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.

• tangent to electric lines of force a particular point gives the electric

intensity at that point.

• No two lines of force intersect each other, otherwise at the crossing

point we will have different direction for the intensity.
 12 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
Figure 1.6: Electric Lines of force

ur
• density of lines of force gives the strength of electric field.

• For two charge of same sign they repel each other as shown in Fig. 1.6.

1.2 Gauss’s Law

ak
Th
1.2.1 Concept of solid angle
A plane angle, θ, is the arc length of a circle subtended by the lines and by
the radius of that circle. The dimensionless unit of plane angle is the radian,
with 2π radians in a full circle. A solid angle is a 3D angular volume similar
aj

to a plane angle in two dimensions. It is a measure of how large the object

appears to an observer when looked from that point. The SI unit of solid
angle is steradian (dimensionless) designated by the symbol ’Sr’. In a sphere
nk

the total solid angle is 4π sr. The solid angle can be measured by the ratio
of the area of the sphere creating the solid angle to the square of radius. by
definition we can write
Pa

rb · d~s
dω = 2
= ds cos θ/r2 (1.30)
r

In Fig: 1.7 the area d~s and ds~0 makes the same angle dω at the center of
~ in the
the sphere of radius r. d~s cos θ is the projection of the vector area dS
direction of the radius vector ~r

1.2.2 Integral form of Gauss’s Law

We have so far calculated intensity due to some charge distribution, and for
a simple charge distribution also we had lot of mathematical complications.
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 13

ia
ur
Figure 1.7: The concept of solid angle

ak
In electrostatics we use different tools to simplify these problems, Gauss’s
law is an attempt to simplify the problem concerning electric field intensity.
Let us consider a point charge q surrounded by a closed surface as shown
Th
in Fig:1.7. Electric field intensity at every point of the surface is radially
~ where
pointed outward towards the surface. We can consider a small area ds,
intensity can be considered as having same magnitude and direction. Let θ
be the angle between the outward normal of the surface ds ~ and E.
~ Let us
find out the component of E ~
~ along ds
aj

~ = E cos θds =
~ · ds 1 q q
E cos θds == dω (1.31)
4π0 r2 4π0
nk

;as dω = ds cos θ/r2

For a continuous surface we can integrate it over the whole surface and
we get
Pa

I I I
~ ~ q q
E · ds = En ds = dω = (1.32)
4π0 s 0
as the total solid angle is equal to 4π. Thus the surface integral of the normal
component of the electric field (En ) in electrostatic condition, over a closed
surface is 1/0 times the total charge inside the surface. This is known as
Gauss’s Law. For a distribution of charges we can sum them up or for
continuous distribution we can integrate them. Thus we have
I I n Z
~ ~ 1 X 1
E · ds = En ds = qi = ρdv (1.33)
0 i=1 0 v
 14 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

In hydrodynamics the flux is the amount of fluid passing through a unit

surface normal to the flow. We can use φ = E ~ as the flux.
~ · ds
I Z
~ ~ 1
φ = E · ds = ρdv (1.34)
0 v

So, we can state Gauss’s law as the total flux in outward direction from a
closed surface is equal to 1/0 times the total charge enclosed in the volume
inside the surface. Gauss’s law can be considered as a form of Coulomb’s
Law without the inverse square of distance term 1/r2 which simplifies the

ia
problem of finding the intensity. The Gauss’s law stated above is an integral
form we can convert it to a differential form by using the Gauss’s divergence

ur
theorem.
I Z
F · da = (5 · F)dv

aks

Force in our case is q0 E so we can write

I Z
v
Th
q0 E · ds = q0 (5 · E)dv
s I vZ

or E · ds = (5 · E)dv (1.35)
s v

The Eq. 1.34 and the Eq. 1.35 are equal so the terms inside the integral in
aj

right hand side should also be equal giving us

5 · E = ρ/0 (1.36)
nk

This is differential form of Gauss’s law which states that divergence of electric
field at any point is 1/0 the charge density at that point. We can verify
Gauss’s law graphically. Let us consider a charge +q placed outside a closed
Pa

surface as shown in Fig. 1.8. It makes a solid angle dω due to all the surfaces
~ makes with the surface
ds1 , ds2 · · · ds6 . Let θ1 , θ· · ·θ6 be the angles that E
normal respectively. We can find the flux by summing up the contribution
from each segment.

φ = E1 cos(π − θ1 )ds1 + E2 cos θ2 ds2 + · · ·

= −E1 cos θ1 ds1 + E2 cos θ2 ds2 − · · ·
q 
−ds1 cos θ1 /r12 + ds2 cos θ2 /r22 − · · · ·

=
4π0
q
= [−dω + dω − dω + dω − dω + dω] = 0 (1.37)
4π0
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 15

ia
ur
ak
Th
Figure 1.8: Graphical proof of Gauss’s law

Now if we put a charge inside the surface then it cuts the surface in odd
numbers. Therefore all the solid angles do not cancel out and we have finite
electric field intensity given by qdω/4π0 . This is essentially Gauss’s law
aj

stating that electric flux entering a surface is equal to the the flux coming
out of it if it does not include a charge inside it.
nk

1.2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law

Pa

Gaussian surface To simplify the problems of calculating electric field

intensity we can use two simple measures 1. Make the problem symmetric 2¿
make it uniform distribution. In electrostatics surfaces are imagined which
have symmetry and uniform distribution of the quantity to be calculated,
Such imaginary surfaces are called Gaussian surface. Gaussian surface is
very helpful in finding electric field intensity. Let us find some examples

Spherical Gaussian surfaces Let us consider a point charge q. The

electric field intensity at each point on a surface of a sphere is normal to
the surface when the point charge is at the center. Therefore, we select a
Gaussian surface of radius r as shown in Fig. 1.9 (a) . We can find out the
 16 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Figure 1.9: Different Gaussian surfaces of spherical symmetry
Th
intensity using Gauss’s law
I I I
~
E · d~s = Eds cos 0 = E ds = E4πr2 (1.38)
aj

~ · d~s is equal to q/0 from Gauss’s Law, therefore

H
E
q
4πr2 E =
nk

0
q
or E= (1.39)
4π0 r2
This is the same expression as Eq. 1.15 obtained from Coulomb’s law.
Pa

Let us now consider a insulating sphere of radius R with uniform volume

charge density ρ as shown in Fig. 1.9 (b). We want to find the electric field
intensity at a point P at a distance r from the center of the sphere. Here also
the Eq. 1.38 can be used and the electric field intensity at each point on a
surface of a Gaussian sphere of radius r is normal to the surface.Total charge
is (Q = volume of the sphere × Charge density ρ ). Thus we can write

4πr3 ρ
4πr2 E = (1.40)
30
rρ
or E=
30
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 17

This is same situation as that of a point charge.

In a complex situation if r < R, as shown in Fig. 1.9 (c) total charge
inside the sphere of radius r is given by
4
Qr = πr3 ρ
3
ρ can be written in terms of the big sphere of radius R and total charge as
Q
ρ=

ia
4/3πR3

combining both the equations intensity at the surface of the sphere of radius

ur
r can be calculated.
Q Qr3
Qr = 4/3πr3 =

Similar to Eq. 1.41 we can write

ak 4/3πR3 R3
Th
Qr3
E4πr2 =
R3 0
Qr
or E= (1.41)
4π0 R3
Let us consider another situation where, there is a cavity of radius a as shown
aj

in Fig. 1.9 (d). Total charge inside the sphere of radius R is given by

QR = 4/3πR3 − 4/3πa3 ρ


nk

Therefore intensity at the surface of the big sphere of radius R can be calcu-
lated as
Pa

(4/3πR3 − 4/3πa3 ) ρ
E4πr2 =
0
3 3
R −a
orE = (1.42)
3r2 0
For a point p situated at r < p < R we can replace a by r in Eq. 1.42

R3 − r 3
E= (1.43)
3r2 0
If the point is inside the cavity p < r then it encloses no charge so intensity
is zero.
 18 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Figure 1.10: Gaussian surfaces of cylindrical symmetry.
Th
Cylindrical Gaussian surfaces Let us consider an insulating wire of
radius R of infinite length with uniform linear charge density λ and uniform
volume charge density ρ as shown in Fig. 1.10 (a). Let us now consider a
cylindrical co-axial Gaussian surface of radius r and length l. The lines of
forces from the rod are radial and perpendicular to the Gaussian surface.
Along the flat face direction no lines of force pass through it (Ex = 0). For
aj

the curved surface considering uniform linear charge density we can write
(for a conducting wire it is either surface charge density or we can convert it
nk

to linear charge density)

I I I
λl
E · ds = Eds = E ds = 2πrlE =
s s s 0
Pa

λ
or E= (1.44)
2πr0
If we consider uniform volume charge density ρ (for insulating wire we can
use volume charge density)
πR2 lρ
2πrlE =
0
2
R ρ
or E= (1.45)
2r0
If we consider a insulating wire of volume charge density ρ and we want
to find the electric field inside it we have to consider a Gaussian cylindrical
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 19

ia
Figure 1.11: Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite sheet and a

ur
plate of infinite length and breadth.

I
ak
surface of radius r and length l inside it, as shown in Fig. 1.10 (b). Following
Gauss law we can write
I
E · ds = E ds = 2Eπrl =
πr2 lρ
Th
s s 0
rρ
or E= (1.46)
20

The electric field inside the insulating infinite wire is independent of its
radius and varies linearly with its distance from the axis. If the wire is of
aj

finite length (comparable to l) all the lines of force are perpendicular to the
cylindrical surface as the electric lines at the end will be different from that
nk

at the center.

Infinite uniformly charged sheet For an uniformly charged insu-

lating sheet (surface charge density σ) of infinite length and breadth we can
Pa

consider equal intensity for two points on opposite side of the sheet. Now
let us draw a Gaussian cylindrical surface of radius r through the sheet as
shown in Fig. 1.11 (left side). There are two surfaces S1 and S2 (red) parallel
to the axis of the cylinder with equal number of lines of force for an infinite
sheet. Since no lines of force cross the curved surface so intensity in the
curved surface is zero. Thus we can write using Gauss’s Law
I
σS
2 E.ds = 2ES =
0
σ
or E= (1.47)
20
 20 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Th
Figure 1.12: Electric field due to two oppositely charged plates

In practice there is no infinite sheet. If the distance between the point and the
aj

surface very small compared to dimension of the sheet, it can be considered

as infinite sheet. We have seen that E is independent of the distance from
the sheet. Then in a first glance it may seem like it violates Coulomb’s law
nk

where E is inversely proportional to r2 . In Eq. 1.44 similarly for an infinite

wire we saw that E varies inversely with r. Practical visualization is that as
we move away from the surface or wire more and more lines of force from the
Pa

charges at far distance contributes towards intensity compensating the 1/r2

dependence.
If we consider a conducting plate instead of a sheet, charge is distributed
uniformly over both the surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.11. The charge on the
other surface is shown above the other surface. Therefore we need to add
the contributions from the other surface also (superposition of E). Therefore
E = σ0 .

Two oppositely charged plates Let us consider two oppositely charged

infinite plates of charge density ±σ. To make the problem simple let us define
three regions in the system. Region (i) is outside the positive plate, region
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 21

ia
ur
Figure 1.13: Work done by Electric field

ak
(iii) is outside the negative plate and region (ii) is in between the plates as
Th
shown in Fig. 1.12. We can extend the above example of uniformly charged
infinite sheet and we can rewrite the Eq. 1.47 here also for individual plates
as E = 2ρ0 . Now we can use the principle of superposition of intensity to
calculate intensity due to both the plates. In region (i) E is towards left
due to the positive plate while it is towards right due to the negative plate
aj

canceling each other. As a result we have no net electric field in region (i).
Same is the case for region (iii). For region (ii) electric field due to both the
plate is in the same direction. SO we get net electric field E = 2ρ0 + 2ρ0 = ρ0 .
nk

The direction of the field is from left to right.

Pa

1.2.4 Electric Potential concept

Work done by E-field Let us consider a small test charge +q0 at a

distance r from a charge +q experiences an electric field E . To calculate the
work done in bringing the positive charge from point a to b let us consider a
 22 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

small element dl in the path (solid line). We can write the work done as
Z rb Z rb
Wab = F · dl = −q0 E · dl (1.48)
ra ra
Z rb
= −q0 Edl cos(π − θ) (1.49)
ra
Z rb
= q0 Edl cos θ (1.50)
ra
Z rb

ia
= −q0 Edr dr = −dl cos θ (1.51)
ra
Z rb
q0 dr
=−

ur
(1.52)
4π0 ra r2
 
q0 1 1
= − (1.53)
4π0 rb ra
ak
We have seen that total work done in bringing the test charge +q0 from point
a to point b depends only on distance of the points from the charge q, not
on the path. If we take another path, say the dotted line path, the work is
Th
same. Such force which does the work that does not depend upon the path
taken is called a conservative force. Obviously work done in a closed path is
zero, we can write mathematically
I
W = E · dl = 0 (1.54)
aj

The work done due to conservative force can be related as potential energy,
so we can write
nk

 
q0 1 1
P.E.b − P.E.a = − (1.55)
4π0 rb ra
Pa

This potential energy is simply related to electric potential denoted by the

symbol V , which is a scalar quantity. So we can write potential difference
per unit charge as
 
Vb − Va 1 1 1
lim = − (1.56)
q0 →0 q0 4π0 rb ra
The unit of potential is Volt (Joule/Coulomb). We can change the limit
ra = ∞ and get the potential at point b.

1 1
V = (1.57)
4π0 r
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 23

We can write alternately for the scaler quantity V.

Z b Z b
Vb − Va = 5V · dl = − E · dl (1.58)
a a

So we can equate the integration and write

E =−5V (1.59)

Thus electric field is the negative gradient of potential. We know from Stokes’

ia
theorem that
Z I
5×F = F · dl (1.60)

ur
v S

Applying Stokes’ theorem in case of electric field we can write

Thus we can write

Z
5×E =
v ak
I
E · dl = 0
S
(1.61)
Th
5×E =0 (1.62)

We know from Gauss’ law that divergence of E at a point is equal to 10

times the charge density at that point (see Eq. 1.36). Combining Eq. 1.36
and Eq. 1.59 we get
aj

ρ
52 V = − (1.63)
0
nk

This is called Poisson’s equation and if there is no charge we can write

52 V = 0 (1.64)
Pa

This is called Laplace’s equation.

So far we have learned so many equations on electrostatics. Let us sum-
marize them.
1. From Coulomb’S Law
1 q1 q2
F = (1.65)
4π0 dr2

2. for electric Field

1 q
E= (1.66)
4π0 dr2
 24 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

3. From Gauss’s Law

I
ρ
E · ds = (1.67)
S 0

4. Divergence of E
ρ
5·E = (1.68)
0

ia
5. Potential
1 1

ur
V = (1.69)
4π0 r

6. Potential and electric field

ak E =−5V (1.70)
Th
7. Curl of E

5×E =0 (1.71)

8. Poisson’s Equation
aj

ρ
52 V = − (1.72)
0
nk

9. Laplace’s Equation

52 V = 0 (1.73)
Pa

We can summarize all the formulas in a triangle as follows.

1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 25

ia
ur
ak
Th
aj
nk

Figure 1.14:
Pa
 26 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

ia
ur
ak
Th
aj
nk
Pa