Un Conventional Machining Process Notes

COURSE FILE
UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS
R13 Regulation
IV B Tech – I SEMESTER
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

TABLE OF CONTENT
S.NO. Content Page No.

2
1 Course Objectives & Outcomes
3
2 Syllabus
4
3 Lecture Plan
6
4 Unit wise course Material
6
Unit-I: Introduction about UCMP and Ultrasonic machining.
36
Unit-II: Electro - Chemical Machining.
62
Unit-III: Thermal Metal Removal Processes.
95
Unit-IV: Electron Beam Machining and Laser Beam Machining
112
Unit-V: Plasma Machining
Unit-VI: Abrasive jet machining, Water jet machining and abrasive water 124
jet machining
155
5 Reference text books/web material etc.,
156
6 Mid Question Paper + Schemes of Evaluation.
157
7 Fast track material for Back-Log students.
167
8 Sample Question Papers with solutions
168
9 Virtual Labs if required
Mapping of Assignments / Question Papers with course objective learning 169

10
outcomes.
171
11 Bloom’s Taxonomy checklist
pg. 1
Course Objectives & Outcomes
1.1. Course Objectives
The objectives of the course are:
0 The course aims in identifying the classification of unconventional machining
processes.
1 To understand the principle, mechanism of metal removal of various
unconventional machining processes.
2 To study the machining surface finish and material removal rate of various
unconventional machining processes.
3 To study the various process parameters and their effect on the component
machined on various unconventional machining processes.
4 To understand the applications of different processes.
1.2. Course Outcomes
After completing this Course, the student should be able to:
0 List out the different types of unconventional machining processes.
1 Understand the principle of working of each and every unconventional machine.
2 Understand the mechanism of metal removal in the various unconventional
machining processes.
3 Identify the process parameters and their effect.
4 Identify the applications of different processes.
5 Give the applications for the different machining processes.
6 Debate on which machining process can be performed on which type of work.
pg. 2
2. Syllabus
UNIT-1
Introduction: Need for non-traditional machining methods- classification of modern machining

processes - considerations in process selection, applications.
Ultrasonic machining - Elements of the process, Mechanics of material removal, MRR process
parameters, economic considerations, applications and limitations.
UNIT - 2
Electro - Chemical Machining: Fundamentals of electro chemical machining, electrochemical

grinding, electro chemical honing and deburring process, metal removal rate in ECM, Tool
design, Surface finish, and accuracy, economic aspects of ECM - Simple problems for estimation
of metal removal rate, fundamentals of chemical, machining, advantages and application’s.
UNIT - 3
Thermal Metal Removal Processes: General principle and applications of Electric Discharge
Machining, Electric Discharge grinding, and wire EDM - Power circuits of EDM, Mechanics of
metal removal in EDM process parameters, selection of tool electrode and dielectric fluids,
surface finish and machining accuracy, characteristics of spark eroded surface.
UNIT - 4
Electron Beam Machining, Laser Beam Machining - Basic Principle and theory, mechanics of
material removal, process parameters, efficiency, accuracy and applications.
UNIT- 5
Plasma Machining: Application of plasma for machining, metal removal mechanism, process
parameters, accuracy and surface finish and other applications of plasma in manufacturing
industries.
UNIT -6
Abrasive jet machining, Water jet machining and abrasive water jet machining; Basic principles,
equipment’s, process variables, mechanics of material removal, MRR, application and limitations.
Magnetic abrasive finishing, abrasive flow finishing, Electro stream drilling, shaped tube
electrolytic machining.
pg. 3
3. Lecture Plan
Lecture Unit Number Topic

no.
1. Introduction to UCMP.
2. Need for non-traditional machining methods.
3. Classification of modern machining processes.
4. Considerations in process selection.
5. Applications of modern machining processes.
1 Elements of the process, Mechanics of material removal of
6.
Ultrasonic machining.
Elements of the process, Mechanics of material removal of
7
8. MRR process parameters of Ultrasonic machining.
Economic considerations, Applications and limitations of
9.
Economic considerations, Applications and limitations of
10
11 REVISION / CLASS TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
12. Fundamentals of electro chemical machining and

electrochemical grinding.
13. Fundamentals of electro chemical honing and deburring process.
14. Metal removal rate in ECM.
15. Tool design.
16. Surface finish and accuracy of ECM.
17. 2 Economic aspects of ECM.
18. Simple problems for estimation of metal removal rate
19. fundamentals of chemical machining, advantages and
application’s
20 fundamentals of chemical machining, advantages and
application’s
21. REVISION / CLASS TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
22. General principle and applications of Electric Discharge

Machining.
23. General principle and applications of Electric Discharge
grinding.
24. General principle and applications of wire EDM.
25. Power circuits of EDM.
26. 3 Mechanics of metal removal in EDM.
27. Process parameters, selection of tool electrode and dielectric
fluids.
28. Process parameters, selection of tool electrode and dielectric
fluids.
29. Surface finish and machining accuracy.
30. Characteristics of spark eroded surface.
pg. 4
32. Basic Principle and theory of Electron Beam Machining.

33. Basic Principle and theory of Laser Beam Machining.
34. Basic Principle and theory of Laser Beam Machining.
35. Mechanics of material removal of EBM & LBM.
36. Mechanics of material removal of EBM & LBM.
37. 4 Process parameters of EBM & LBM.
38. Efficiency of EBM & LBM.
39. Efficiency of EBM & LBM.
40. Accuracy of EBM & LBM.
41. Applications of EBM & LBM.
42. REVISION / CLASS TEST/ASSIGNMENTS.
43. Application of plasma for machining.

44. Metal removal mechanism of plasma for machining.
45 Metal removal mechanism of plasma for machining.
46. Process parameters of plasma for machining.
47. Accuracy of plasma for machining.
5
48. Accuracy of plasma for machining.
49. Surface finish of plasma for machining.
50. Other applications of plasma in manufacturing industries.
51 Other applications of plasma in manufacturing industries.
52. REVISION / CLASS TEST/ASSIGNMENTS.
53. Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of Abrasive

jet machining.
54. Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of Water jet
machining.
55. Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of abrasive
water jet machining.
56 Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of abrasive
water jet machining.
57. 6 Mechanics of material removal and MRR.
58 Mechanics of material removal and MRR.
59 Application and limitations.
60 Application and limitations.
61. Magnetic abrasive finishing.
62. Abrasive flow finishing.
63. Electro stream drilling.
64. Shaped tube electrolytic machining.
pg. 5
4. Unit-wise course material
4.1. Unit – I – Introduction & Ultrasonic machining
Introduction: Need for non-traditional machining methods- classification of modern machining

processes - considerations in process selection, applications.
Ultrasonic machining - Elements of the process, Mechanics of material removal, MRR process
parameters, economic considerations, applications and limitations.
4.1.1. Unit Objectives:

After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
5888 Understand different types of non-traditional machining methods.
5889 Understand the classification of modern machining processes.
5890 Identify the characteristics of conventional machining
Define non-traditional machining methods.

Know the uses of Non Traditional machining methods.
Classify the modern machining processes.
4.1.3. Unit Lecture Plan

Lecture Topic Methodology Quick reference
No.
1 Introduction to UCMP. Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 01 to 09
2 Need for non-traditional PPT Web reference, PPT-1.1
machining methods.
3 Classification of modern OHP/Models T1: Page No. 03
machining processes. etc
4 Considerations in process Seminar by References of concern
selection. students material, PPT-1.2
5 Applications of modern Chalk & Board
machining processes. Hassan El-Hofy (182-
189)
6 Elements of the process, Chalk & Board Jain and Pandey& Sha
Mechanics of material removal of (82)
7 MRR process parameters of Chalk & Board www.nitc.ac.in
8 Economic considerations, Chalk & Board Jain and Pandey& Sha
Applications and limitations of (82)
9 REVISION / CLASS Chalk & Board PPT
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
pg. 6
Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.
4.1.4.1 Lecture 1
Introduction to UCMP
The greatly improved thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties of the new engineering
materials made it impossible to machine the musing the traditional machining processes of cutting
and abrasion. This is because traditional machining is most often based on the removal of material
using tools that are harder than the work piece. Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to
machine by traditional machining processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. In addition
to the advanced materials, more complex shapes, low-rigidity structures, and micro machined
components with tight tolerances and fine surface quality are often needed. Traditional machining
methods are often ineffective in machining these parts. To meet these demands, new processes are
developed. Generally material removal processes can be divided into two groups
0 Conventional Machining Processes

1 Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or unconventional Manufacturing processes
Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of chips by

applying forces on the work material with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the
work material under machining condition shown in Fig.1.1. Non-traditional manufacturing
processes is defined as a group of processes that remove excess material by various techniques
involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies
but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.
Nontraditional machining processes, also called advanced manufacturing processes, are
employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due
to special reasons as outlined below.
0 Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining
1 When the work piece is too flexible or slender
2 When the shape of the part is too complex
Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra
required machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many
advantages over NTM processes. Nontraditional machining can be thought of as operations that
do not use shear as their primary source of energy. For example, abrasive water jet operations use
mechanical energy, but material is removed by erosion shown in Fig. 1.2.
[The Unconventional machining processes do not employ a conventional or traditional tool for
metal removal, instead, they directly utilize some form of energy for metal machining. In this
pg. 7
process, there is no direct physical contact between the tool and the work piece. Therefore the
tool material need not be harder than the work piece material as in conventional machining.]
Fig: 1.1Shear deformation in conventional Fig. 1.2Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM): High
machining leading to chip formation by velocity of abrasive particles removes material
using the sharp edged cutting tool. by micro cutting action as well as brittle
fracture of work material.
The major characteristics of conventional machining are:
0 Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation,

1 Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy domain can be
classified as mechanical
2 Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining
conditions.
Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes on the other hand are characterized as follows:
0 Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation may take
place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical
machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
1 In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet machining,
machining is carried out by laser beam. However in Electrochemical Machining there is a
physical tool that is very much required for machining.
2 In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For example, in EDM,
copper is used as the tool material to machine hardened steels.
3 Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide material
removal. They use different energy domains to provide machining. For example, in USM,
AJM, WJM mechanical energy is used to machine material, whereas in ECM
electrochemical dissolution constitutes material removal.
pg. 8
UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION AND ULTRASONIC
MACHINING
6/5/2017
4.1.4.2 . lecture 2
Need for non-traditional machining methods
In conventional machining the ability of the cutting tool is utilized to stress the material
beyond the yield point to start the material removal process. This requires that the cutting tool
material be harder than the work piece material. A harder and difficult to machine materials such
as carbides, stainless steel, nitralloy, hastelloy and many other high strength-temperature resistant
alloys find wide application in aerospace and nuclear engineering industries.
The advent of harder materials for aerospace applications have made the removal process
by conventional methods very difficult as well as time consuming. This is because the metal
removal rate decreases with the increased hardness of the work material. Many of these materials
also find applications in other industries, owing to their high strength to weight ratio, hardness
and heat resisting qualities. For such materials the conventional edged tool machining is highly
uneconomical and the degree of accuracy and surface finish attainable are poor. This led to the
development and establishment of Non-Traditional machining (NTM) processes in the industry
as efficient and economic alternatives to conventional ones. Hence machining processes which
utilizes other methods are termed as unconventional or non-traditional machining methods. The
main reasons for using non-traditional processes are:
pg. 9
0 To machine high strength alloys and brittle materials.
1 To generate complex surfaces.
2 To achieve high accuracies and surface finish.
3 To drill deep hole with small hole diameter
4 To produce Intricate shaped blind hole.
All methods are not suitable for all materials. Depending on the material to be machined,
following methods can be used as shown in the table below:
S.No. Material Method of Machining

1 Nonmetals like Ceramics, Plastics and Glass USM, AJM, EBM, LBM
2 Refractories USM, AJM, EDM, EBM
3 Titanium EDM
4 Super Alloys AJM, ECM, EDM, PAM
5 Steel ECM, CHM, EDM, PAM
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
PPT-1.2
4.1.4.3 Lecture 3
Classification of modern machining processes
pg. 10
Thus classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for
material removal. The broad classification is given as follows:
pg. 11
MODERN MACHINING PROCESSES
Mechanical Energy Thermoelectric Energy Electro Chemical and

Methods: Methods: Chemical Energy Methods:
AJM, USM, WJM, AWJM, PAM, LBM, EBM, IBM, ECM, ECG, ECH, ECD, EJD,
AFM, MAF, MRF EDM, EDG, ECEDM CHM, ECM, PCM, BM
1. Mechanical Energy Methods:
In mechanical energy methods, the material is removed by mechanical erosion of

the work piece material.
Examples:
0 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
➢
➢ Machining
Water Jet Machining (WJM)
➢
Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
➢
Abrasive Flow Finishing (AFM)
➢
Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF) Finishing
0 Magneto Rheological Finishing (MRF)
1 Thermoelectric Energy Methods:
A. Thermal Energy Methods:
In these methods, heat energy is concentrated on a small area of the work

piece to melt and vaporize the tiny bits of work material. The required shape is
obtained by the continued repetition of this process.
Examples:
0 Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
1 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
2 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
pg. 12
0 Ion Beam Machining(IBM)
B. Electrical energy methods:
In these methods, electrical energy is directly used to cut the Material to get the
final shape and size.
Examples:
0 Electric Discharge Machining ( EDM)
1 Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
2 Wire Cut Electric Discharge Machining (WCEDM)
1 Electro Chemical and Chemical Energy Methods:
A. Electro Chemical Energy Methods:
In these methods, material is removed ion displacement of work piece

material in contact with a chemical solution.
Examples:
0 Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
1 Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
2 Electro Chemical Honing (ECH)
3 Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)
4 Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
1 Chemical Energy Methods:
These methods involve controlled etching of the work piece material in contact with
a chemical solution.
Examples:
0 Chemical Milling (CHM)
1 Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
2 Photo Chemical Milling (PCM)
3 Bio Chemical Machining (BM) etc.
pg. 13
4.1.4.4 Lecture 4
Considerations in process selection
In order to make use of non-traditional machining processes efficiently, it is necessary to

know the exact nature machining problem. The following points must be considered for the
correct telethon of the unconventional machining process.
0 Physical parameters
1 Shapes to be machined
2 Process capability or machining characteristics
3 Economic Consideration
0 Physical parameters
The physical parameters of different unconventional machining processes are given below,
Paramete
ECM EDM EBM LBM PAM USM AJM
rs
Potential, 3 4.5 x
5-30 50-500 200 x10 250 220 220
V 103
Current,
40,000 15-500 0.001 2 600 12 1.0
A
Power,
100 2.7 0.15 20 220 2.4 0.22
KW
Gap, mm 0.5 0.005 100 7.5 150 0.25 0.75
Argon or
Abrasive
Dielectric Hydrogen N2 or Co2
Medium Electrolyte Vacuum Air grains &
Fluid or or Air
water
Nitrogen
Tungsten All Hard
Tungsten
Difficult carbides materials and
All carbide,
Work to & All which brittle
material glass,
Material machine electrically materials conducts material
s Quartz,
materials conductive electricit s
etc.
materials y
2. Shapes to be machined
The applications of the unconventional machining processes is also influenced by the shape and
size of the work piece to be produced.
For producing micro holes - LBM is best suited.
For producing small holes - EBM is well suited.
For deep holes (L/D > 20) and contour machining - ECM is best suited.
For shallow holes - USM and EDM are well suited.
For Precision through cavities in work pieces - USM and EDM are best suited.
For honing - ECM is well suited.
For etching small portions - ECM and EDM are well suited.
For Grinding - AJM and EDM are best suited.
For deburring - USM and AJM are well suited.
For threading - EDM is best suited.
For clean, rapid cuts and profiles - PAM is well suited.
For shallow - AJM is well suited.

Process capability or machining characteristics
The machining characteristics can be analyzed with respect to

0 Metal removal rate (MRR) obtained
1 Tolerance maintained
2 Surface finish obtained
3 Depth of surface damage
4 Power required for machining
The following table gives the typical values of the various unconventional machining
characteristics
Specific
power 3
MRR Surface Accuracy (KW/cm /mi
2
Process (mm /s) finish (um) n)
LBM 0.1 0.4-0.6 25 2700
0.15 to
EBM 40 0.4-0.6 25 450
EDM 15 to 80 0.25 10 1.8
ECM 27 0.2-0.8 50 7.5
PAM 2500 Rough 250 0.9
0.2-
USM 14 0.7 7.5 9
0.5-
AJM 0.014 1.2 50 312.5
4. Economic Consideration
The economics of the various processes are analyzed by considering the following points
0 Capital cost.
1 Tooling cost.
2 Power requirement.
3 Metal removal rate efficiency.
4 Tool consumption.
The following table gives the process economy of unconventional machining processes.
Capital Tooling and Power Total

Process Efficiency
Cost fixtures requirement consumption
EDM Medium High Low High High

CHM Medium Low High Medium V.Low
ECM Very High Medium Medium Low V.Low
AJM Very Low Low Low High Low
USM High High Low High Medium
EBM High Low Low Very High Very Low
LBM Medium Low Very Low Very High Very Low
PAM V.Low Low Very Low Very Low Very Low
Conventional
Very Low Low Low Very Low Low
Machining
Limitations of Unconventional Machining Processes:
0 Unconventional machining processes are more expensive.

1 Metal removal rate is slow.
2 AJM, CHM, PAM and ESM are not commercially economical processes.
Advantages of Unconventional Machining Processes:

0 It increases productivity.
1 It reduces number of rejected components.
pg. 16
0 Close tolerance is possible.
1 The tool material need not be harder than work piece material as in conventional
machining.
2 Harder and difficult to machine materials can be machined by this process.
3 The machined surface do not have any residual stresses.
4.1.4.5 . Lecture 5
Applications of modern machining processes
Elements of the process, Mechanics of material removal of Ultrasonic machining
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
INTRODUCTION:
USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes
or cavities on hard or brittle work piece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical
motion and an abrasive slurry. The term ultrasonic refers to waves of high frequency. Human ear
can hear the sound waves between 20 Hz to 20 kHz- This range is known as audible range. The
sound waves which have frequencies less than the audible range are called infrasonic waves. The
sound waves having frequencies above the audible range are known as ultrasonic waves.
The ultrasonic machining process is suitable only for hard and brittle materials like
carbides, glass, ceramics, silicon, precious stones. germanium, titanium, tungsten, tool steels, die
steels, etc. It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are
difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing processes. The hard particles in slurry are
accelerated toward the surface of the work piece by a tool oscillating at a frequency up to 100
KHz - through repeated abrasions, the tool machines a cavity of a cross section identical to its
own. USM process is shown in Figure 1.3.
pg. 17
Fig. 1.3: USM process
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is the removal of hard and brittle materials using an axially
oscillating tool at ultrasonic frequencies. During that oscillation, the abrasive slurry of B4C or
SiC is continuously fed into the machining zone between a soft tool (brass or steel) and the work
piece. The abrasive particles are, therefore, hammered into the work piece surface and cause
chipping of fine particles from it. The oscillating tool, at amplitudes ranging from 10 to 40 μm,
imposes a static pressure on the abrasive grains and feeds down as the material is removed to
form the required tool shape (Fig. 2.1). Balamuth first discovered USM in 1945 during ultrasonic
grinding of abrasive powders. The industrial applications began in the 1950s when the new
machine tools appeared.
[The word ultrasonic describes a vibratory wave having frequency larger than upper frequency
limit of human ear (usually greater than 16 kc/s). Waves are usually classified as shear waves
and longitudinal waves. High velocity longitudinal waves can easily propagate in solids, liquids
and gases. They are normally used in ultrasonic applications.]
4.1.4.6 . Lecture 6
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
PRINCIPLE OF USM:
pg. 18
In this machining method, a slurry of small abrasive particles are forced against the work piece
by means of a vibrating tool and it causes the removal of metal from the work piece in the form
of extremely small chips.
Fig. 1.4:USM Working Principle
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
Construction: The general arrangement of ultrasonic machining is shown in Fig.1.3.
0 It consists of abrasive slurry, work piece, fixture, table, cutting tool, circulating pump,
reservoir, ultrasonic oscillator, leads, excitation coil, feed mechanism, ultrasonic
transducer, transducer cone, connecting body and tool holder.
1 The ultrasonic oscillator and amplifier also known as generator is used to convert the
applied electrical energy at low frequency to high frequency.
2 The transducer is made up of magnetostrictive material and it consists of a stack of nickel
laminations that are wound with a coil.
3 The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy, into mechanical energy.
4 Generally tough and ductile tool material is used in this process. Low carbon steels and
stainless steels are commonly used as tool materials.
5 The tool is brazed, soldered or fastened mechanically to the transducer through a tool
holder. Generally toot holder is of cylindrical or conical in shape.
6 The materials used for tool holders are titanium alloys,. monel, aluminium, Stainless
steel, ere.
7 An abrasive slurry, usually a mixture of abrasive grains and water of definite proportion
(20-30 percent), is made to flow tinder pressure through the gap between tool and. work
piece. The gap between the tool and work piece is of the order 0.02 to 0.1 mm.
pg. 19
0 The most commonly used abrasives are boron carbide (134C), silicon carbide (SiC),
aluminium oxide Al2O3),( and diamond. Boron carbide is most commonly used abrasive
slurry, since it has the fastest cutting abrasive property.
Working:
0 Electric power is given to ultrasonic oscillator and this oscillator converts the electrical
energy at low frequency to high frequency (20 kHz).
1 High frequency power (20 kfli) from oscillator is supplied to the transducer.
2 The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy into mechanical
vibrations. The transducer is made up of magnetostrictive material, which is excited by
flowing high frequency electric current and this results in the generation of mechanical
vibrations. The vibrations are generated in the transducer of the order of 20 kHz to 30
kHz and hence ultrasonic waves are produced.
3 These vibrations are then transmitted to the cutting tool through transducer cone,
connecting body and tool holder. This makes the tool to vibrate in a longitudinal direction
as shown in Fig.1.3.
4 Abrasive slurry pinnped from the reservoir and it is made to flow under pressure through
the gap between tools. and. / work piece.
5 In an abrasive 'slurry, when the cutting tool vibrates at high frequency, it leads in the
removal of metal from the work piece.
6 The impact force arises out from the vibration of tool end and the flow of slurry through
the work piece — tool gap causes thousands of microscopic grains to remove the work
piece material by abrasion.
7 A refrigerated cooling system is .used to cool the abrasive slurry to a temperature of 5 to
.6°C.
8 The ultrasonic machining process is a copying process in which the shape of the cutting
tool is same as that of the cavity produced.
ELEMENTS OF USM PROCESS:

0 High Power Sine Wave generator (Ultrasonic Wave Generator)
1 Acoustic Head (Ultrasonic Transducer)
2 Tool Connector (Tool holder) (Horn)
3 Tool
4 Abrasive Slurry (Vibrating Abrasives)
5 Work Material
4.1.4.7 . Lecture 7
Applications of modern machining processes
pg. 20
Ultrasonic Wave Generator: It converts low frequency (60Hz) electrical power to high
frequency (Greater than 16 KHz) electrical power. The main requirements of a generator are
reliability, efficiency, simplicity in design and low cost. USM is usually employed with Vacuum
tube generators.
Ultrasonic Transducer: It converts high frequency electrical signal into high frequency linear
mechanical vibration. In USM either of the two types of transducers are used, i.e. piezoelectric
transducers or magnetostrictive transducers.
0 Piezoelectric transducer: When an electric current is passed through the piezoelectric

crystal (quartz) it expands, when the current is removed the crystal attains its original size.
This effect is known as piezoelectric effect. These are available up to 900W power supply
& 95% efficiency.
1 Magneto-strictive transducer: When an object made of ferromagnetic materials (Nickel &
Nickel alloy sheets) is placed in the continuously changing magnetic field, a change in its
length takes place. These are available up to 2.4KW power supply & 20% - 30% efficiency.
For this transducer cooling is essential to remove the waste heat. The coefficient of
magnetostrictive elongation is equal to the ratio of change in length to the length of the
magnetostrictive coil.
Tool Holder: The Tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. It actually transmits
the energy to the tool and in some cases, amplifies the amplitude of vibration. It is a velocity
transformer. These are usually made of high resistance to fatigue cracking materials like Monel,
Titanium & Stainless Steel.
Tool: Tool shape is made converse to the desired cavity. Each down stroke of the tool accelerates
numerous abrasive particles resulting in the formation of thousands of tiny chips per second.
These are usually made of relatively ductile materials (High wear resistance) like Brass,
Stainless Steel & Mild Steel.
Abrasive Slurry: Commonly used abrasives are Al2O3, Sic & B4C (Boron Carbide). Vibrating
Abrasives attain K.E. and strike the work piece surface with a force much higher than their own
weight. That is each down stroke of the tool accelerates numerous abrasive particles resulting in
the formation of thousands of tiny chips per second.
Work Material: USM usually is employed to machine hard and/or brittle materials but there is
no limitation to the range of materials that can be machined, except that they should not dissolve
in the slurry media.
MECHANICS OF MATERIAL REMOVAL OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:

0 The material removal rate per unit time is inversely proportional to the cutting area of the
tool. Boron carbide is the hardest material and has the highest metal removal rate.
pg. 21
0 Wear ratio is defined as the ratio of volume of material removed from the work to volume
of material eroded from tool.
Wear ratio = (Volume of material removed from the work / Volume of material
eroded from the tool)
0 Material removal in USM is a very complex process and it depends on certain
factors. They are :
0 Grain size of abrasive.
1 Abrasive materials.
2 Concentration of slurry.
3 Amplitude of vibration.
4 Frequency of ultrasonic waves.
0 Grain Size of Abrasive
Material removal rate and surface finish are greatly influenced by grit or grain size of the
abrasive. Maximum rate in machining is attained when the grain size of the abrasive is
comparable to the tool amplitude.
For rough work operation, grit size of 200 - 400 are used and for finishing operation, grit size of
800 - 1000 are used. Fig.2.22 shows the effect of grain size for the material removal rate (MRR)
in ultrasonic machining process.
Fig: 1.5
2. Abrasive Materials
For effective machining, the abrasive materials should be replaced periodically since the dull
abrasives stop the cutting action.
pg. 22
The proper selection of abrasive particles depends on the type of material to be machined,
hardness of the material, metal removal rate desired and the surface finish required. The most
commonly used abrasives are boron carbide and silicon carbide which are used for machining,
tungsten carbide, die steel, etc. Aluminium oxide is the softest abrasive and it is used for
machining glass and ceramics.
3. Concentration of Slurry
An abrasive slurry, usually a mixture of abrasive grains and water of definite proportion (20 - 30
percent), is made to flow under pressure through the gap between tool and work piece. Fig.2.23
shows how the material removal rate in ultrasonic machining process varies with slurry
concentration.
Fig: 1.6
4. Amplitude of Vibration
Metal removal rate in ultrasonic machining process increases with increasing amplitude of
vibration which is shown in Fig.-2.24.
Fig: 1.7
5. Frequency
pg. 23
Ultrasonic wave frequency is directly proportional to the metal removal rate which is shown in
Fig.2.25.
Fig: 1.8
4.1.4.8 Lecture 8
MRR process parameters of Ultrasonic machining
The various process parameters involved in USM methods are as follows:
0 Metal removal rate.

1 Tool material.
2 Tool wear rate.
3 Abrasive materials and abrasive slurry.
4 Surface finish.
5 Work material.
0 Metal Removal Rate: Explained in previous Section.
1 Tool material: Generally, tough and ductile tool material is used in USM process. Low
carbon steels and stainless steels are commonly used as tool materials. Since very long
tools cause overstress, the tool should be short and rigid. Hollow tool can be made with
wall thickness greater than 0.5 to 0.8 mm. Side clearance to the too! is of the order of
0.06 mm to 0.36 mm depending on grain size of: abrasive. The USM process is a copying
process in which the shape of the cutting tool is same as that of the cavity produced.
2 Tool wear rate: Tool wear ratio is defined as “the ratio of volume of material removed
from the work to the volume of material eroded from the tool”.
Wear ratio = (Volume of material removed from work / Volume of material eroded from
tool)
The wear ratio is approximated to 1.5: 1 for tungsten carbide (WC) work piece, 100: 1 for
glass, 50: 1 for quartz,- 75 : 1 for ceramics and 1 : 1 for hardened tool steel.
3 Abrasive materials and Abrasive slurry: The most commonly used abrasives are boron
carbide, silicon carbide, aluminium oxide and diamond. Boron is the most expensive
abrasive material and is best suited for the cutting of tungsten , carbide, tool steels, etc.
Aluminium oxide is the softest abrasive and it is used for machining glass-and ceramics.
pg. 24
Material removal rate and surface finish are greatly influenced by grit or grain
size of the abrasive. For roughing work operation, grit size of 200 — 400 are used and for
finishing operation, grit size of 800 — 1000 are used.
An abrasive slurry is a mixture of abrasive grains and water of definite proportion

(20 — 30 percent). Abrasive in a slurry form is more effective compared to abrasives in
loose form, since the liquid (water) would help removal of material due to cavitation
effect during return stock of the tool. Moreover, the liquid is used to distribute the
abrasive particles evenly into the working gap.
The cutting power of different abrasives are shown in the Table
Sl. Abrasive Hardness Relative Cutting

No. Power
1. Boron Carbide(B4C) 2800 0.50-0.60
2. Silicon Carbide (SiC) 2450-2500 0.25-0.45
3. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 2000-2100 0.14-0.16
4. Diamond 6500-7000 1
0 Surface Finish: The maximum speed of penetration in soft and brittle materials such as
soft ceramics are of the order of 20G mm / min. Penetration rate is lower for hard and
tough materials. Accuracy of this process is ± 0.006 mm and surface finish up to 0.02 to
0.8 micron value can be achieved.
1 Work materials: Hard and brittle metals, non-metals like glass, ceramics, etc., and
semiconductors are used as work material in USM process. Wear ratio, average
penetration rate and maximum machining area of the different work piece materials are
shown in the following table.
Sl.No. Material Ration of metal Maximum Average

removal rate to Machining Area Penetration Rate
2
tool wear rate (cm ) (mm/min)
1. Boron carbide 2:1 5.6 0.20
2. Tungsten 1.5:1 7.6 0.25

carbide
3. Tool steel 1:1 5.5 0.13
pg. 25
4. Glass 100:1 25.2 3.8
5. Ceramics 75:1 19.2 1.5
6. Germanium 100:1 22.5 2.15
4.1.4.9 Lecture 9
Economic considerations, Applications and limitations of Ultrasonic machining
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:
The process has the advantage of machining hard and brittle materials to complex shapes with
good accuracy and reasonable surface finish. Considerable economy results from the ultrasonic
machining of hard alloy press tools, dies and wire drawing equipment on account of the high
wee" resistance of tools made of these alloys. The machines have no high speed moving parts.
Working on machines is not hazardous, provided care is taken to shield ultrasonic radiations
3
from falling on the body. The power consumption of ultrasonic machining is 0.1 W-h/mm for
3
glass and about 5 W-h/mm for hard alloys. The cost of the manufacture and use of the tools,
particularly if they have complicated contours, is very high. Another item adding to the cost of
ultrasonic machining is abrasive. The abrasive slurry has to be periodically replaced because
during use the particles are eventually broken and blunted. Ultrasonic machines are not yet
completely reliable; Failure sometimes occurs on account of faults in acoustic head, pump or
generator. It is probable that with more research in the near future on techniques and machines,
the process will have more economic advantages.
APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:
When compared with other modern machining techniques described earlier in this book, this method
of machining is not limited by the electrical or chemical characteristics of work materials, which
makes it suitable for application on to both non-conductive and conductive materials.
pg. 26
Some applications of ultrasonic machining
0 Holes as small as 0.1 mm can be drilled.

1 Precise and intricate shaped articles can be machined.
2 It has been efficiently applied to hard and brittle metallic alloys, machine glass,
semiconductors, ceramics, carbides, tungsten, precision mineral stones, etc.
3 It is used for making tungsten carbide and diamond wire drawing dies and dies for
forging and extrusion processes.
4 Several machining operations like drilling, grinding, turning, threading, profiling, etc., on
all materials both conducting and non-conducting.
5 Using Micro-ultrasonic machining method microholes of 5-μm diameter on quartz, glass,
and silicon have been produced using tungsten carbide (WC) alloy microtools.
6 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.
7 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.
8 Cutting off parts made from semiconductors at high removal rates.
9 Compared to conventional machining methods.
10 Engraving on glass as well as hardened steel and sintered carbide.
11 Parting and machining of precious stones including diamond.
12 Used to remove the machining marks left by a computer numerical control (CNC)
engraving operation by Ultrasonic polishing
13 Used to produce graphite EDM electrodes.
4.1.4.10 Lecture 10
pg. 27
Economic considerations, Applications and limitations of Ultrasonic machining
LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:
The major limitation of the process is its comparatively low metal cutting rates. The depth of the
cylindrical holes is presently limited to 2.5 times the diameter of the tool. Tool wear increases the
angle of the hole, while sharp corners become rounded. This implies that tool replacement is
essential for producing accurate blind holes.
Due to the problem of fewer active grits coming under the tool's centre on account of ineffective
slurry distribution, the bottom of a cavity cannot usually be machined flat. Sometimes the
accuracy of a machined surface is lost due to the presence of strong lateral vibrations which are
set up if the shape of the tool cross section is such that the centre of gravity is not on the centre
line. In such a case, the only solution is to redesign the tool.
The tendency for holes to ‘break out’ at the bottom owing to static load and amplitude is another
limitation. This can probably be overcome by programming the feed force and amplitude of tool
vibration.
0 It cannot produces ultrasonic waves of frequency above 3000 kHz.

1 The frequency of oscillations depends on temperature. So. it is not possible to get a
constant single frequency.
2 There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and eddy current.
3 As the frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the rod, the length of the rod
should be decreased to increase the frequency. It is practically not possible
Under ideal conditions,
Penetration rate — 5 mm3 / min

Power — 500 to 1000 watts
Metal removal rate on brittle materials — 0.018 mm3 / joule
Hole tolerance — 25 gm
Surface finish 0.2 to 0.7 gm
ADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:
0 Extremely hard and brittle materials can be easily machined.

1 Cost of metal removal is low.
2 Noiseless operation.
3 High accuracy and good surface finish can be easily obtained.
4 There is no heat generation in this process. So, the physical properties of the work
material remain unchanged.
5 Equipment is safe to operate.
pg. 28
0 Non-conducting materials of electricity such as glass, ceramics and semi-precious stones
can be easily machined.
1 The machined work pieces are free of stresses.
DISADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING:
0 Metal removal rate is slow.

1 Softer materials are difficult to machine.
2 Wear rate of the tool is high.
3 The initial equipment cost is high.
4 For effective machining, the abrasive Materials should be replaced .periodically since the
dull abrasives stop cutting action.
5 High power consumption.
6 Tool cost is high.
7 The size of the cavity that can be machined is limited.
8 Low depth of hole.
4.1.5 Test Questions

0 Multiple choice questions
0 Which the following is true for Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)?

0 The metal removal takes place due to erosion
1 Any electrical conductor can be machined by this method.
2 Some light oil like transformer oil or kerosene oil is used as dielectric.
0 Only i
1 i &ii
2 i,ii & iii
3 ii & iii
(Ans:c)
0 In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between

___mm to___mm.
0 5 to 5
1 05, 0.5
2 005, 0.05
3 0005, 0.005
pg. 29
(Ans:c)
0 In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order of

0 2,000°C
1 6,000°C
2 10,000°C
3 14,000°C
(Ans:c)
0 Which of the following is not true in case of Electrical discharge machining (EDM)?
0 Erosion takes place both on Work piece and the tool.
1 Gap between tool and work piece is controlled by servo mechanism.
2 The electrode (tool) is made of graphite or copper.
3 The size of impression on work piece is exactly the same as that on electrode
(tool). (Ans:d)
0 The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is

0 Burr free
1 Not for hard metals
2 Direct contact machining
3 Capable of producing sharp corners
(Ans:a)
0 In Electron beam machining, workpiece is held in
0 vacuum chamber
1 dielectric medium
2 electrolyte
3 none of these
(Ans:a)
0 In Electron beam machining, as the electrons strikes the work piece

0 Their kinetic energy is converted into heat
1 They get scattered
2 Mechanical erosion in work piece takes place
3 Electro-chemical etching takes
place (Ans:a)
0 The vacuum in case of Electron Beam machining is of the order of

-2
0 10 mm of mercury
-5
1 10 mm of mercury
-7
2 10 mm of mercury
-9
3 10 mm of
mercury (Ans:b)
pg. 30
0 The cathode filament is heated to a temperature of ______ in case of Electron beam
machining
0 1200°C
1 1700°C
2 2000°C
3 2500°C
(Ans:d)
0 In Electron beam machining, the order in which electrons passed after emitted by
filament cathode
0 diaphragm – anode –focusing lens – Deflector coil
1 anode – diaphragm – focusing lens – Deflector coil
2 focusing lens – anode – diaphragm –Deflector coil
3 Deflector – coil anode – diaphragm – focusing lens
(Ans:b)
0 True or False questions

0 Ultrasonic machining can be used to machine both metallic and nonmetallic
materials: (Ans: True)
1 In ultrasonic machining, material removal rate decreases with increasing frequency and
amplitude of vibration: (Ans: False)
3. Abrasive water jet cutting and abrasive jet machining are two different names for the same
process: (a) true or (b) false? (Ans: True)
0 Ultrasonic machining can machine both metallic and non-metallic surfaces (Ans:
True)
1 device is used for converting electrical impulses into mechanical vibration in USM is a Transducer
(Ans: True)
2 In AJM, removal of metal takes place by bombardment of fine grained particle. with air at high
velocity (Ans: True)
7. WJM cannot be used to machine steel plates (Ans: True)
0 In water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting, the separation between the nozzle opening
and the work surface is called which one of the following stand-off distance
(Ans: True)
9. Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry (in USM process) would affect MRR in the
following manner increase MRR (Ans: True)
10. Tool in USM is generally made of Glass (Ans: False)
c. Fill in the blanks type of questions

1. Abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at a high velocity against the work by a tool vibrating
at low amplitude and high frequency. This is the metal removing mechanism
for__________________ (Ans: USM)
pg. 31
0 Which of the following material is not generally machined by USM ______ (Ans: Copper)
1 Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry (in USM process) would affect MRR in the
following manner____________(Ans: increase MRR)
2 In water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting, the separation between the nozzle opening
and the work surface is called which one of the following___(Ans: stand-off distance)
3 In abrasive water jet cutting, the abrasive particles are added to the water stream________
(Ans: just before it enters the nozzle)
4 In Ultrasonic machining, the material is removed by _______ (Ans: abrasive action)
5 The size of abrasive grains in abrasive jet machining ranges from_____ (Ans: 10 to 50 microns)
6 The vibrating frequency used for the tool in Ultrasonic machining is of the order of_______ (Ans:
45,000 oscillations per second)
7 In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between the nozzle tip and the work surface
increases, the material removal rate__________ (Ans:increases, becomes stable and then
decreases)
8 In USM, the amplitude of vibrating tool is, _________ (Ans: 10 - 50 micro meter)
4.1.6 Review Questions
0 Objective type of questions(Very short notes) .
0 1. What is meant by conventional machining processes?
In conventional machining processes, metal is removed by using some sort of the tool
which is harder than the work piece and is subjected to wear. In this process, tool and
work piece are in direct contact with each other.
1 What is meant by Unconventional machining processes?
The Unconventional machining processes do not employ a conventional or traditional tool for
metal removal, instead, they directly utilize some form of energy for metal machining. In this
process, there is no direct physical contact between the tool and the work piece.
2 What is thermal energy methods of unconventional machining?
In these methods, heat energy is concentrated on a small area of the work piece to melt
and vaporize the tiny bits of work material. The required shape is obtained by the
continued repetition of this process. Examples: LBM, PAM, EBM, IBM
4. What is electro chemical energy methods of unconventional machining?
In these methods, material is removed by ion displacement of the work piece material in
contact with a chemical solution. Examples: ECM, ECG, ECH, ECD.
5. What is chemical energy methods of unconventional machining?
pg. 32
The chemical energy methods involve controlled etching of the work-piece material in
contact with a chemical solution. Example: CHM
6. What is mechanical energy methods of unconventional machining?
In mechanical energy methods, the material is removed by mechanical erosion of the

work piece material. Examples: USM, AJM, WJM
7. List the unconventional machining process which uses mechanical energy.

a. Ultrasonic Machining. (USM)
b. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
0 Water Jet Machining (WJM)
0 List the Unconventional machining process, which uses thermal or heat energy.
0 Laser Beam Machining
1 Plasma Arc Machining
2 Electron Beam Machining
3 Ion Beam Machining
9. List the Unconventional machining process, which uses Electro chemical energy.
a. Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
b. Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
c. Electro Chemical Honing (ECH)
d. Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)
0 What are the characteristics of unconventional machining process?
0 The Unconventional machining processes do not employ a conventional or
traditional tool for metal removal, instead, they directly utilize some form of
energy for metal machinery
1 The tool material need not be harder than the work piece material.
2 A harder and difficult to machine materials such as carbides, stainless steel,
nitralloy, hastalloy and many other high strength, temperature resistant alloys can
be machined by unconventional machining processes.
0 Essay type Questions
0 Describe the various methods of classification of modern machining processes.

1 Explain about, the need for non-traditional machining methods.
2 Discuss in detail about ultrasonic machining process.
3 Give in detail economic considerations, applications and limitations of
ultrasonic machining.
1 Case study
0 Discuss about ultrasonic machining
pg. 33
4.1.7 Skill Building Exercises /Assignments
0 Observe a machinery and its machining processes in local industry and compare it with
UCMP.
1 Identify local Nontraditional machining industries.
4.1.8 Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)
0 How will you analyze the applicability of different processes to different types of materials,
namely metals, alloys, and nonmetals? Presentation in the form of a table is preferred. [15]
1 a) Make a comparison between ultrasonic machining and conventional grinding. [5]
0 What are the actions do the ultrasonic vibrations imparted to the fluid medium
surrounding the tool have? What are the process criteria of USM? What are the various
process parameters that govern the process criteria? [10]
2 What are the basic limitations of conventional machining process? Justify the need
of unconventional machining process in today’s industries. [15]
3 Write short notes on the following related to ultrasonic machining (USM):
0 Transducers used in USM machine [5]
1 Functions of slurry and oscillator in USM [5]
2 Grain size Vs. Machining rate [5]
4.1.9 GATE Questions (Where relevant)
0 The size of abrasive grains in abrasive jet machining ranges from

0 1 to 10 microns
1 10 to 50 microns
2 50 to 100 microns
d) 100 to 500 microns (Ans: b)
0 In USM, the amplitude of vibrating tool is,
0 10 - 50 micro meter
1 500 - 5000 micro meter
c) 20 - 20000 micro meter (Ans: a)
4.1.10 Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round - Placements)
pg. 34
0 List the Unconventional machining process, which uses thermal or heat energy.
0 Laser Beam Machining
1 Plasma Arc Machining
2 Electron Beam Machining
3 Ion Beam Machining
2. List the Unconventional machining process, which uses Electro chemical energy.
e. Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
f. Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
g. Electro Chemical Honing (ECH)
h. Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)
4.1.11 Real-Word (Live) Examples / Case studies wherever applicable

Currently operating coal based thermal power plants in Andhra Pradesh are listed below.
Name Operator Location District Sector
Synergy Castings limited Synergy castings Duvvada Visakhapatnam Central
Mr.N. Srinivasa Rao Sahuwala cylinders Autonagar Visakhapatnam private
4.1.12 Suggested “Expert Guest Lectures” (both from in and outside of the campus)
Not applicable
4.1.13 Literature references of Relevant NPTEL Videos/Web/You Tube videos etc.
0 Brief introduction of non-conventional machining

processes: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112104195/3 (video)
1 Non Traditional Manufacturing: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105126/36(video)
2 Ultrasonic Machining: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105126/37(video)
3 Non-Traditional Manufacturing Introduction & Abrasive Jet Machining:
http://textofvideo.nptel.iitm.ac.in/112105126/lec36.pdf
4 Ultrasonic Machining: http://textofvideo.nptel.iitm.ac.in/112105126/lec37.pdf
4.1.14 Any Lab requirements; if so link it to Lab Lesson Plan.

Not applicable
pg. 35
4.1.15 Reference Text Books / with Journals Chapters etc.
0 Advanced Machining Processes by VK Jain

1 Modern Machining Processes by Pandey and Shan
2 Experimental Study Of Material Removal Rate, Surface Roughness & Microstructure In
Electrochemical Machining Of Inconel 825 By A.Mohanty1*, 5th International & 26th
All India Manufacturing Technology, Design and Research Conference (AIMTDR 2014)
December 12th–14th, 2014.
pg. 36
4.2. Unit – II - Electro - Chemical Machining
UNIT SYLLABUS
Electro - Chemical Machining: Fundamentals of electro chemical machining, electrochemical
grinding, electro chemical honing and deburring process, metal removal rate in ECM, Tool
design, Surface finish, and accuracy, economic aspects of ECM - Simple problems for estimation
of metal removal rate, fundamentals of chemical machining, advantages and application’s.
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
0 Study the Fundamentals of electro chemical machining.
1 Study the metal removal rate in ECM
2 Understand the Tool design of ECM.
3 Understand the fundamentals of chemical machining.
4.2.2. Unit Outcomes:
After completion of this unit, the student shall:
4 Explain the principle of Electrochemical honing process.
5 Explain the principle of Deburring process.
6 Discuss about the Tool Design in ECM.
7 Evaluate the MRR in ECM.
Lect Topic Methodology Quick reference
ure
No.
1 Fundamentals of electro Video, Chalk &
chemical machining and Board Hassan El-Hofy (182-189)
electrochemical grinding.
2 Fundamentals of electro Chalk & Board Jain and Pandey& Sha (82)
chemical honing and
deburring process.
3 Metal removal rate in ECM. Chalk & Board www.nitc.ac.in
4 Tool design. Chalk & Board Jain and Pandey& Sha (82)
5 Surface finish and accuracy of Chalk & Board http://makina.kocaeli.edu.tr/f
ECM. iles/MUY2.pdf
6 Economic aspects of ECM. Chalk & Board http://www.nitc.ac.in/dept/m
e/jagadeesha/mev303/Chapte
r5_%20ECM.pdf
7 Simple problems for Chalk & Board Notes material available in
estimation of metal removal
rate
8 fundamentals of chemical Chalk & Board Hassan El-Hofy (and online
machining, advantages and material)
application’s
REVISION / CLASS In class Reminding important
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS Questions and going for an
Assignment
pg. 37
4.2.4. Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.
4.2.4.1. Lecture-12
Introduction to Electrochemical machining
Electrolysis/Electroplating
Electrical energy is transported through metals by conduction of electric charges from
one place to another. As opposed to the metallic conduction, where only electrons are the charge
carriers, salt solutions conduct electrical energy by the migration of ions in the medium.
Electrochemical machining (ECM) process uses electrical energy in combination with chemical
energy to remove the material of workpiece. This works on the principle of reverse of
electroplating.
FIG: 2.1 Working principle and process details of ECM
Working Principle of ECM

Electrochemical machining removes material of electrically conductor workpiece. The
workpiece is made anode of the setup and material is removed by anodic dissolution. Tool is
made cathode and kept in close proximity to the workpiece and current is passed through the
circuit. Both electrodes are immersed into the electrolyte solution. The working principle and
process details are shown in the Figure 2.1. This works on the basis of Faraday’s law of
electrolysis. The cavity machined is the mirror image of the tool. MRR in this process can easily
be calculated according to Faraday’s law.
Workpiece
Workpiece is made anode, electrolyte is pumped between workpiece and the tool.
Material of workpiece is removed by anodic dissolution. Only electrically conducting materials
can be processed by ECM.
Tool
A specially designed and shaped tool is used for ECM, which forms cathode in the ECM
setup. The tool is usually made of copper, brass, stainless steel, and it is a mirror image of the
pg. 38
desired machined cavity. Proper allowances are given in the tool size to get the dimensional
accuracy of the machined surface.
Power Supply
DC power source should be used to supply the current. Tool is connected with the
negative terminal and workpiece with the positive terminal of the power source. Power supply
supplies low voltage (3 to 4 volts) and high current to the circuit.
Electrolyte
Water is used as base of electrolyte in ECM. Normally water soluble NaCl and NaNO3
are used as electrolyte. Electrolyte facilitates are carrier of dissolved workpiece material. It is
recycled by a pump after filtration.
Tool Feed Mechanism
Servo motor is used to feed the tool to the machining zone. It is necessary to maintain a
constant gap between the workpiece and tool so tool feed rate is kept accordingly while
machining. In addition to the above whole process is carried out in a tank filled with electrolyte.
The tank is made of transparent plastic which should be non-reactive to the electrolyte.
Connecting wires are required to connect electrodes to the power supply.
Applications of ECM Process
There are large number of applications of ECMs some other related machining and
finishing processes as described below:
0 Electrochemical Grinding : This can also be named as electrochemical debrruing. This is

used for anodic dissolution of burrs or roughness a surface to make it smooth. Any conducting
material can be machined by this process. The quality of finish largely depends on the quality of
finish of the tool.
1 This is applied in internal finishing of surgical needles and also for their sharpening.
2 Machining of hard, brittle, heat resistant materials without any problem.
3 Drilling of small and deeper holes with very good quality of internal surface finish.
4 Machining of cavities and holes of complicated and irregular shapes.
5 It is used for making inclined and blind holes and finishing of conventionally machined
surfaces.
Advantages of ECM Process

Following are the advantages of ECM process :
0 Machining of hard and brittle material is possible with good quality of surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
1 Complex shapes can also be easily machined.
2 There is almost negligible tool wear so cost of tool making is only one time investment for
mass production.
pg. 39
0 There is no application of force, no direct contact between tool and work and no application
of heat so there is no scope of mechanical and thermal residual stresses in the workpiece.
1 Very close tolerances can be obtained.
Disadvantages and Limitations of ECM

There are some disadvantages and limitations of ECM process as listed below :
0 All electricity non-conducting materials can not be machined.
1 Total material and workpiece material should be chemically stable with the electrolyte solution.
2 Designing and making tool is difficult but its life is long so recommended only for mass
production.
3 Accurate feed rate of tool is required to be maintained.
Electrochemical grinding
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) utilizes a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel,

electrolyte solution, and a positively charged workpiece, as shown in Fig. The process is, therefore,
similar to ECM except that the cathode is a specially constructed grinding wheel instead of a
cathodic shaped tool like the contour to be machined by ECM. The insulating abrasive material
(diamond or aluminum oxide) of the grinding wheel is set in a conductive bonding material. In ECG,
the nonconducting abrasive particles act as a spacer between the wheel conductive bond and the
anodic workpiece. Depending on the grain size of these particles, a constant interelectrode gap (0.025
mm or less) through which the electrolyte is flushed can be maintained.
Fig2.2 Surface ECG
The abrasives continuously remove the machining products from the working area. In the
machining system shown in Fig.2.3, the wheel is a rotating cathodic tool with abrasive particles
(60–320 grit number) on its periphery. Electrolyte flow, usually NaNO 3, is provided for ECD.
The wheel rotates at a surface speed of 20 to 35 m/s, while current ratings are from 50 to 300 A.
Electrochemical Honing
pg. 40
Electrochemical honing is one of the non-equilibrium gap processes in ECM and is a new
technique, which in spite of being used in some industrial plants especially to smooth surfaces, is still
not fully described due to the variety of the factors affecting the process. More information about the
process is required especially the effects of the working parameters on the produced surface
roughness. A special honing tool was designed by using different tool tip shapes (rectangular,
circular, triangle & inclined) to study the ability for improving the surface roughness. This work
presents a study for the factors affecting the electrochemical honing process especially the machining
time, workpiece material, initial working gap, tool rotational speed, tool tip shape and the inclined
tool tip angle. The results are finally furnished with the aim to generalize a useful guideline for the
user to enable proper selection of conditions for obtaining good surface quality.
Electrochemical
Machining and
Micromachining
Summer school on electrochemical
engineering, Palic, Republic of Serbia
Prof. a.D. Dr. Hartmut Wendt, TUD
PPT-2.1
4.2.4.2. Lecture-13
Process characteristics
The machining system shown in Fig. 2.5 employs a reciprocating abrasive stone (with
metallic bond) carried on a spindle, which is made cathodic and separated from the workpiece by
a rapidly flowing electrolyte. In such an arrangement, the abrasive stones are used to maintain
the gap size of 0.076 to 0.250 mm and, moreover, depassivate the machining surface due to the
ECD phase occurring through the bond. A different tooling system (Fig.2.6) can be used where
the cathodic tool carries nonconductive honing sticks that are responsible for the MA. The
machine spindle that rotates and reciprocates is responsible for the ECD process.
pg. 41
Figure 2.3 ECH schematic. Figure 2.4 ECH machining system components.
The material removal rate for ECH is 3 to 5 times faster than that of conventional honing and
4 times faster than that of internal cylindrical grinding. Tolerances in the range of ±0.003 mm are
achievable, while surface roughnesses in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 μm Ra are possible. To control the
surface roughness, MA is allowed to continue for a few seconds after the current has been turned off.
Such a method leaves a light compressive residual stress in the surface. The surface finish generated
by the ECH process is the conventional cross-hatched cut surface that is accepted and used for
sealing and load-bearing surfaces. However, for stress-free surfaces and geometrically accurate
bores, the last few seconds of MA action should be allowed for the pure ECD process.
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDE)

This process has been tried out successfully on contours where the conventional deburring
tools can not be used. The performance of the process is improved. with higher current intensities. It
requires specially engineered equipment for its use as manufacturing unit. It consists of:
0 Electrolyte system which provides high velocity to the electrolyte flow,
1 Electrical power system which supplies the electrolyzing current,
2 Mechanical structure which locates and provides movement/mounting to the electrodes, and
3 Separator which separates the sludge.
Principle of working
When a voltage is applied between two metal electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, current flows
through the electrolyte from one electrode to the other. Unlike the conduction of electric current in
the metals in which only the electrons move through the structure of the material, ‘ions’ (electrically
charged groups of atoms) physically migrate through the electrolyte. The transfer of
pg. 42
electrons between the ions and electrodes completes the electrical circuit and also brings about
the phenomenon of metal dissolution at the positive electrode or anode (workpiece). Metal
detached atom by atom from the anode surface appears in the main body of the electrolyte as
positive ions, or as precipitated semi-solid of the metal hydroxide, which is more common in
electrochemical deburring process.
The tool is usually insulated on all surfaces except a part which is adjacent to 306 the burr(s).
Instead of insulated tool, a bit type of tool [Jain and Pandey, 1982] can also be used. The
electrolyte is made to flow through inter electrode gap.
However, setting of dimensions of the bare part of the tool, time of machining, and other machining
conditions are all decided by ‘trial and error? method. The inter electrode gap (IEG) is usually kept
in the range of 0.1-0.3 mm. The deburring tool-tip should normally overlap with the area to be
worked by 1.5 to 2.0 mm. ECDe machine tool (M/1") is usually designed with multiple work
stations served from a single power supply. The electrolyte is properly filtered out before its re-
circulation. Criteria for selection of tool material used is the same as for general ECM.
Fig. 2.5 Schematic diagram of electrochemical deburring

It is considered as a high-tech method when compared to the conventional methods of deburring.
Before applying ECDe method for a particular type of job, one should know about thickness,
shape, and repeatability of burrs on the job in hand. Almost identical shape and size of the burrs
should be on the job otherwise efficient burr removal may not take place. Further, the part of the
tool supposed to remove burrs should be shaped as a replica of the contour of the work. Fig. 14.5
shows a tracing from the micrograph of a sample deburred electrochemically. Fig. 2.5 Schematic
diagram of electrochemical deburring.
4.2.4.3. Lecture-14
Material Removal Rate

pg. 43
When a gap voltage of 4 to 40 V is applied between the cathodic grinding wheel and the
2
anodic workpiece, a current density of about 120 to 240 A/cm is created. The current density
depends on the material being machined, the gap width, and the applied voltage. Material is
mainly removed by ECD, while the MA of the abrasive grits accounts for an additional 5 to 10
percent of the total material removal.
Fig. 2.6 ECG machining system components
Removal rates by ECG are 4 times faster than by conventional grinding, and ECG always
produces burr-free parts that are unstressed. The volumetric removal rate (VRR) is typically
3
1600 mm /min. McGeough (1988) and Brown (1998) claimed that to obtain the maximum
removal rate, the grinding area should be as large as possible to draw greater machining current,
which affects the ECD phase. The volumetric removal rate (mm3/min) in ECG can be calculated
using the following equation:
pg. 44
ECG is a hybrid machining process that combines MA and ECD. The machining rate,
therefore, increases many times; surface layer properties are improved, while tool wear and
energy consumption are reduced. While Faraday’s laws govern the ECD phase, the action of the
abrasive grains depends on conditions existing in the gap, such as the electric field, transport of
electrolyte, and hydrodynamic effects on boundary layers near the anode. The contribution of
either of these two machining phases in the material removal process and in surface layer
formation depends on the process parameters. Figure 2.4 shows the basic components of the
ECG process. The contribution of each machining phase to the material removal from the
workpiece has resulted in a considerable increase in the total removal rate QECG, in relation to
the sum of the removal rate of the electrochemical process and the grinding processes QECD and
QMA, when keeping the same values of respective parameters as during the ECG process. As
can be seen in Fig. 2.5, the introduction of MA, by a rotary conductive abrasive wheel, enhances
the ECD process. The work of the abrasive grains performs the mechanical depolarization by
abrading the possible insoluble films from the anodic workpiece surface. Such films are
especially formed in case of alloys of many metals and cemented carbides. A specific purpose of
the abrasive grains is, therefore, to depassivate mechanically the workpiece surface. In the
machining zone there is an area of simultaneous ECD and MA of the workpiece surface, where
the gap width is less than the height of the grain part projecting over the binder. Another area of
pure electrochemical removal where the abrasive grains do not touch the workpiece surface
exists at the entry and exit sides of the wheel.
Figure 2.7 ECG process components Figure 2.8 ECD and MA in the machining gap (ECG)
pg. 45
4.2.4.4 Lecture-15
Tool and Tool Feed System
Use of anti-corrosive material for tools and fixtures is important because they are
required for a long period of time to operate in the corrosive environment of electrolyte. High
thermal conductivity and high electrical conductivity of tool material are the main requirements.
Easy machining of tool material is equally important because dimensional accuracy and surface
finish of the tool directly affect the workpiece accuracy and surface finish. Aluminium, brass,
bronze, copper, carbon, stainless steel and monel are a few of the materials used for this purpose.
Further, those areas on the tool where ECM action is not required, should be insulated. For
example, lack of insulation on the sides of a die sinking tool causes unwanted machining of
work, and results in a loss of accuracy of the machined workpiece. However, under such
situations use of b it type o f tools can be recommended [Jain and Pandey, 1982], Fig. 11.6
shows three categories of tools, viz bare tool, coated tool, and bit type of tool with the expected
drilled hole profiles. Use of non-coirosive and electrically non-conducting materials for making
fixtures is recommended. Also, the fixtures and tools should be rigid enough to avoid vibration
or deflection under the high hydraulic forces to which they are subjected.
(iv) Workpiece and Work Holding System
Only electrically conductive work materials can be machined by this process. The
chemical properties of anode (work) material largely govern the material removal rate (MRR).
Work holding devices are made of electrically nonconductive materials having good thermal
stability, and low moisture absorption properties. For example, graphite fibres-reinforced
plastics, plastics, perspex, etc are the materials used for fabricating the work holding devices.
Fig. 2.9 Tool and Tool Feed System
Fig. Various types of tools: (a) bare tool, (b) coated tool,(c) bit type of tool1 [Jain & Pandey,
1987],
1. bare tool, 2. coated tool, 3. bit type of tool, 4. workpiece, 5. Stagnation zone, 6. Front zone,
pg. 46
0 transition zone, 8. side zine, 9. tapered side, 10. tool bit, 11. perspex tool bit holder,
0 Connecting wire.
4.2.4.5 Lecture-16
Accuracy and surface quality
Traditional grinding removes metal by abrasion, leaving tolerances of about ±0.003 mm and
creating heat and stresses that make grinding thin stock very difficult. In ECG however a
production tolerance of ±0.025 mm is easily obtainable. Under special circumstances a tolerance
of ±0.008 mm can be achieved. The ability to hold closer tolerances depends upon the current,
electrolyte flow, feed rate, and metallurgy of the workpiece itself. Accuracies achieved are
usually about ±0.125mm. A final cut is usually done mostly by the grinding action to produce a
good surface finish and closer dimensional tolerances. It is recommended that lower voltages be
used for closer tolerances, reduced overcut, sharp edges, and a bright surface finish. ECG can
grind thin material of 1.02 mm, which normally warp by the heat and pressure of
the conventional grinding thus making closer tolerances difficult to achieve. In ECG there is little
contact between the wheel and workpiece, which eliminates the tendency of the workpiece to
warp as it might with orthodox grinding (Brown, 1998).
The main drawback of ECG is the loss of accuracy when the inside corners are ground. Because
of the electric field effect, radii better than 0.25 to 0.375 mm can seldom be achieved. The reason
for this problem is that the point of highest pressure of the electrolyte is the wheel corner.
However, high-speed grinding benefits both inside and outside corners. The surface finish
produced varies from 0.2 to 0.3 μm depending on the metal being machined, abrasive grit size
and wheel speed and feed rate. For better surface quality a finish pass at a low voltage of 3 to 5 V
and relatively high speed (250–500 mm/min) is recommended (Shpitalni, 1981).
Electro-Chemical Honing (ECH)
Introduction
Electrochemical honing is similar to Electrochemical grinding i.e., the work is machined by the
combined action of electrochemical effect and conventional grinding operation. ECH, however,
uses rotating and reciprocating, non-conducting bonded honing stones instead of a conducting
grinding wheel. Most of the metal is removed by electrochemical effect.
Construction & Working

Construction
0 The schematic arrangement of Electro-Chemical honing machine is shown in Fig.
1 The workpiece is connected to positive terminal (anode) of battery and tool is connected
to negative terminal (Cathode).
2 The gap between the tool and the workpiece is usually maintained between .075 to 0.125
mm at the start of the cycle. It increases by the amount of stock removal per cycle upto
0.50 mm. • Electrolyte is passed between the tool and workpiece through several rows of
small holes in the tool body as shown in Fig..
pg. 47
Fig. Schematic arrangement of ECH
4.2.4.6 Lecture-17
ECONOMICS OF ECM PROCESS
Fixed costs of ECM installations are quite high compared to its operating costs. Overhead
costs are same as for other conventional machining methods. Some costs are quite unique, such
as those of high power, electrode tooling and electrolyte.
ECM needs power of high current capacity. In localities where power is sufficiently
cheap, this factor can be overlooked.
Electrode or tooling cost is a fixed cost because there is a little wear of the ECM tool. There
occurs, however, a negligible abrasion wear of electrode due to electrolyte flow across the gap, with
regard to actual tooling cost, it is not very different from conventional machine tooling.
Electrolyte is not as costly as one might think it to be. The most widely used electrolyte
is Sodium chloride (salt) and it is quite cheap. The normal price of salt seldom exceeds Rs 10
per kg, when purchased in large quantities.
Cost of the work piece fixtures are not very high. The cost per piece will however
depends on work piece material and number of component. On the shop floor, ECM installation
need not be operated by very skilled engineers and operation of machinery can be learnt easily.
The economic success of ECM, in fact depends largely on choice of applications, if an

operation is simple or if the material can be easily machined by other methods, high cost of
ECM plant cannot be justified.
pg. 48
4.2.4.7 Lecture-18
Simple problems
pg. 49
pg. 50
4.2.4.8 Lecture-19
Applications
The ECG process is particularly effective for
0 Machining parts made from difficult-to-cut materials, such as sintered carbides, creep-resisting
(Inconel, Nimonic) alloys, titanium alloys, and metallic composites.
1 Applications similar to milling, grinding, cutting off, sawing, and tool and cutter sharpening.
2 Production of tungsten carbide cutting tools, fragile parts, and thinwalled tubes.
3 Removal of fatigue cracks from steel structures under seawater. In such an application holes
about 25 mm in diameter, in steel 12 to 25 mm thick, have been produced by ECG at the ends of
fatigue cracks to stop further development of the cracks and to enable the removal of specimens
for metallurgical inspection.
4 Producing specimens for metal fatigue and tensile tests.
pg. 51
6. Machining of carbides and a variety of high-strength alloys.
The process is not adapted to cavity sinking, and therefore it is unsuitable for the die-making
industry.
4.2.4.8 Lecture-20
Applications
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
0 Absence of work hardening
1 Elimination of grinding burrs
2 Absence of distortion of thin fragile or thermo sensitive parts
3 Good surface quality
4 Production of narrow tolerances
5 Longer grinding wheel life
Disadvantages
0 Higher capital cost than conventional machines
1 Process limited to electrically conductive materials
2 Corrosive nature of electrolyte
3 Requires disposal and filtering of electrolyte
0 For ECM of steel which is used as the electrolyte

(a) kerosene
(b) NaCl
(c) Deionised water
(d) HNO3
1 MRR in ECM depends on

0 Hardness of work material
1 atomic weight of work material
2 thermal conductivity of work material
3 ductility of work material
0 ECM cannot be undertaken for

(a) steel
(b) Nickel based superalloy
(c) Al2O3
(d) Titanium alloy
4. Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination of

pg. 52
0 low voltage high current
1 low current low voltage
2 high current high voltage
3 low current low voltage
0 The following device is used for converting electrical impulses into mechanical vibration in
USM
0 Transducer
1 oscillator
2 tank
3 pump
1 Which of the following process is used for preparing parts having large curved surfaces and thin
sections?
A. Hot machining
B. Ultra-sonic machining
C. ECM process
D. Chemical milling
Answer: Option D
2 In electro-discharge machining, tool is made of
0 brass
1 copper
2 copper tungsten alloy
3 all of these
0 In electro-discharge machining, dielectric is used to

A. help in the movement of the sparks
B. control the spark discharges
C. act as coolant
D. all of these
Answer: Option D
1 In ultra-sonic machining, tool is made of
0 diamond
1 stainless steel
Answer: Option B
10. EDM machining is applied for
5 shaping carbide dies and punches having complicated profiles
6 making large number of small holes in sieves and fuel nozzles
7 embossing and engraving on harder materials
8 all of these
Answer: Option D
True or False questions
pg. 53
0 Dielectric is used in electro-discharge machining (Ans: True)
1 Ultra-sonic machining is best suited for glass (Ans: True)
2 In electro-discharge machining, dielectric is used to control the spark discharges (Ans: True)
3 In ultra-sonic machining, tool is made of brass or copper (Ans: True)
4 In EDM, better surface finish is obtained at high frequency and low discharge current (Ans:
True)
5 Which of the following processes is called a micromachining operation? WJM (Ans: False)
6 Which of the following methods uses a chemical known as etchant during machining? CHM
(Ans: True)
7 In which of the following, an electrochemical oxidation on the work surface takes
place? Electrochemical grinding (Ans: True)
filament cathode anode – diaphragm – focusing lens – Deflector coil (Ans: True)
9 With Electron beam machining, a hole of ____ depth/diameter ratio can be drilled 10
(Ans: True)
Fill in the blanks type of questions
0 Tools and carbide tips are sharpened by__________ (Ans: Electrochemical Machining)
1 The spark gap in Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process is maintained such
that _________ (Ans: the gap voltage is around 70% of supply voltage)
2 In Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process the metal removal is carried out
by_____ (Ans: melting and vaporisation )
3 The cathode filament is heated to a temperature of ______ in case of Electron beam
machining (Ans: 2500°C)
4 In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between ___mm
to___mm. (Ans: 005, 0.05)
5 In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order
of__________ (Ans: 10,000°C)
6 The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is__________ (Ans: Burr free)
7 In Electron beam machining, workpiece is held in_____(Ans: vacuum chamber)
8 With Electron beam machining, a hole of ____ depth/diameter ratio can be drilled______
(Ans: 10)
9 In electrochemical machining (ECM) removal of metal from the work piece takes place
__________ ( Ans: 0.5mm)
Objective type of questions (Very short notes)

3
0 In electrochemical machining of pure iron a material removal rate of 600 mm /min is
required. Estimate current requirement.
pg. 54
pg. 55
In ECM operation of pure iron an equilibrium gap of 2 mm is to be kept. Determine supply
voltage, if the total overvoltage is 2.5 V. The resistivity of the electrolyte is 50 Ω-mm and the
set feed rate is 0.25 mm/min.
(http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112105127/pdf/LM-38.pdf)
Define ECM?
0 It is the controlled removal of metals by the anodic dissolution in an electrolytic medium,
where the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode) are connected to the electrolytic
circuit, which is kept, immersed in the electrolytic medium.
Write the Faraday’s first law of electrolysis?
A. The amount of any material dissolved or deposited is proportional to the quantity of
electrolyte passed.
Write the Faraday’s second law of electrolysis?
The amount of different substances dissolved or deposited by the same quantity of electricity are
proportional to their chemical equivalent weight.
Write Ohm’s law?
A. Current, I = V/R V = Voltage (volt), R = resistance (ohm)
5. What are the factors that influence oxidation in ECM?
A. (i) Nature of work piece. (ii) Type of electrolyte. (iii) Current density. (iv) Temperature of the
electrolyte.
6. What are the materials used to make the tool electrode?
Copper and copper alloys, titanium, aluminum, brass, bronze, carbon, Monel and reinforced
plastic.
7. What are the main functions of electrolysis in the ECM?
i) For completing the electric circuit between the tool and the work piece and to allow the
reaction to proceed efficiently. ii) To remove the products of machining from the cutting
pg. 56
region. iii) To carry away the heat generated during the chemical reaction. iv) To avoid ion
concentration at the work piece- tool gap.
8. What are the properties are expected from the electrolysis used in the ECM?
A. i) High thermal conductivity. ii) Low viscosity and high specific heat. iii) Should chemically
stable even at high temperature. iv) Should be non-toxic and non-corrosive.
9. What are the electrolysis commonly used in ECM?
15 -20 % Nacl in water, sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, sodium sulphate, sodium chromate
and potassium chloride.
What are the results which is in improper selection of electrolyte in ECM? A.
(i) Low machining rate. (ii) Over cut and stray cutting.
Essay type Questions
0 What the important points to be considered while designing the tool for Electro
Chemical Machining Process? Briefly discuss.
1 What are the limitations of ECM? Elaborate them in detail.
2 a) What are the various parameters which affect the quality of machining using ECM?
Discuss them in detail.
0 Describe the principle and working of electro chemical deburring process.
3 a) What are the different types of electrolytes used in ECM? Explain the important
characteristics of electrolytes used in ECM.
0 Explain the process of Electro Chemical Machining with simple sketch.
Case study <As per required Number>
NA
4.2.7 Skill Building Exercises/Assignments
Due to the innovative nature and numerous material and machining benefits of pECM,
the technology finds very wide cross-industry application. To current date, ECM
Technologies have researched and developed for the majority of the high industries.
Below you can see some of the most common ECM product applications per industry,
and why the technology is particularly suitable for those:
Aerospace & Space
ECM is especially suitable for meeting this industry's demand for machining
complex geometries and new exotic alloys.
Application examples: turbine blades and blisks in jet engines and gas turbines, gears,
nozzles, manifolds, diffusers, valves.
Automotive
pg. 57
Application examples: turbo chargers, gears, fuel systems, break systems, oil
flow features, pistons, shafts, vehicle logos.
5. Biomedical
ECM's accuracy and surface finishing capabilities makes it an extremely
suitable technique for medical applications.
Application examples: artificial implants (e.g., hip implants), surgical instruments,
surgical blades, saws & bone drills, clamps, hospital hardware equipment (e.g.,
parts for a radiation machine).
6. Energy & Offshore
The internal contouring and overall shape complexity requirements of this
industry's products can be successfully met by ECM.
Application examples: petrochemical, oil & gas production (e.g., gas turbines, gas
windmills, etc.), drilling installations, turbine engine components: fuel cells,
valves, nozzles, and pumps.
7. Consumer products
Here are a few examples of projects for the Consumer products industry realized by
ECM Technologies:
Hygiene products – diapers' surface structuring machine tooling; Watch industry -
watch case; Biomedical – pill dies; Domestic Electrics – shaver heads.
8. Chemical
In ECM there is no mechanical or even thermal load on the workpiece, which makes
it very suitable for the Chemical industry applications.
Application examples: micro reactors, micro heat exchangers, etc.
9. Maritime sector
The ECM process is very suitable for a variety of engine and turbocharger
applications within the Marine industry. Using products machined with ECM can
result being fuel efficient and thus more economic in the long run.
Application examples: compressors blades, propellers and impellers
(for turbochargers), whisper power generators (in boat engines).
10. General Engineering
Many of the processes which can be realized with conventional machining can be
done so by ECM (e.g., milling, drilling, etc.), and in certain cases ECM can add
accuracy or time optimization to those.
11. Machine Tooling
The full-form shaping and surface finishing capabilities of the ECM process makes
it suitable for handling a variety of machine tooling applications (e.g., laser-welding
machines).
(http://electrochemicalmachining.com/technology/processes-application)
pg. 58
What are the process characteristics and applications of Electro Chemical Grinding
process?
Describe the dynamics of the electrochemical machining process with no feed and
with given feed condition.
Discuss the effect of feed rate, temperature and hydrogen bubbles in
electrochemical machining process.
Explain the theory and material removal rate of Electro Chemical Machining
Process.
Explain the principle and working of Electro chemical machining with a neat
sketch.
Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications of ECM.
a) Describe Electro chemical grinding process with a sketch. State its applications.
0 Differentiate between Electro chemical machining and chemical machining.
a) Explain electro chemical honing and deburring processes with sketches.
b) Write short note on the following :
0 Tool Design of ECM
1 Surface finish and Accuracy of ECM
9. a) Explain chemical machining. Write its advantages and applications.
a. b) Explain the economic aspects of ECM .
10. a) What the important points to be considered while designing the tool for Electro
Chemical Machining Process? Briefly discuss.
a. b) What are the limitations of ECM? Elaborate them in detail.
a) What are the various parameters which affect the quality of machining using
ECM? Discuss them in detail.
a. b) Describe the principle and working of electro chemical deburring process.
a) What are the different types of electrolytes used in ECM? Explain the important
characteristics of electrolytes used in ECM.
0 Explain the process of Electro Chemical Machining with simple sketch.
a) Discuss the working principle of ECM process with the help of neat sketch.
0 List out the advantages, limitations and applications of ECM

The process utilizing mainly thermal energy for removing material is
(A) Ultrasonic Machining (B) Electrochemical Machining (C) Abrasive Jet

Machining (D) Laser Beam Machining
The principle of material removal in Electrochemical machining is
(A) Fick's law (B) Faraday's laws (C) Kirchhoff'’s

laws (D) Ohm’s law
pg. 59
Select the correct answer from the below for the primary mechanism of material
removal in ECM
0 Chemical corrosion
1 Etching
2 Ionic dissolution
3 Spark erosion
Ans : C
Match the following non-traditional machining processes with the corresponding

material removal mechanisms : Machining process Mechanism of material removal
P. Chemical machining 1.Erosion
Q. Electro-chemical machining 2.Corrosive reaction
R. Electro – discharge machining 3.Ion displacement
S. Ultrasonic machining 4.Fusion and vaporization
(A) P-2, Q-3, R-4,S-1 (B) P-2,Q-4,R-3,S-1 (C) P-3, Q-2,R-4,S-1 (D) P-2,Q-3,R-1,S-
4
Answer: - (A) (http://gateforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ME-GATE-
2011.pdf)
What are the main functions of electrolysis in the ECM?
Which material is used to make the grinding wheel
What are the results which is in improper selection of electrolyte in ECM?

Inhouse- Assoc.Prof. K.S.Raghuram

Outside –Assoc.prof. Dr.B.S.Prasad(GITAM)
pg. 60
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ej-GWNPYFVM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pI1QGpmKqow
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WufD41ww96E
(In R10 &R13 this chapter has no Relevance in Lab.)
Advanced Machining Processes by VK Jain

Modern Machining Processes by Pandey and Shan
Experimental Study Of Material Removal Rate, Surface Roughness & Microstructure In
pg. 61
4.3.Unit – III - Thermal Metal Removal Processes
Thermal Metal Removal Processes: General principle and applications of Electric Discharge
Machining, Electric Discharge grinding, and wire EDM - Power circuits of EDM, Mechanics of
metal removal in EDM, process parameters, selection of tool electrode and dielectric fluids, surface
finish and machining accuracy, characteristics of spark eroded surface .
……
After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand:
Study the Fundamentals of EDM.
Understand the Tool design of EDM, EDG and wire EDM.
Identify the advantages and applications of EDM, EDG and wire EDM.
4.3.2. Unit Outcomes:
0 Explain the Principle Thermal Metal Removal Processes.
1 Identify the Selection of tool electrode and dielectric fluids.
2 Explain the process of Wire EDM.
3 List out the applications of EDM.

No.
1 General principle and Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 126
applications of Electric
Discharge Machining.
2 General principle and PPT Web reference
applications of Electric PPT-3.1
Discharge grinding.
3 General principle and OHP/Models etc T1: Page No. 127 and
applications of wire EDM. 157
4 Power circuits of EDM. Seminar by References of concern
students material
5 Mechanics of metal removal in Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 145
EDM.
6 Process parameters, selection Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 147
of tool electrode and dielectric
fluids.
7 Surface finish and machining Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 146
accuracy.
8 Characteristics of spark eroded Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 154
surface.
9 REVISION / CLASS
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
pg. 62
4.3.4. Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.
In electrical/thermal energy based processes, electrical/thermal energy is directly used to cut the
material to get the final shape and size.
Examples:
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Wire Cut Electrical Discharge Machining (WC EDM)
4.3.4.1. Lecture-22
General principle and applications of Electric Discharge Machining
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EDM

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as
metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric
process to erode undesired materials from the work piece by a series of discrete electrical sparks
between the work piece and the electrode. It is also known as spark erosion machining or electro-
erosion machining where metal is removed by producing powerful electric spark discharge
between the tool (cathode) and the work material (anode). A picture of EDM working principle
and operation of surface formation is shown in Figure 3.1.
TOOL (CATHODE)
SPARK
DIELECTRI
IONIZED
FLUID
WORK (ANODE)
Fig 3.1. Working principle and operation of

EDM.
[EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create
desired shape. So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM
process. A schematic of an EDM process is shown in Figure 2, where the tool and the work piece
are immersed in a dielectric fluid.]
pg. 63
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF EDM
Construction:
Fig 3.2 shows the schematic layout of the electric discharge machining process.
The main components are the electric power supply, dielectric medium, work piece, tool and
a servo control mechanism.
The work piece and the tool are electrically connected to a D.C. power supply.
The work piece is connected to the positive terminal of the electric source, so that it becomes
the anode. The tool is connected to the negative terminal of the electric source, so that it
becomes the cathode.
The tool and work piece are submerged in a dielectric fluid medium such as paraffin, white
spirit or transformer oil having poor electrical conductivity.
The function of the servo mechanism is to maintain a very small gap, known as ‘spark gap
ranges of 0.005 to 0.05 mm between the work piece and the tool.
Servo Gear Box

Motor
Servo Control
D.C Supply
Fig 3.2. Schematic Construction of EDM
Working:
When the D.C supply is given to the circuit, spark is produced across the gap between the
tool and the work piece.
When the voltage across the gap becomes sufficiently larger (more than 250 V), the high
power spark is produced. So, the dielectric breaks down and electrons are emitted from
the cathode (tool) and the gap is ionized.
This spark occurs in an interval of 10 to 30 microseconds and with a current density of 15-500A
per mm2 approximately. So thousands of spark-discharge occur per second across
pg. 64
the gap between the tool and the work, which results in increasing temperature of about
10,000°C.
At this high pressure and temperature, work piece metal is melted, eroded and some of it is
vaporized. In this way the metal is removed from the work piece.
The removed fine material particles are carried away by dielectric fluid circulated around it.
The metal removal rate depends on the spark gap maintained. If anode and cathode are made
of same material, it has been found that the greatest erosion takes place at anode.
Therefore, in order to remove maximum metal and have minimum wear on the tool, the tool
is made as cathode the work piece as anode.
When the voltage drops to about 12 volts, the spark discharge extinguishes and the dielectric
fluid once again becomes deionized. The condensers start to recharge and the process
repeats itself.
Fig 3.3. EDM: Overall setup and close-up view of gap showing discharge and metal removal.
APPLICATIONS OF EDM
The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials. Parts
with complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult
internal shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process. This is the
most widely used machining process among the non-traditional machining methods. Its
applications are as follows
pg. 65
Production of complicated and irregular shaped profiles.
Thread cutting in jobs.
Drilling of micro holes.
Helical profile drilling.
Curved hole drilling.
Resharpening of cutting tools and broaches.
Remachining of die cavities without annealing.
Some of the shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure 3.
Fig 3.4. Difficult internal parts made by EDM process.
NONTRADITIONAL
MACHINING AND THERMAL
CUTTING PROCESSES
PPT-3.1
pg. 66
4.3.4.2. Lecture-23
General principle and applications of Electric Discharge grinding
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRIC DISCHARGE GRINDING (EDG)
Electrical discharge grinding (EDG) is a non-traditional thermal process for machining

difficult to machine hard and brittle electrically conductive materials. It is a process which is
basically the same as EDM. EDG has been developed by replacing the stationary electrode used
in electrical discharge machining (EDM) with rotating electrode. In EDG process, material is
removed melting and vaporization as same as EDM process. But there are ample differences with
EDM instead of mechanism of material. In EDG process, an electrically conductive wheel is
used as a tool electrode instead of stationary tool electrode used in EDM. There is no contact
with work piece and tool electrode (rotating wheel) except during electric discharge.
Due to the rotational motion of wheel electrode, the peripheral speed of wheel transmitted
to the stationary dielectric into gap between work piece and wheel resulting flushing efficiency
of process is enhanced. Therefore, the molten material is effectively ejected from gap and no
debris accumulation take place into gap while in EDM debris accumulation is major problem
which adverse effect on performances of process. Due to the enhanced in flushing, higher
material removal and better surface finish is obtained as compare to the conventional EDM
process. At the same machining condition, EDG gives better performances than EDM and it is
machined extremely hard materials faster (2-3 times) as compare to the conventional grinding.
The high speed of wheel is not always beneficial and after a certain value of speed, the spark
becomes instable and produces adverse effect on performance. There is no physical contact
between work piece and wheel, so that the process becomes more advantageous for machining
thin and fragile electrically conductive materials.
Dielectric Flow
Dielectric
Fig 3.5. Working principle and operation of EDG.
pg. 67
[Electro discharge grinding (EDG) is a combination of electrochemical grinding and electrical-
discharge machining. The process is very similar to conventional EDM except a grinding-wheel
type of electrode is used. Material is removed by both processes. Like any EDM process, the
work piece and the grinding wheel never come into contact. In EDG process, material is
removed melting and vaporization as same as EDM process.]
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF EDG
Construction:
The Construction and working are very similar to conventional EDM except a grinding-
wheel type of electrode is used.
Fig 3.2 shows the schematic layout of the electric discharge grinding process.
The main components are the electric power supply, dielectric medium, work piece, tool
(grinding wheel), rotary mechanism and a servo control mechanism.
The work piece and the tool are electrically connected to a D.C. power supply.
The work piece is connected to the positive terminal of the electric source, so that it becomes
the anode. The tool (grinding wheel) is connected to the negative terminal of the electric
source, so that it becomes the cathode.
The tool (grinding wheel) and work piece are submerged in a dielectric fluid medium such as
paraffin, white spirit or transformer oil having poor electrical conductivity.
The function of the servo mechanism is to maintain a very small gap, known as ‘spark gap
ranges of 0.005 to 0.05 mm between the work piece and the rotating tool (grinding wheel).
Fig 3.6. Sketch of equipment
Working:
rotating tool (grinding wheel) and the work piece.
pg. 68
When the voltage across the gap becomes sufficiently larger (more than 250 V), the high
power spark is produced. So, the dielectric breaks down and electrons are emitted from
the cathode (tool) and the gap is ionized.
This spark occurs in an interval of 10 to 30 microseconds and with a current density of 15-
500A per mm2 approximately. So thousands of spark-discharge occur per second across
the gap between the tool (grinding wheel) and the work, which results in increasing
temperature of about 10,000°C.
At this high pressure and temperature, work piece metal is melted, eroded and some of it is
vaporized. In this way the metal is removed from the work piece.
The metal removal rate depends on the spark gap maintained. If anode and cathode are made
of same material, it has been found that the greatest erosion takes place at anode.
Therefore, in order to remove maximum metal and have minimum wear on the tool, the tool
is made as cathode the work piece as anode.
When the voltage drops to about 12 volts, the spark discharge extinguishes and the dielectric
fluid once again becomes deionized. The condensers start to recharge and the process
repeats itself.
Fig 3.7. Detail of EDG process Fig 3.8. EDG: Wheel-work piece
interaction in EDG.
APPLICATIONS OF EDG
In EDG process, a rotating metallic wheel is used in machining which may rotates either
its horizontal axis or vertical axis. Based on the rotation of wheel, the EDG process developed in
three different configurations. These are: electro-discharge cut-off grinding, electro-discharge
face grinding and electro-discharge surface grinding.
pg. 69
In cut-off grinding configuration, the metallic wheel rotates about its horizontal axis and fed into
perpendicular direction to the machine table. It is used to cut work piece into pieces or
making grooves into work piece.
In face grinding configuration, the metallic wheel rotates about vertical spindle axis and fed into
perpendicular direction to the machine table.
It is more suitable for end machining of cylindrical work surface. In the surface grinding mode,
the wheel also rotates its horizontal axis and fed into perpendicular direction to the machine
table.
It is mostly applicable for machining of the flat surfaces.
4.3.4.3. Lecrure-24
General principle and applications of wire EDM
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WIRE CUT ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING

(WCEDM) OR TRAVELLING WIRE ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING
(TWEDM)
This is a special type of electric discharge machining that uses a small diameter (about
0.05-0.30 mm diameter) wire as a cutting tool on the work. Working principle of wire cut electric
discharge machining is same as that of electric discharge machining. Process details of WCEDM
are almost similar to EDM with slight difference. The details of the process are indicated in the
line diagram shown in Figure 5.2. The wire-cut EDM is a discharge machine that uses CNC
movement to produce the desired contour or shape. It does not require a special shaped electrode,
instead it uses a continuous-traveling vertical wire under tension as the electrode. The electrode
in wire-cut EDM is about as thick as a small diameter needle whose path is controlled by the
machine computer to produce the shape required.
Fig 3.9. Working principle and operation of EDM.
pg. 70
[Wire EDM is a special form of EDM which uses a continuously moving conductive wire
electrode. Material removal occurs as a result of spark erosion as the wire electrode is fed, from
a fresh wire spool, through the work piece. In most cases the horizontal movement of the
worktable, controlled by CNC, determines the path of the cut, as illustrated in above Fig. A
remarkable application includes the machining of super hard materials such as polycrystalline
diamond (PCD) and cubic boron nitride (CBN) blanks, and other matrix composites.]
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF EDM
Construction:
Fig 3.9 shows the schematic diagram of WCEDM process.
A very thin wire (.02 to 0.3mm) made of brass or molybdenum having circular cross section
is used as a electrode (tool).
The wire is stretched and moved between two rollers. The part of wire is eroded by the spark.
The prominent feature of a moving wire is that a complicated cutout can easily machined
without using an electrode.
It Consists of
0 Workpiece movement control unit.
1 Workpiece mounting table.
2 Wire drive section for accurately moving the wire at constant tension.
3 Dielectric fluid supplying unit
4 Power supplying unit.
D.C Supply
Fig 3.10. Schematic Construction of Wire Cut EDM
pg. 71
Working:
Workpiece to be machined is mounted on the table which is operated by control unit.
A very small hole is predrilled in the workpiece through which a very thin wire made of brass
or molybdenum is passed as shown in fig. 3.9 and this wire is operated by wire feed
mechanism.
Dielectric fluid (distilled water ) is passed over the workpiece and the wire (tool) by using
pump.
wire and the workpiece.
When the voltage across the gap becomes sufficiently large, the high power spark is
produced.
This spark occurs in an interval of 10 to 30 microseconds and with a current* density of 15-
500 A per mm2 approximately. So, thousands of spark discharge occur per second across
the very small gap between the wire and the workpiece, which results in increasing
temperature of about 10,000°C.
At this high pressure and temperature, workpiece metal is melted, eroded and some of it is
vaporised. The metal is thus removed in this way from the workpiece.
Fig 3.11. WCEDM: Overall setup and close-up view of gap showing
discharge and metal removal.
pg. 72
APPLICATIONS OF WIRE CUT EDM
The wire cut EDM process is best suited for the production of gears, tools, dies, rotors,
turbine blades and cams for small to medium size batch production. Wire EDM has been
employed for making dies of various types. It is possible to control tolerances very effectively.
The process is also used for fabrication of press tools and electrodes for use in other areas of
EDM. Some of the shapes made by wire cut EDM process are shown in Figure 3.
Fig 3.12. Difficult parts made by Wire Cut EDM process.
4.3.4.4. Lecture-25
Power circuits or spark generation circuits of EDM

0 Power generator is one of the most important part of an electrical discharge machining
processes.
1 Its primary function is to convert an alternating current (AC) into a pulsed direct current
(DC) which is required to produce the unidirectional spark discharges between the gap of
the tool and workpiece. A rectifier is used to convert the AC into DC.
2 The most commonly used spark generating circuits are given below
0 Resistance - Capacitance circuit (RC circuit) or Relaxation circuit.
1 R-C-L circuit.
2 Rotary pulse generator circuit.
3 Controlled pulse generator circuit
Relaxation circuit
Fig 3.3 shows the operation of Resistance - Capacitance (R-C) generator circuit. This type of
generators are quite common because of its simplicity and lower cost. In this system, Direct
Current (D.C) is flowing through a resistor (R) and it charges the capacitor (C). The charged
pg. 73
capacitor is connected to the machine. When the voltage across the capacitor is sufficiently high
(50 to 200V), dielectric medium breakdown occurs. So, the dielectric medium between the tool
and workpiece is ionized and spark takes place. Millions of electrons are developed in each
spark. During sparking period, the voltage falls and it again starts rising (since the capacitor is
charged again) as shown in fig. 3.13.
Energy released per spark = E =
Where
C = Capacitor value
Vd = Discharge voltage = Vo [ 1 - exp [-t/Re] ]
Vo= D.C. Source voltage
For maximum power delivery, the discharge voltage (Vd) should M be 75% of the supply voltage
(Vo)
Fig. 3.13 Basic R-C Relaxation circuit
Drawbacks of Relaxation circuit

0 Though the discharge current in a relaxation circuit reaches a high value, it is of very short
duration.
1 Since the time for charging the capacitor is high, the use % of high frequencies is limited.
R-C-L Circuit
In the relaxation circuit, metal removal rate increases as R is decreased. But R cannot be decreased
below a critical, value. If R decreases below a critical value, arcing will take place instead of sparking.
Further, the capacitor charging time in R-C circuit is much higher than discharging time.
pg. 74
Therefore an inductance (L) is included in the charging circuit. This R-C-L circuit is shown in
Fig-3.14.
Fig. 3.14 Basic Principle R-C-L Circuit
3. Rotary pulse generator
The introduction of pulse generator has overcome the drawbacks of R-C and R-C-L circuits. R-C
and R-L-C circuits yield low metal removal rate. Therefore, rotary pulse generator is used for
spark generation. It yields high metal removal rate, low tool wear and more precise control of
parameters. Fig. 3.15 shows the schematic diagram of rotary impulse generator circuit. In this
circuit, the capacitor (C) is discharged through the diode during the first half cycle. During the
next half cycle, the sum of voltages generated by the generator and the charged capacitor is
applied to the work-tool arrangement gives more metal removal rate, but surface finishing is poor.
Fig. 3.15 Rotary pulse generator
4. Controlled pulse generator circuit
pg. 75
Fig 3.6 shows the arrangement of controlled pulse circuit R-C, R-C-L and rotary pulse generator
circuits are not having automatic prevention of the current flow in case a short circuit is
developed. To obtain such an automatic control, a vacuum tube or a transistor is used as switching
device as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Fig. 3.16 Controlled pulse Circuit
4.3.4.5. Lecture-26
Mechanics of metal removal in EDM
The metal removal rate is generally described as the volume of metal removed per unit time.
Metal removal rate depends upon current density and it increases with current. But high
removal rates produce poor finish. Therefore, the usual practice in EDM is, a roughing
cut with a heavy current followed by a finishing cut with less current.
Metal removal rates upto 80mm3/s can be achieved and surface finishes of 0.25 um can be
obtained at very low cutting rates.
The material being cut will affect the metal removal rate. The experiments indicate that the
metal removal rate (MRR) varies inversely with melting point of the metal.
The approximate value is
Tolerances of the order of 0.05 to 0.13rnm are commonly achieved by EDM in normal
production and with extra care, tolerances of 0.003 to 0.013 mm are possible.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE METAL REMOVAL RATE (MRR)
pg. 76
Metal removal rate increases with forced circulation of dielectric fluid.
It increases with capacitance.
It increases up to optimum value of work-tool gap, after that it drops suddenly.
It increases up to optimum value of spark discharge time, after that it decreases.
Metal removal rate is maximum when the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure.
4.3.4.6. LECTURE-27
PROCESS PARAMETERS, SELECTION OF TOOL ELECTRODE AND

DIELECTRIC FLUIDS
Process Parameters:
The following factors influences the process parameters in EDM processes
Operating parameters
Operating process involves the removal of metal from the work piece and tool as
a measure of electrical energy input.
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) =
Where
- Function
- Electrical Energy v
- Voltage
i - Instantaneous current
dt - Time interval
f - Torque
Tp - Pulse width
Tool Wear Rate (TWR) ) =
Based on the above considerations, it is well understood that the MRR, and TWR are
governed by the following
pg. 77
Energy content of the pulses.
The rate at which the energy supplied.
Servo sensitivity.
Gap width and
Dielectric parameters.
Tool wear rate is required to calculate tooling cost, machining accuracy and estimate the
time of machining for a desired depth of cut. There are three types of wear observed in the tool
(Electrode) which is shown in fig. 3.17 they are
End wear
Corner wear
Side wear
Fig. 3.17. Types of Electrode Wear in EDM Process
4.3.4.7. LECTURE-28
pg. 78
PROCESS PARAMETERS, SELECTION OF TOOL ELECTRODE AND
DIELECTRIC FLUIDS
Taper
Tapering effect is observed due to the side sparks which is shown in fig. 3.18. Under high
dielectric pollution, side sparks are more pronounced as compared to frontal sparks
Fig. 3.18 Scheme of Taper
In this case, over cut at any instant is given by
At maximum,
Where h - Depth of machining at any instant.
pg. 79
Surface finish
The surface finish of the material depends upon the following factors
Energy of the pulse and

Frequency of operation
The roughness of the material is observed within a bandwidth depending upon single or multi
spark conditions.
IV. Current Density
The current density is the most important parameter which determines the material
removal rate and surface condition. Current density is affected by either changing the current or
changing the electrode (tool) - work piece gap.
When the current is increased, each individual spark removes a larger crater of metal
from the work piece. But it also increases surface roughness. Increasing spark frequency results
in decrease in surface roughness and reduces the removal of crater of metal from the work piece.
The gap between the electrode (tool) and work piece is determined by the spark voltage and current. A
small gap produces more accuracy with a better surface finish and slower metal removal rate.
SELECTION OF TOOL ELECTRODE
The tool materials generally used can be classified as metallic materials (copper, brass,
copper-tungsten etc.), non-metallic materials (graphite) and combination of metallic and
non-metallic materials (copper - graphite).
Copper, yellow brass, alloys of zinc, copper tungsten, silver tungsten, tungsten carbide and
graphite are used for tool materials.
For commercial applications, copper is best suited for fine machining, aluminum is used for
die-sinking and cast iron for rough machining.
The three most commonly used materials are given below.
0 Graphite
Graphite is a non-metallic which is generally- used as a tool material in Electrical

Discharge Machining processes. A wide range of grades are available in graphite
and these are used for variety of applications.
A big advantage of graphite is though it is abrasive, it can be produced by several

methods like machining, moulding, milling,- grinding etc; Graphite can generally
achieve better metal removal rates and fine surface finishes than metallic tool
materials. One disadvantage of graphite is; it is costlier than copper.
1 Copper
pg. 80
Copper is a second choice for using as tool material in Electrical Discharge
Machining processes. It can be produced by casting or machining. Copper tools
with very complex features are formed by chemical etching or electro forming.
2 Copper - tungsten
Copper - tungsten tool material is difficult to machine and it has low metal
removal rate. It is costlier than graphite and copper.
The selection of proper tool material is influenced by
0 Size of electrode and volume of material to be removed.
1 Surface finish required.
2 Tolerance required.
3 Nature of coolant application etc.
The basic requirements of any tool material are
0 It should have low erosion rate.
1 It should be electrically conductive.
2 It should have good machinability.
3 Melting-point of the tool should be high.
4 It should have high electron emission.
TOOL WEAR
As the tool does not come into contact with the work, life of tool is long and less wear and
tear takes place.
The tool wear ratio is defined as the ratio of volume of work material removed to the volume
of electrode (tool) consumed.
Wear ratio = (Volume of work material removed / Volume of electrode consumed)

The wear ratio for brass electrode is 1:1, for copper is 2:1 and for copper tungsten is 8:1 for
nonmetallic (graphite) wear ratio may vary from 5:1 to 50:1.
SELECTION OF DIELECTRIC FLUIDS
Generally kerosene and deionised water is used as dielectric fluid in EDM. Tap water cannot be
used as it ionises too early and thus breakdown due to presence of salts as impurities occur.
Dielectric medium is generally flushed around the spark zone. It is also applied through the tool
to achieve efficient removal of molten material.
A dielectric fluid is a medium that does not conduct electricity. In electrical discharge
machining process, the tool and work piece are submerged in a dielectric fluid medium.
The dielectric fluids generally used are petroleum based hydrocarbon fluids, paraffin,
white spirit, transformer oil, kerosene, mineral oil or mixture of these.
Dielectric fluids must not be hazardous to operators or corrosive to equipment.
pg. 81
The choice of any dielectric fluid depends on the work piece size, type of shape, tolerance,
metal removal rate and surface finish. White spirit is best suited for machining tungsten
carbide.
The dielectric fluid should not be changed frequently on a machine, and it is chosen
according to the most frequent application to be carried out in the machine.
The dielectric fluid must circulate freely between the tool and work piece.
(a)Pressure Flushing (b)Suction Flushing (c)Side Flushing

Fig. 3.19 Common dielectric flushing systems in EDM
The eroded particles should be flushed out at the earliest since it reduces the further metal
removal rate.
The various methods of flushing are pressure flushing, suction flushing and side flushing
which are shown in Fig 3.19.
The dielectric fluid should be filtered before reuse so that chip contamination of the fluid will
not affect machining accuracy.
The dielectric fluid should be easily available at reasonable price.
Function of dielectric fluids: The dielectric fluid has the following functions
0 It acts as an insulating medium.
1 It cools the spark region and helps in keeping the tool and work piece cool.
2 It carries away the eroded metal particles along with it.
3 It maintains a constant resistance across the gap.
4 It remains electrically non conducting until the required breakdown voltage has
been reached.
5 It breakdown electrically in the shortest possible time once the breakdown voltage
has been reached.
4.3.4.8. LECTURE-29
pg. 82
SURFACE FINISH AND MACHINING ACCURACY
SURFACE FINISH
The surface produced by the EDM process consists of a multitude of small craters randomly
distributed all over the machined face. The CLA value of the surface finish in this case ranges
between 2 and 4 µ. The quality of surface mainly depends upon the energy per spark. If the energy
content is high, deeper craters will result, leading to a poor surface (Fig.4.26). The surface roughness
(Hcla) has also been found to be inversely proportional to the frequency of discharge.
Assuming that each spark leads to a spherical crater formation on the work surface, the volume
of metal per cater will be proportional to the cube of the crater depth.
Also, it is assumed as
where
H cla = center line average value of the surface produced, and
h = maximum crater depth.
Also
Therefore
Or
Where k1 is constant of proportionality.
pg. 83
The volume of metal removed per discharge (V1) will be equal to the volume of crater produced.
3 2
Therefore V1 = K2 h = K3 Vc C
Where K2 and K3 are constants.
But
Therefore Hcla = K4 Vc2/3 C1/3/f
The frequency (For an R-C type circuit)
2/3 1/3+n m
Therefore Hcla = K5 Vc C R
Experimental investigations in a majority of cases give a relationship of the type.
Hcla = K Vc0.5 C 0.3 ~ 0.36

Figure shows the experimental validity of the above relationship.
MACHINING ACCURACY
pg. 84
Taper: The holes produced by this process are usually tapered due to the presence of a frontal
spark accompanied by a side spark. An exaggerated view of the hole produced is given in Fig.
4.28.
2
The taper at any section of the work piece has been found to be proportiona1 to d . Figure
29 shows the experimental relationship obtained when carbon was machined, using brass tool in
Kerosene as the medium.
Overcut: Overcut in EDM is due to side sparks and is dependent on the gap length and crater
dimensions. Lazarenko has shown experimentally that overcut O can be expressed by the
relationship
1/3
O = AC + B
where A and B are constants, the values of which depend upon the tool work pair. Table
4.5 gives typical value of A and B. Dependence of the overcut on the capacitance C is shown in
Fig. 4 30.
Tool Work A Ub = 100V B Ub = 100V
Copper - Copper 0.032 0.015
T 15 K-60-copper 0.032 0.015
pg. 85
4.3.4.9. LECTURE-30
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPARK ERODED SURFACE
In EDM, material removal is principally due to thermal phenomenon and local temperatures in
the region of 8,000 to l 2,000°C are likely to develop. This temperature will have an effect on the
structure and the mechanical properties of machined surfaces. The effect may or may not be
significant, depending upon the type of work material and the working conditions employed.
A typical cross-section of a steel specimen after machining by the EDM process, when
examined, would normally exhibit three different regions (Fig. 3.20).
Fig. 3.20. Three different regions
Region 1 A layer of molten metal, ejected and partly redeposited.
Region 2 Recast metallic layer usually referred to as white layer. The layer has no fixed
thickness and is very hard.
Region 3 An annealed layer. Thickness of the annealed layer depends upon the energy of
discharge. It has also been found that the zone is thinner if the discharges are short with high
peak currents than if they are long with low peak currents.
pg. 86
In addition to the three zones described above, sometimes tiny micro-cracks can be
observed on the material surface. This occurs particularly in the machining of tungsten carbide or
other hard materials. The size of micro-cracks has been found to depend on the type of material
and the electrical parameters, such as the pulse energy and duration. Table 4.6 gives the size of
micro-cracks observed in the machining of cermet’s.
Pulse duration (us) Pulse energy (J) Depth of crack (u)

90 0.5 21-63
1000 0.5 84-252
90 1.0 53-126
330 4.5 85-235
Generally speaking, the crack depth increases with pulse duration and energy.

In which process the material is removed due to the action of abrasive grains?
0 Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG)

1 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
d. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) (Ans: b )
Which of the following processes is generally applied for dentistry work like to drill
fine holes of particular shape in teeth?
0 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
d. Ultrasonic Machining (USM) (Ans: b )
Which of the following process has highest rate of metal removal?
a. Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

b. Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
c. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
d. Laser Beam Machining (LBM) (Ans: b )
In Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process the metal removal is carried out by
0 electrolysis
1 melting and vaporisation
2 fracture of work material due to impact of grains
d. none of the above (Ans: b )
pg. 87
Which of the following statements are true for Electro-Chemical Machining
(ECM)?
0 ECM is capable of machining metals and alloys irrespective of their strength

and hardness
1 No cutting forces are involved in ECM process
2 ECM process consumes very high power
3 Very small space is required to set up ECM process
a. (1), (2) and (3)

b. (2), (3) and (4)
c. (1), (3) and (4)
d. (1), (2) and (4) (Ans: a )
In which process the material is removed due to the action of abrasive grains?
0 Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG)

1 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
d. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) (Ans: b)
Which of the following processes is generally applied for dentistry work like to drill
fine holes of particular shape in teeth?
0 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

d. Ultrasonic Machining (USM) (Ans: d )
Wire electrodes used on EDM machines are made of
0 brass or brass alloy
1 graphite
2 tungsten/copper
d. 316 Stainless Steel (Ans : b)
Waterjet cutting is ideal for cutting
0 soft materials such as paper or foam
1 hard to cut metals such as titanium
c. all of these are correct (Ans: C )
The machining process that adds rather than removes material is called
__________________.
0 additive manufacturing
1 electrical discharge machining
2 plasma cutting
d. chip thinning (Ans: A)
pg. 88
3 True or False questions
Ultrasonic machining can be used to machine both metallic and nonmetallic materials: (Ans:
True)
In ultrasonic machining, material removal rate decreases with increasing frequency and
amplitude of vibration: (Ans: False)
Abrasive water jet cutting and abrasive jet machining are two different names for the same
process: (a) true or (b) false? (Ans: True)
Ultrasonic machining can machine both metallic and non-metallic surfaces
device is used for converting electrical impulses into mechanical vibration in USM is a
In AJM, removal of metal takes place by bombardment of fine grained particle. with air at
high velocity (Ans: True)
7. WJM cannot be used to machine steel plates (Ans: True)
In water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting, the separation between the nozzle opening and
the work surface is called which one of the following stand-off distance
Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry (in USM process) would affect MRR in
the following manner increase MRR (Ans: True)
Tool in USM is generally made of Glass
c. Fill in the blanks type of questions
Crater wear leads to___________ (Ans : Increase in cutting temperature)

The soft grade grinding wheels are denoted by the letters __________ ( Ans: A to H)
This process is the thermal erosion process in which metal is removed by a series of recurring
electrical discharges between a cutting tool acting as an electrode and a conductive workpiece,
in the presence of a dielectric fluid._______ ( Ans: Electrical Discharge Machining)
Which of the following is not a function of the dielectric fluid used in EDM _____ ( Ans: Cools the
workpiece)
In EDM, the cutting tool is actually ________ ( Ans: Non-consumable)
The EDM workpiece must be __________ ( Ans: Conductive)
The largest single use of EDM is for ________ ( Ans: Aircraft components)
EDM electrodes are made of ___________ ( Ans: Copper or graphite )
The main disadvantage of wire EDM is _________ ( Ans: Slower metal removal rates )
There are two main types of EDMs; the ______ (or sinker) and the ____. Each are used to produce
very small and accurate parts as well as large items like automotive stamping dies and
aircraft body components. The largest single use of EDM is in die making ( Ans: Ram --- Wire )
pg. 89
Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
0 Which the following is true for Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)?

0 The metal removal takes place due to erosion
1 Any electrical conductor can be machined by this method.
iii. Some light oil like transformer oil or kerosene oil is used as dielectric.
Only i
0 i &ii
1 i,ii & iii
2 ii & iii
(Ans:c)
In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between ___mm
to___mm.
0 5 to 5
1 05, 0.5
2 005, 0.05
3 0005, 0.005
(Ans:c)
1 In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order of

0 2,000°C
1 6,000°C
2 10,000°C
3 14,000°C
(Ans:c)
2 Which of the following is not true in case of Electrical discharge machining (EDM)?
0 Erosion takes place both on Work piece and the tool.
1 Gap between tool and work piece is controlled by servo mechanism.
2 The electrode (tool) is made of graphite or copper.
3 The size of impression on work piece is exactly the same as that on electrode
(tool). (Ans:d)
3 The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is

a. Burr free
0 Not for hard metals
1 Direct contact machining
2 Capable of producing sharp
corners (Ans:a)
4 In Electron beam machining, workpiece is held in

0 vacuum chamber
1 dielectric medium
pg. 90
5 electrolyte
6 none of these
(Ans:a)
In Electron beam machining, as the electrons strikes the work piece

0 Their kinetic energy is converted into heat
They get scattered
Mechanical erosion in work piece takes place
Electro-chemical etching takes place
(Ans:a)
The vacuum in case of Electron Beam machining is of the order of a.

-2
10 mm of mercury
-5
10 mm of mercury
-7
10 mm of mercury
-9
10 mm of mercury
(Ans:b)
The cathode filament is heated to a temperature of ______ in case of Electron beam

machining
0 1200°C
1700°C
2000°C
2500°C
(Ans:d)
In Electron beam machining, the order in which electrons passed after emitted by
filament cathode
anode – diaphragm – focusing lens – Deflector coil
focusing lens – anode – diaphragm –Deflector coil
Deflector – coil anode – diaphragm – focusing lens
(Ans:b)
pg. 91
Essay type Questions <As per requirements>
0 a) Explain the mechanism of EDM showing the circuit and movements of ions. [10]
0 Discuss the advantages of electro discharge grinding. [5]
1 a) List the commonly used dielectric fluids in EDM process. What properties should they
possess? [7]
0 Explain with sketch the traveling wire electro discharge machining process. [8]
2 a) Briefly explain the rotary pulse generator in EDM process with neat sketch. [7]
0 Explain with help neat sketches any two types of flushing methods in EDM process. [8]
3 For an electrical discharge machining process discuss the following:

(i) Dielectric system
(ii) Electrodes
(iii) Power supply [15]
Case study
1 .Discuss about EDM
How rating techniques are useful in an Industry.

principles of Ergonomics
a) State the working principle and applications of Electro Discharge Machining Process.
0 What do you understand by power circuits for E.D.M.
Describe the process variable and process characteristics of Electro discharge machining
process.
Briefly describe Dielectric system, electrode, servo system, electrode refeeding and
ATC used in Electrode Discharge Machining process.
Discuss the working principle and advances in wirecut Electrode Discharge

Machining Process

machining
0 1200°C
1 1700°C
pg. 92
0 2000°C
1 2500°C
(Ans:d)
filament cathode
(Ans:b)
filament cathode
(Ans:b)
Not applicable
Electric discharge machining: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105126/40 (video)

Electro discharge machining: http://textofvideo.nptel.iitm.ac.in/112105126/lec40.pdf
pg. 93
Not applicable
Advanced Machining Processes by VK Jain

Modern Machining Processes by Pandey and Shan
Experimental Study Of Material Removal Rate, Surface Roughness & Microstructure In
pg. 94
4.4. Unit – IV – Electron Beam Machining, Laser Beam Machining
UNIT SYLLABUS
Electron Beam Machining, Laser Beam Machining - Basic Principle and theory, mechanics of
material removal, process parameters, efficiency, accuracy and applications.
4.4.1 Unit Objectives:

Study the Fundamentals of EBM & LBM.

Understand the working principle of EBM & LBM.
Study the mechanism of metal removal of EBM & LBM
Study the Surface finish, and accuracy of EBM & LBM.
Identify the economic aspects of EBM & LBM.
Identify the advantages and applications of EBM & LBM.
4.4.2 Unit Outcomes:

Describe about Generation and control of laser in LBM.
Describe about Generation and control of electrons in EBM.
Explain the principle of electron beam machining.
Explain the principle of laser beam machining.
Evaluate the cutting Speed and accuracy of cut.
List out the applications of EBM and LBM.
Write the Thermal features of EBM.
4.4.3 Unit Lecture Plan

No.
1 Basic Principle and theory of Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 220
Electron Beam Machining.
2 Basic Principle and theory of Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 189
Laser Beam Machining.
3 Mechanics of material Chalk & Board Text book
removal of EBM & LBM.
4 Process parameters of EBM & Seminar by T1: Page No. 192 &
LBM. students 223
5 Efficiency of EBM & LBM. Chalk & Board Text book
6 Accuracy of EBM & LBM Chalk & Board Text book
7 Applications of EBM & LBM PPT T1: Page No. 194 &
225
8 REVISION / CLASS Exam
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
pg. 95
4.4.4 Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.
In these methods, heat energy is concentrated on a small area of the work piece to
melt and vaporise the tiny bits of work material. The required shape is obtained by the continued
repetition of this process.
Examples :
1. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

2. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
3. Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)
4.4.4.1 LECTURE-32
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)
Working Principle:
When the high velocity beam of electrons strike the work piece, its kinetic energy is
converted into heat. This concentrated heat raises the temperature of work piece material and
vaporises a small amount of it, resulting in removal of material from the work piece.
Fig. 4.1. Mechanism of Material Removal in Electron Beam Machining
The high velocity beam of electrons strikes the workpiece. The kinetic energy of electrons
converts into heat which is responsible for melting and vaporization of workpiece material. This
pg. 96
process can produce any shape of hole; however, round holes are usually drilled in metals,
ceramics, plastics, etc. It can machine electrically conducting as well as non-conducting
materials. Before machining starts, vacuum is created in the machining chamber. The diameter of
the electron beam focussed onto the work should be slightly smaller than the desired hole
diameter. As the electron beam strikes the workpiece, the material gets heated, melted and partly
vaporized. On the exit side of the hole, the synthetic or organic backing material is used.
The electron beam after complete penetration into the workpiece, also partly penetrates in the
auxiliary backing material. The backing material vaporizes and comes out of hole at a high pressure.
The molten material is also expelled along with the vaporized backing material. In case of a non-
circular hole to be produced, the electron beam is deflected with the help of the computer control,
along the perimeter of the hole to be produced. As an alternative method, the beam can be kept
stationary but the work-table can be moved in the desired path with the help of CNC.
4.4.4.2 LECTURE-33
THEORY OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
In Electron Beam Machining process, high velocity focused beam of electrons are used to
remove the metal from the work piece. These electrons are travelling at half the velocity of light
i.e., 1.6 x 10 8 m/s. This process is best suited for micro-cutting of materials. Electron beam
machining (EBM) process is classified into two categories, viz ‘Thermal type’ and ‘Non-thermal
type’.
In the thermal type EBM process, the surface of thermo electronic cathode is heated to
such a high temperature that the electrons acquire sufficient speed to escape out to the space
around the cathode. The stream of these large number of electrons moves as a small diameter
beam of electrons towards the anode. As a result, the work piece is heated by the bombardment
of these electrons in a localized area, to such a high temperature that it is melted and vaporized at
the point of bombardment.
In the second type (non-thermal EBM) process, the electron beam is used to cause a
chemical reaction. Here, only the first type of EBM process (thermal type) is discussed.
Construction of EBM (Machining Inside the Vacuum Chamber):
The schematic arrangement of Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is shown in Fig.4.2. There
are three important elements of EBM system, viz vacuum system, electron beam gun and
power supply.
It consists of electron gun, diaphragm, focusing lens, deflector coil, work table, etc.
pg. 97
Fig. 4.2. Arrangement of Electron Beam Machining
4.4.4.3 LECTURE-34
BASIC PRINCIPLE AND THEORY OF LASER BEAM MACHINING.
In order to avoid collision of accelerated electrons with air molecules, vacuum is required.
So, the entire EBM setup is enclosed in a vacuum chamber, which carries vacuum of the
order 10~5 to 10~6 mm of mercury. This chamber carries a door, through which the work
piece is placed over the table. The door is then closed and sealed.
The electron gun is responsible for the emission of electrons, which consists of the following
three main parts.
0 Tungsten Filament — which is connected to the negative terminal of the DC power

supply and acts as cathode.
1 Grid cup — which is negatively based with respect to the filament.

pg. 98
2 Anode - which is connected to positive terminal of the DC power supply.
The focusing lens is used to focus the electrons at a point and reduces the electron beam up
to the cross sectional area of 0.01 to 0.02 mm diameter.
The electromagnetic deflector coil is used to deflect the electron beam to different spot on the
work piece. It can also be used to control the path of the cut.
4.4.4.4 LECTURE-35
BASIC PRINCIPLE AND THEORY OF LASER BEAM MACHINING.
Working of EBM
When the high voltage DC source is given to the electron gun. tungsten filament wire gets
heated .and the temperature raises upto 2500°C.
Due to this high temperature, electrons are emitted from tungsten filament. These electrons are
directed by grid cup to travel towards downwards and they are attracted by anode.
The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to achieve high velocity as half the
velocity of light {i.e.. 1.6 x 10s m /s) by applying 50 to 200 kV at the anode.
The high velocity of these electrons are maintained till they strike the workpiece. It becomes
possible because the electrons travel through the vacuum.
This high velocity electron beam, after leaving the anode, passes through the tungsten;
diaphragm and then through the electromagnetic focusing lens.
Focusing lens are used to focus the electron beam on the desired spot of the workpiece.
When the electron beam impacts on the workpiece surface, the kinetic energy of high
velocity electrons is immediately converted into the heat energy. This high intensity heat
melts and vaporises the work material at the spot of beam impact.
Since the power density is very high (about 6500 billion W/mm2), it takes a few micro
seconds to melt and vaporise the material on impact.
This process is carried out in repeated pulses of short duration. The pulse frequency may
range from 1 to 16,000 Hz and duration may range from 4 to 65,000 microseconds.
By alternately focusing and turning off the electron beam, the cutting process can be
continued as long as it is needed.
A suitable viewing device is always incorporated with the machine. So, it becomes easy for
the operator to observe the progress of machining operation.
pg. 99
4.4.4.5 LECTURE-36
MECHANICS OF MATERIAL REMOVAL OF EBM
4.4.4.6 LECTURE-37
PROCESS PARAMETERS OF EBM
The parameters which have significant influence on the beam intensity and metal removal
rate are given below:
Control of beam current.

Duration of pulse
Lens current
Control of focal distance of magnetic lens.
Control of spot diameter.
Signals for the deflection of beam
The accelerating voltage
pg. 100
The beam current
Energy per pulse
Power per pulse
Power density
The values of these parameters during EBM are controlled with the help of a computer. Beam current
varies from 100 uA to 1A and it governs the energy/pulse being supplied to the workpiece.
Higher the energy/pulse more rapidly the hole can be drilled. Pulse duration during EBM varies
in the range of 50 us to 10 ms depending upon the depth and diameter of the hole to be drilled.
Drilling using longer pulse duration results in a wider and deeper drilled hole. It also affects
HAZ as well as the thickness of the recast layer which is normally 0.025 mm or less.
The extent of both these effects should be minimum possible. The working distance (i.e. the
distance between the electron beam gun and the focal point) and the focused beam size
(diameter) are determined by the magnitude of lens current.
The shape of the hole along its axis (straight, tapered, etc.) is determined by the position of the
focal point below the top surface of the workpiece. To obtain the hole shape other than circular,
the movement of the beam can be programmed.
4.4.4.7 LECTURE-38
APPLICATIONS OF EBM
EBM is more popular in industries like aerospace, insulation, food processing, chemical, clothing,
etc. It is very useful in those cases where number of holes (simple as well as complex shaped)
required in a workpiece may range from hundreds to thousands (perforation of sheets, etc). This
Process is also used for drilling thousands of holes (diameter < 1.00 mm) in very thin plates used for
tur224 bine engine combustor domes. Many thousand holes (diameter < 1.0 mm) in a cobalt alloy
fibre spinning head of thickness around 5 mm are drilled by EBM. This drilling is claimed to be 100
times faster than EDM. Holes in the filters and screens used in food processing industries are also
made by this process. The applications o f EBM also encompass the areas like making of fine gas
orifices in space nuclear reactors, holes in wire drawing dies, cooling holes in turbine blades,
metering holes in injector nozzles of diesel engines, etc. EBM is also being employed for pattern
generation for integrated circuit fabrication. In EBM, the beam power, focus, pulse duration and
mechanical motion have been controlled numerically. This would permit more accurate and complex
shaped machining using numerically controlled EBM system (NC-EBM).
EBM is mainly used for micro-machining operations on thin materials. These operations include
drilling, perforating, slotting, and scribing, etc.
Drilling of holes in pressure differential devices used in nuclear reactors, air craft engines, etc.
It is used for removing small broken taps from holes.
pg. 101
Micro-drilling operations (upto 0.002 mm) for thin orifices, dies for wire drawing, parts of
electron microscopes, injector nozzles for diesel engines, etc.
A micromachining technique known as “Electron beam lithography”, is being used in the
manufacture of field emission cathodes, integrated circuits and computer memories.
It is particularly useful for machining of materials of low thermal conductivity and high melting
point.
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Recent researches in solid state physics have revealed a new device known as ‘LASER” which
means “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation'’. It produces a powerful,
monochromatic, collimated beam of light in which the waves are coherent. Like the electron
beam, the laser beam is also used for drilling microholes upto 25 ,um and for cutting very narrow
slots, with dimensional accuracy ± 0.025 mm. It is very costly method and can be employed only
when it is not feasible to machine a workpiece through other methods.
4.4.4.8 LECTURE-39
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LASER BEAM MACHINING
Laser works on the principle of quantum theory of radiation. Consider an atom in the ground
state or lower energy state (Ej)when the light radiation falls on the atom, it absorbs a photon of
energy h v and goes to the excited state (E2).
Fig. 4.3. Energy bands in materials
Normally, the atoms in the excited state will not stay there for a long time. It comes to the ground
state by emitting a photon of energy E = hv. Such an emission takes place by one of the
following two methods.
pg. 102
In laser beam machining process, laser beam (a powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of
light) is focused on the workpiece by means of lens to give extremely high energy density to melt
and vaporise the work material.
4.4.4.9 LECTURE-40
THEORY OF LASER BEAM MACHINING
Construction
The schematic arrangement of laser beam machining process is shown in Fig.4.4.
There are several types of lasers used for different purposes. e.g.. solid state laser, gas laser,
liquid laser and semi-conductor laser. In general, only the solid state lasers can provide
the required power levels.
The most commonly used solid state laser is ruby laser. It is the first successful laser
achieved by Mai man in 1960. It consists of ruby rod surrounded by a flash tube.
Synthetic ruby consists of a crystal of aluminium oxide in which a few of the aluminium
atoms are replaced by chromium atoms. Chromium atoms have the property of absorbing
green light.
The end surfaces of the ruby rod is made reflective by mirrors. One end of the ruby rod is
highly reflective and the other end is partially reflective.
The flash tube is called the pump and it surrounds the ruby rod in the form of spiral as shown
in Fig.5.5. This tube is filled with xenon, argon or krypton gas.
Since the ruby rod becomes less efficient at high temperatures, it is continuously cooled with
water, air or liquid nitrogen.
Since the laser beam has no effect on aluminium, the workpiece to be machined is placed on
the aluminium work table.
Working
The xenon or argon gas present in the flash tube is fired by discharging a large capacitor
through it. The electric power of 250 to 1000 watts may be needed for this operation.
This optical energy i.e., light energy from the flash tube is passed into the ruby rod.
The chromium atoms in the ruby rod are thus excited to high energy levels. The excited
atoms are highly unstable in the higher energy levels and it emits energy (photons) when
they return to the original levels.
pg. 103
Fig. 4.4. Schematic arrangement of laser beam machining process
The emitted photons, in the axis of ruby rod are allowed to pass back and forth millions of
times in the ruby with the help of mirror at the two ends. The emitted photons other than
the axis, will escape out of rod.
The chain reaction is started and a powerful coherent beam of red light is obtained.
This powerful" beam- of red light goes out of the partially reflective mirror at one end of the
ruby rod.
This highly amplified beam of light is focused through a lens, which converges it to a chosen
point on the workpiece.
This high intensity converged laser beam, when falls on the workpiece, melts and vapourise
the workpiece material.
The laser head is traversed over the work material by manually adjusting the control panel
and an operator can visually inspect the machining process.
The actual profile is obtained from a linked mechanism, made to copy the master drawing or
actual profile placed on a near-by bench.
pg. 104
4.4.4.10 LECTURE-41
APPLICATIONS OF LBM EFFICIENCY AND ACCURACY OF LBM
The laser is used for cutting and drilling. In order to achieve the best possible results in drilling,
the material should be placed within a tolerance of ± 0.2 mm focal point.
A laser has a wide range of machining applications.
1. Laser in Metal Cutting
A laser beam can be used for cutting metals, plastics, ceramics, textile, cloth and even glass,
when its surface is coated with radiation absorbing material such as carbon.
2. Laser in Drilling
Laser drilling is used in watch jewels, diamond dies and other machine parts for various
industries where a particularly high level of precision is not demanded.
Laser drilling is used in aircraft-turbine industry to make holes for air bleeds, air cooling or the
passage of other fluids. It is also used for making holes in hypodermic needles, automotive fuel
plates, various lubrication devices, holes in tungsten-carbide tool plate, holes in baby bottle
nipples, relief holes in pressure plugs, etc.
3. Laser in Welding
It is generally used for welding multilayer materials. Many metals and alloys can be laser
welded. Some of the most readily processed are low carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium,
zirconium, silicon bronze and some nickel alloys. The advantage of the laser weld is the
elimination of grinding from the entire process. In conventional welding process, electron beam
welding process and plasma welding process excess filler material is removed by grinding.
4. Laser for Surface Treatment
Gears, saw teeth, valve wear pads, and cylinder liners can be strengthened by using laser beam. The
laser is used to deposit a thin layer of cobalt alloy on the turbine blade shroud-contact areas. Argon
gas is used for shielding during deposition of the cobalt alloy and for cooling purposes. By using
laser, a thin ceramic coatings is applied on metal surface for heat and wear resistance. Laser can also
be used to seal micro cracks which are usually present in hard-chromium electroplates.
5. Other Applications
Other applications include steel metal trimming, blanking and resistor trimming. Since laser beam
machining is not a mass material removal process, it is used in mass micromachining production.

a. Multiple choice questions
pg. 105
Mechanism of material removal in Electron Beam Machining is due to
a) Mechanical erosion due to impact of high of energy electrons
b) Chemical etching by the high energy electron
c) Sputtering due to high energy electrons
d) Melting and vaporisation due to thermal effect of impingement of high energy electron
Answer – (d)
Mechanism of material removal in Laser Beam Machining is due to

Mechanical erosion due to impact of high of energy photons
Electro-chemical etching
Melting and vaporisation due to thermal effect of impingement of high energy laser beam
Fatigue failure
Answer – (c)
Generally Electron Beam Gun is operated at

a) Atmospheric pressure
b) At 1.2 bar pressure above atmosphere
c) At 10 – 100 mTorr pressure
d) At 0.01 – 0.001 mTorr pressure
Answer – (d)
Laser Beam is produced due to

Spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission followed by spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission followed by Spontaneous absorption
Spontaneous absorption leading to “population inversion” and followed by stimulated
emission
Answer – (d)
0 Which of the following non-traditional machining process will have inferior surface
finish as compared to the remaining processes?
Ultrasonic machining
Plasma arc machining
Electro discharge machining
Electron beam machining
Chemical machining
Answer: Option B

b. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
pg. 106
State the working principle of EBM?
When the high velocity beam of electrons strike the workpiece, its kinetic energy is
converted into heat. This concentrated heat raises the temperature of work material and
vaporises a small amount of it, resulting in removal of metal from the workpiece.
Explain why EBM process is performed usuallly in a vacuum chamber?
0 To avoid collision of accelerated electrons with air molecules.
1 Protect the cathode from chemical contamination and heat losses.
2 The.possibility of an. arc discharge between the electrons is prevented.
Name two methods of focusing the electron beam?
0 Electromagnetic focusing.
1 Electrostatic focusing.
Why is the deflection coil provided for electron beam machining?
The electromagnetic deflector coil is used to deflect the electron beam to different spot on
the workpiece. It can also be used to control the' path of cut.
List any two advantages of EBM?
0 Very small holes can be machined in any type of material to high accuracy.
1 It is a quicker process. Harder materials can also be machined at a faster rate than
conventional machining.
What are the limitations of EBM?
0 The metal removal rate is very slow.
1 It is not suitable for large workpieces.
2 Cost of equipment is very high.
3 A little taper produced on holes.
4 It is applicable only for thin materials.
List the applications of EBM?
0 EBM is mainly used for micromachining operations on thin materials. These
operations include,: drilling, perforating, slotting, and scribing, etc.
1 It is used for removing small broken taps from holes.
What is the acronym of LASER?
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is known as LASER. It is an
electromagnetic radiation. It produces a powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of
light in which the waves are coherent.
State the principle of LBM?
In laser beam machining process, laser beam is focused on the workpiece by means of
lens to give extremely high energy density to melt and vapourise the work material.
Give the examples of solid state laser.
0 Ruby laser.
1 Neodymium doped Yitrium — Aluminium ~ Garnet (YAG) laser.
2 Neodymium — dope d glass laser (Nd — glass)
Give the examples of gas laser?
Carbon dioxide laser and Helium (Neon laser).
pg. 107
Essay type Questions
0 Describe the electron beam machining process with a simple sketch and write
about its process parameters, advantages, and applications.
1 Discuss the following:
2 a) Limitations of LBM, b) Electron Beam Gun, c) Process parameters in
ECM.
3 Discuss the applications of Laser beam machining process in drilling,
cutting and marking systems.
4 Discuss briefly with a neat diagram the principle of Laser Beam
Machining. Give also its advantages, disadvantages and applications.
1 Problems
NA
g. Case study
NA
4.4.7 Skill Building Exercises/Assignments.

NA
a)Describe about the Electron Beam Machining. [8]
b)List and explain the process parameters of EBM. [7]
a) Discuss in detail about the thermal features of LBM and explain the construction
and working of LBM. [10]
b) Distinguish between the electron beam machine and laser beam machine. [5]
a) Briefly explain the “population inversion between energy levels” with respect to
the laser beam machining. [8]
Explain the process parameters, advantages and limitations of Electron beam

machining. [7]
4. a) What is laser? Explain how it is used to machine the materials. [5]
Explain the principle and elements of EBM, also how the work table is protected
from getting damaged by electron beam. [10]
pg. 108
Describe the electron beam machining process with a simple sketch and write about
its process parameters, advantages, and applications. [15]
a) What type of laser is best for welding metals? Why is it best? [7]
b) What are the process parameters that affect on the machining process in EBM? [8]
a) Write a note on different types of lasers used in laser beam machining process.
[9]
b) What are the advantages of electron beam welding over arc welding? [6]
a) State advantages, disadvantages and applications of Electron beam machining.

[7]
b) Explain working of Laser Beam Machining with neat sketch. [8]
a) Briefly discuss about the most important elements of electron beam machining
system.[10]
What are the major applications of Laser beam machining? [5]
10. a) Explain the advantages and limitations of LBM. [7]
Explain the principle of Laser and discuss the thermal features and analysis of LBM.
[8]
11. Discuss the following:
Limitations of LBM, b) Electron Beam Gun, c) Process parameters in ECM [15]
12. a) What is laser? Explain how it is used in manufacturing field? [7]
What are the important parameters which affect the quality of machining on LBM?
Discuss. [8]
13. a) Draw the neat sketch and explain the process of electron beam machining.
[8] b) Distinguish between EBM and LBM. [7]
5- IV B.Tech I Semester Regular/Supplementary Examinations, Nov/Dec - 2014
14. Discuss the applications of Laser beam machining process in drilling, cutting and
marking systems.
15. a) Describe the types of Lasers and explain the production of Lasers.
b) What are the process parameters recommended for the L.B.M. process?
pg. 109
16. Describe the process parameters and characteristics of the process in
Electron Beam machining process.
17. What are the working principle and the applications of electron beam
machining process? Diagrammatically show the electron beam machining system.
18. a) What is the working principle of Electron Beam Machining? What are its
advantages, disadvantages and applications?
Explain why EBM process is performed usually in a vacuum chamber.
19. a) Explain the process parameters of Laser beam machining?
Explain the principle of Electron Beam machining in detail.
20. Discuss briefly with a neat diagram the principle of Laser Beam Machining. Give
also its advantages, disadvantages and applications.
21. Write short note on the following :
a) Electron Beam Machining b) Laser beam machining
NA
NA
pg. 110
Not applicable
EBM & LBM:

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105126/41 (video)
EBM & LBM: http://textofvideo.nptel.iitm.ac.in/112105126/lec41.pdf

Not applicable
Advanced machining processes/ VK Jain/ Allied publishers.
Modern Machining Process / Pandey P.C. and Shah H.S., TMH.
New Technology / Bhattacharya A/ The Institution of Engineers. India 1984.
pg. 111
4.5 Unit – V - Plasma Machining
Plasma Machining: Application of plasma for machining, metal removal mechanism, process
parameters, accuracy and surface finish and other applications of plasma in manufacturing industries.
Study the Fundamentals of PAM.

Understand the working principle of PAM.
Study the metal removal rate of PAM.
Study the Surface finish, and accuracy of PAM.
Understand what is plasma.
Identify the advantages and applications of PAM.
4.5.2 Unit Outcomes:
0 Define Plasma machining process.

1 Explain the process of Metal removing mechanism.
2 Write the Process parameters for PAM.
3 Define Accuracy and surface finish.
4 List out the other applications of plasma in manufacturing industries.
4.5.3 Unit Lecture Plan

No.
1 Application of plasma for Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 207 &
machining 208
2 Metal removal mechanism of PPT Web reference
plasma for machining
3 Process parameters of plasma Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 211
for machining
4 Accuracy of plasma for Seminar by Text. Book
machining students
5 Surface finish of plasma for Chalk & Board Text. Book
machining
6 Other applications of plasma Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 213
in manufacturing industries
7 REVISION / CLASS
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
pg. 112
4.5.4.1 LECTURE-43
APPLICATION OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
Introduction
Solids, liquids and gases are the three familiar state of matter. In general when solid is heated, it
turns to liquids and the liquids eventually become gases. When a gas is heated to sufficiently
high temperature, the atoms (molecules) are split into free electrons and ions. The dynamical
properties of this gas of free electrons and ions are sufficiently different from the normal
unionized gas. So, it can be considered a fourth state of matter, and is given a new name,
‘PLASMA’. In other words, when a following gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of
the order of 11,000°C to 28,00D°C, it becomes partially ionized and it. is known as CPLASMA\
This is a mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions and neutral atoms. This plasma is used
for metal removing process. Plasma arc machining process is used for cutting alloy steels,
stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium and aluminum, etc.
Working Principle
In plasma arc machining process, material is removed by directing a high velocity jet of high
temperature (11,000°C to 28,000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece. This high temperature plasma
jet melts the material of the workpiece.
4.5.4.2 LECTURE-44
METAL REMOVAL MECHANISM OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
Construction and Working od PAM

Construction:
The plasma arc cutting torch carries a tungsten electrode fitted in a small chamber.
This electrode is connected to the negative terminal of a DC power supply. So it acts as a
cathode.
The positive terminal of a D.C power supply is connected to the nozzle formed near the
bottom of the chamber. So, nozzle act as an anode.
A small passage is provided on one side of the torch for supplying gas into the chamber.
Since there is a water circulation around the torch, the electrode and the nozzle remains
water cooled.
pg. 113
FIG.: PLASMA PRINCIPLE
4.5.4.3 LECTURE-45
METAL REMOVAL MECHANISM OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
Working
When a D.C power is given to the circuit, a strong arc is produced between the
electrode (cathode) and the nozzle (anode).
A gas usually hydrogen (H2) or Nitrogen (N2) is passed into the chamber.
This gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of 11,000bC to
28,000°C by using an electric arc produced between the electrode and the nozzle.
In this high temperature, the gases are ionized and large amount of thermal energy is
liberated.
This high velocity and high temperature ionized gas (plasma) is directed on the
workpiece surface through nozzle.
This plasma jet melts the metal of the workpiece and the high velocity gas stream
effectively blows the molten metal away.
The heating of workpiece material is not due to any chemical reaction, but due to the
continuous attack of plasma on the workpiece material. So, it can be safeiy used
for machining of any metal including those which can be subjected to chemical
reaction.
pg. 114
4.5.4.5 LECTURE-46
PROCESS PARAMETERS OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
The metal removal rate mainly depends on thermo-physical and metallurgical properties of the
plasma-forming gases. The most commonly used gasies are argon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen.
Since hydrogen has high heat conductivity, it is possible to achieve the best conditions for the
transfer of plasma power to the metai. Due to high cutting speed of hydrogen, smooth surface is
obtained. Hydrogen containing mixtures are used for cutting thick, high aLJoy steel plates and
good heat conductors such as copper and aluminium.
4.5.4.5 LECTURE-47
PROCESS PARAMETERS OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
Gas mixture containing hydrogen and argon (Maximum of 20%) is also used for forming plasma.
Argon gas is used to protect the tungsten electrode from the environment. But the protection is
not sufficiently reliable, since even the small deviation on the column from the axis of the nozzle
causes the damage of tungsten electrode. Besides, argon is a scare and expensive gas.
Carbon and alloy steels, cast iron, stainless steel, and aluminium are machined by using nitrogen.
The quality of plasma machining by using nitrogen is poor and the cutting speed is considerably
less compared to hydrogen-containing gases.
Air plasma is simplest and most economical method for machining. Air contains nitrogen and
oxygen. The heat conductivity of air is .higher than that of hydrogen. The speed of cutting steels
with the air piasma is 1.5 to 2 times greater than the use of nitrogen as the cutting gas. Non-
ferrous alloys can be machined by using air plasma. But the quality of the surface finish is poor.
4.5.4.6 LECTURE-48
ACCURACY OF PLASMA FOR MACHINING
Plasma arc machining is a roughing operation to an accuracy of around 1.4 mm with

corresponding surface finish. Accuracy on the width of slots and diameter of holes is ordinarily
from ± 4 mm on 100 to 150 mm thick plates.
pg. 115
4.6 Lecture-49
Surface finish of plasma for machining
From the exploratory experiment it was found that PAC for EN 31 material can be
applied in the range of current between 30 A and 40 A. Current of 30 A is capable to melt the 6
mm thick metal plate, while 40 A current is maximum available range of plasma arc cutting
machine used in this work. Also in case of pressure and stand-off distance a range of 4 bars to 5
bars and 3 mm to 4.5 mm range can be selected respectively. These combinations of stand-off
distance and pressure can provide through cut with reasonable cut quality. While for cutting
speed uniform levels cannot be selected for selected current range. Whereas, same range for
pressure and stand-off distance can be adopted.
4.6 Lecture-50
Surface finish of plasma for machining
Based on the experiments, the effect of selected input parameters on the output responses
like material removal rate and surface roughness are studied.
From graphical representation and main effects plot for MRR the current and speed are
most significant parameter followed by pressure and stand-off distance. With increase in current
and speed MRR increases. While for air pressure slight increase and then decrease is observed in
MRR and for standoff distance the effect is reverse as compared to pressure.
4.6 Lecture-51
Other applications of plasma in manufacturing industries
It is used for cutting alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium,
aluminium and alloy of copper and nickel, etc.
It is used for profile cutting.
It is successfully used for turning and milling of hard to machine materials.
It can be used for stack cutting, shape cutting, piercing and underwater cutting.
Uniform thin film spraying of refractory materials on different metals, plastics, ceramics is
also done by plasma arcs.
pg. 116
Multiple choice questions
0 For ECM of steel which is used as the electrolyte

(a) kerosene
(b) NaCl
(c) Deionised water
(d) HNO3
1 MRR in ECM depends on

Hardness of work material
atomic weight of work material
thermal conductivity of work material
ductility of work material
ECM cannot be undertaken for

(a) steel
(b) Nickel based superalloy
(c) Al2O3
(d) Titanium alloy
0 Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination of

(a) low voltage high current
(b) low current low voltage
(c) high current high voltage
(d) low current low voltage
The following device is used for converting electrical impulses into mechanical vibration in
USM
0 Transducer
1 oscillator
2 tank
3 pump
Which of the following process is used for preparing parts having large curved surfaces and thin
sections?
A. Hot machining
B. Ultra-sonic machining
C. ECM process
D. Chemical milling
Answer: Option D
In electro-discharge machining, tool is made of
brass
copper
copper tungsten alloy
all of these
pg. 117
Answer: Option D
In electro-discharge machining, dielectric is used to
A. help in the movement of the sparks
B. control the spark discharges
C. act as coolant
D. all of these
Answer: Option D
In ultra-sonic machining, tool is made of
0 diamond
1 stainless steel
Answer: Option B
10. EDM machining is applied for
2 shaping carbide dies and punches having complicated profiles
3 making large number of small holes in sieves and fuel nozzles
4 embossing and engraving on harder materials
5 all of these
Answer: Option D
True or False questions
0 Dielectric is used in electro-discharge machining (Ans: True)

1 Ultra-sonic machining is best suited for glass (Ans: True)
2 In electro-discharge machining, dielectric is used to control the spark discharges (Ans: True)
3 In ultra-sonic machining, tool is made of brass or copper (Ans: True)
4 In EDM, better surface finish is obtained at high frequency and low discharge current (Ans:
True)
5 Which of the following processes is called a micromachining operation? WJM (Ans: False)
6 Which of the following methods uses a chemical known as etchant during machining? CHM
(Ans: True)
7 In which of the following, an electrochemical oxidation on the work surface takes
place? Electrochemical grinding (Ans: True)
filament cathode anode – diaphragm – focusing lens – Deflector coil (Ans: True)
9 With Electron beam machining, a hole of ____ depth/diameter ratio can be drilled 10
(Ans: True)
Fill in the blanks type of questions
Tools and carbide tips are sharpened by__________ (Ans: Electrochemical Machining)
The spark gap in Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process is maintained such
that _________ (Ans: the gap voltage is around 70% of supply voltage)
In Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process the metal removal is carried out
by_____ (Ans: melting and vaporisation )
pg. 118
machining (Ans: 2500°C)
In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between ___mm
to___mm. (Ans: 005, 0.05)
In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order
of__________ (Ans: 10,000°C)
The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is__________ (Ans: Burr free)
In Electron beam machining, workpiece is held in_____(Ans: vacuum chamber)
With Electron beam machining, a hole of ____ depth/diameter ratio can be drilled______
(Ans: 10)
In electrochemical machining (ECM) removal of metal from the work piece takes place
__________ ( Ans: 0.5mm)
a. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
What is plasma?
When a flowing gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of 11,000°C
to 28.000°C, it becomes partially ionized and it is known as plasma.
State the working principle of PAM ?
In plasma arc machining process, material is removed by directing a high velocity jet of
high temperature (11,000°C to 28;000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece. This high
temperature plasma jet melts the material of the workpiece.
What are the gases used in PAM ?
The commonly used gases are nitrogen, hydrogen, air, mixture of nitrogen — hydrogen
and argon — hydrogen, etc.
What are the types of plasma arc torches ?
There are two types of plasma arc torches. They are :
0 Direct arc piasma torches (or) Transferred arc type.
1 Indirect arc plasma torches (or) Non-transferred arc type.
What is transferred arc type plasma ?
In transferred arc type process, electrode is connected to the negative terminal of the D.C
power supply and workpiece is connected to the positive terminal of a D.C power supply.
So, more electrical energy is transferred to the work, thus giving more heat to the work.
What is non-transferred arc type plasma ?
In non-transferred arc type, electrode is connected to the negative terminal of a D.C
power supply and nozzle is connected to the positive terminal of a D.C power supply.
When the working gas passing through the nozzle, a part of the working gas becomes
heated, ionized and emerges from the torch as the plasma jet. This plasma feeds the heat
to the workpiece. This type of torches are used for non¬conducting materials.
List any two advantages of PAM?
0 It can be used to cut any metal.
pg. 119
1 Cutting rate is high.
2 As compared to ordinary flame cutting process, it can cut plain carbon steel four
times faster.
What are the disadvantages of PAM ?
0 Cost of equipment is high.
1 It produces tapered surface.
2 Work surface may undergo metallurgical changes.
Write any two applications of PAM?
0 It is used for cutting alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium,
aluminium and alloy of copper and nickel, etc.
1 It is used for profile cutting.
2 Essay type Questions
0 Discuss the process parameters that influence on the quality of the cut in PAM.
1 Discuss the plasma arc welding and plasma arc spraying.
2 Discuss the applications of plasma in
manufacturing c. Case study
NA
NA
a)With examples explain the application of plasma for machining. [8] b)
Discuss about metal removal mechanism. [7]
a) Explain metal removal mechanism in Plasma Arc machining with neat sketch. [8]
Can you machine electrically non conductive materials by PAM? Justify your answer. [7]
3. a) Explain the parameters that are affecting the performance of plasma arc machining. [5]
What is non transferred and transferred mode of plasma arc and explain their mechanism
of material removal.[10]
a) Discuss the process parameters that influence on the quality of the cut in PAM. [8] b)
List applications of plasma in manufacturing industries. [7]
a) How MRR could be effect on surface finish and Accuracy in PAM. [8]
b) List the applications plasma in machining. [7]

pg. 120
a) Discuss the process parameters that influence on the quality of the cut in PAM. [10] b)
Write applications of plasma arc machining. [5]
a) Write a note on process performance in plasma arc cutting process. [7]
b) Sketch and explain non-transferred plasma arc system. [8]
8. a) Discuss the plasma arc welding and plasma arc spraying. [7]
What are the different modes of operation of plasma torches? Explain. [8
9. a) Discuss the applications of plasma in manufacturing. [10]
Explain with neat sketch transferred plasma arc system. [5]
Discuss the process parameters which affect the quality of surface finish in the following
processes:
Chemical Machining
Plasma arc machining [15]
Draw the neat sketch and discuss the working of Plasma arc machining and also list out
the advantages, limitations of the process. [15]
a) Enumerate the differences between chemical machining and electrochemical

machining. [8]
b) Discuss the main applications of plasma Cutting system. [7]
Describe the various elements used in Plasma Arc Cutting System. How the performance of
the process is measured.
What is the working principle of Plasma Arc Machining system? Under what medium
does the PAC system use DC power source?
a) Describe the direct and indirect arc plasma torches.
b) What is importance of plasma in manufacturing process?
What are the advantages of plasma arc cutting over other unconventional machining
process?
6- IV B.Tech I Semester Regular Examinations, Dec – 2013
Explain metal removal mechanism of PAM. How do you control surface finish?
pg. 121
Explain Plasma Arc Machining with a neat sketch. State also its advantages,
disadvantages and applications?
a) Explain the process parameters of Plasma Arc Machining.
b) Write the applications of plasma in manufacturing industries.
What is plasma? How do you generate it? What are the applications of plasma in
manufacturing industry?
Write short note on the limitations of the following :
a) Abrasive flow finishing b) Electro-stream drilling.
NA
NA
Synergy Castings limited Synergy castings Duvvada Visakhapatnam private
Not applicable
pg. 122
NA
Not applicable

pg. 123
4.6 Unit-wise course material
UNIT SYLLABUS
Abrasive jet machining, Water jet machining and abrasive water jet machining; Basic principles,
equipment’s, process variables, mechanics of material removal, MRR, application and limitations.
Magnetic abrasive finishing, abrasive flow finishing, Electro stream drilling, shaped tube electrolytic
machining.

major components of AJM,WJM &AWJM equipment
the process parameters of AJM,WJM &AWJM
the applications of AJM,WJM &AWJM
the limitations of AJM,WJM &AWJM
List out the Basic principles AWJM,

Describe the Equipment for AJM.
Define Metal Removal Rate (MRR).
List out the Application and limitations of AJM.
4.6.3 Unit Lecture Plan:

No.
1 Basic principles, equipment’s Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 10, 11 12,
& process variables of 13 & 18
Abrasive jet machining.
2 Basic principles, equipment’s PPT T1: Page No. 95, 96
& process variables of Water &97
jet machining.
3 Basic principles, equipment’s Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 103-106
& process variables of
abrasive water jet machining.
4 Mechanics of material Seminar by Text. Book
removal and MRR. students
5 Application and limitations. Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 19, 98,
117
6 Magnetic abrasive finishing. Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 77
7 Abrasive flow finishing. Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 58
8 Electro stream drilling. Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 291
9 Shaped tube electrolytic Chalk & Board T1: Page No. 316
machining.
10 REVISION / CLASS
TEST/ASSIGNMENTS
pg. 124
4.6.4.1 Lecture-53
Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of Abrasive jet machining
The classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of

energy used for material removal and one of the classification is given as
follows:
• Mechanical Processes
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
Abrasive Jet Machining
In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the
work material at a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas
or air. The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure
energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The
nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the
distance between the nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can be set
desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting
action as well as brittle fracture of the work material. Fig. 6.1 schematically shows the
material removal process.
pg. 125
4.6.4.2 Lecture-54
Fig. 6.1 Schematic representation of AJM
AJM is different from standard shot or sand blasting, as in AJM, finer abrasive
grits are used and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better
control over product quality.
In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge
on the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a stand
off distance of around 2 mm. The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be
sufficient to provide material removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even
micro cutting by the abrasives.
Equipment
In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure

of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas as shown in Fig. 6.2. Fig. 6.2 also shows the
other major parts of the AJM system. Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier
gas which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a
carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the
desired working pressure. The gas is then passed through an air dryer to remove any
residual water vapour.
pg. 126
Fig. 6.2 AJM set-up
To remove any oil vapour or particulate contaminant the same is passed through a
series of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a closed chamber known as the mixing
chamber. The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic
sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate
of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of
the sieve and its frequency. The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to
the machining chamber via an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure
is essential to contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly
manner. The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are
issued from the nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.
4.6.4.3 Lecture-55

Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics.
The process parameters are listed below:
Abrasive
Material – Al2O3 / SiC / glass beads
Shape – irregular / spherical
Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
Carrier gas
Composition – Air, CO2, N2
Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas – [Mabr /Mgas]
0 Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm
Impingement Angle – 600 ~ 900
pg. 127
0 Nozzle
Material – WC / sapphire
Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
Life – 10 ~ 300 hours
3
0 The material removal rate (MRR) mm /min or gm/min
The machining accuracy
The life of the nozzle
Fig. 6.3. depicts the effect of some process parameters on MRR
4.6.4.4 Lecture-56
Fig. 6.3 Effect of process parameters MRR
pg. 128
4.6.4.5 Lecture-57
Mechanics of material removal and MRR
Modelling of material removal
As mentioned earlier, material removal in AJM takes place due to brittle fracture of the
work material due to impact of high velocity abrasive particles.
Modelling has been done with the following assumptions:
Abrasives are spherical in shape and rigid. The particles are characterised by the mean grit
diameter
The kinetic energy of the abrasives are fully utilised in removing material
Brittle materials are considered to fail due to brittle fracture and the fracture volume is
considered to be hemispherical with diameter equal to chordal length of the indentation
For ductile material, removal volume is assumed to be equal to the indentation volume due to
particulate impact.
Fig. 6.4. schematically shows the interaction of the abrasive particle and the work
material in AJM.
4.6.4.6 Lecture-58
Mechanics of material removal and MRR
Fig. 6.4. Interaction of abrasive particles with workpiece
pg. 129
pg. 130
pg. 131
Applications
0For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials
For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials

AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and etching.
Micro-machining of brittle materials
Limitations
3
MRR is rather low (around ~ 15 mm /min for machining glass)
Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the work material is ductile
Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet
Environmental load is rather high.
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
pg. 132
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are two non-
traditional or non-conventional machining processes. They belong to mechanical group of
non-conventional processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM). In these processes (WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water and abrasive
phases are used to achieve material removal or machining.
WJM and AWJM can be achieved using different approaches and methodologies as enumerated
below:
WJM - Pure
WJM - with stabilizer
AWJM – entrained – three phase – abrasive, water and air
AWJM – suspended – two phase – abrasive and water
o Direct pumping
o Indirect pumping
o Bypass pumping
However in all variants of the processes, the basic methodology remains the same. Water is
pumped at a sufficiently high pressure, 200-400 MPa (2000-4000 bar) using intensifier technology.
An intensifier works on the simple principle of pressure amplification using hydraulic cylinders of
different cross-sections as used in “Jute Bell Presses”. When water at such pressure is issued
through a suitable orifice (generally of 0.2- 0.4 mm dia), the potential energy of water is converted
into kinetic energy, yielding a high velocity jet (1000 m/s). Such high velocity water jet can machine
thin sheets/foils of aluminium, leather, textile, frozen food etc.
In pure WJM, commercially pure water (tap water) is used for machining purpose.
However as the high velocity water jet is discharged from the orifice, the jet tends to entrain
atmospheric air and flares out decreasing its cutting ability. Hence, quite often stabilisers (long
chain polymers) that hinder the fragmentation of water jet are added to the water.
In AWJM, abrasive particles like sand (SiO 2), glass beads are added to the water jet to
enhance its cutting ability by many folds. AWJ are mainly of two types – entrained and suspended
type as mentioned earlier. In entrained type AWJM, the abrasive particles are allowed to entrain in
water jet to form abrasive water jet with significant velocity of 800 m/s. Such high velocity abrasive
jet can machine almost any material. Fig. 6.5. shows the photographic view of a commercial CNC
water jet machining system along with close-up view of the cutting head.
pg. 133
Fig. 6.5 Commercial CNC water jet machining system and cutting heads (Photograph Courtesy
– Omax Corporation, USA)
Application
The applications and materials, which are generally machined using WJ and AWJ, are given
below:
Paint removal
Cleaning
Cutting soft materials
Cutting frozen meat
Textile, Leather industry
Mass Immunization
Surgery
Peening
Cutting
Pocket Milling
Drilling
Turning
Nuclear Plant Dismantling
Materials
Steels
Non-ferrous alloys
Ti alloys, Ni- alloys
Polymers
Honeycombs
Metal Matrix Composite
Ceramic Matrix Composite
Concrete
Stone – Granite
Wood
Reinforced plastics
pg. 134
Metal Polymer Laminates
Glass Fibre Metal Laminates
The cutting ability of water jet machining can be improved drastically by adding hard and sharp
abrasive particles into the water jet. Thus, WJM is typically used to cut so called “softer” and
“easy-to-machine” materials like thin sheets and foils, non-ferrous metallic alloys, wood,
textiles, honeycomb, polymers, frozen meat, leather etc, but the domain of “harder and
“difficult-to-machine” materials like thick plates of steels, aluminium and other commercial
materials, metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, reinforced plastics, layered composites
etc are reserved for AWJM.
Other than cutting (machining) high pressure water jet also finds application in paint removal,
cleaning, surgery, peening to remove residual stress etc. AWJM can as well be used besides
cutting for pocket milling, turning, drilling
etc. One of the strategic areas where robotic AWJM is finding critical application is dismantling
of nuclear plants.
WJM and AWJM have certain advantageous characteristics, which helped to achieve significant
penetration into manufacturing industries.
Extremely fast set-up and programming

Very little fixturing for most parts
Machine virtually any 2D shape on any material
Very low side forces during the machining
Almost no heat generated on the part
Machine thick plates
Abrasive Water Jet Machining

Any standard abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) system using
entrained AWJM methodology consists of following modules.
pg. 135
Water Jet Machining
pg. 136
pg. 137
pg. 138
pg. 139
pg. 140
pg. 141
pg. 142
pg. 143
a. Multiple choice questions
pg. 144
AJM nozzles are made of
(a) low carbon steel
(b) HSS
(c) WC
(d) Stainless steel (Ans: c)
Material removal in AJM of glass is around

3
(a) 0.1 mm /min
3
(b) 15 mm /min
3
(c) 15 mm /s
3
(d) 1500 mm /min (Ans: b)
Material removal takes place in AJM due to
(a) electrochemical action
(b) mechanical impact
(c) fatigue failure of the material
(d) sparking on impact (Ans: b)
As the stand off distance increases, the depth of penetration in AJM
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) does not change
(d) initially increases and then remains steady (Ans: b )
pg. 145
Objective type of questions(Very short notes)

Problem
0 Estimate the material removal rate in AJM of a brittle material with flow strength of 4
GPa. The abrasive flow rate is 2 gm/min, velocity is 200 m/s and density of the abrasive is
3 gm/cc.
3
Material removal rate in AJM is 0.5 mm /s. Calculate material removal per impact if
mass flow rate of abrasive is 3 gm/min, density is 3 gm/cc and grit size is 60 μm as well
as indentation radius.
pg. 146
pg. 147
List different modules of AWJM systems

Ans:
LP booster pump
Hydraulic unit
Additive Mixer
Intensifier
Accumulator
Flexible high pressure transmission line
On-off valve
Orifice
Mixing Chamber
Focussing tube or inserts
Catcher Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
CNC table
Abrasive metering device
Catcher
2. List different WJM and AWJM systems
Ans:
WJM - Pure
WJM - with stabilizer
pg. 148
AWJM – entrained – three phase – abrasive, water and air
AWJM – suspended – two phase – abrasive and water
o Direct pumping
o Indirect pumping
o Bypass pumping
3. Identify the limitations of AWJM from environmental issues
Ans:
water recycling
spent water disposal
chip recovery
abrasive recovery and reuse
4. List quality parameters associated with AWJM
Ans:
striation formation
surface finish of the kerf
tapering of the kerf
burr formation on the exit side of the kerf
Eg:- -Prepare a model of something
-Trace something
-Prepare a report on something etc.,
1. a) Discuss in detail about abrasive jet machining. [8]
Explain the differences between water jet machining and abrasive jet machining. [7]
2. a)Discuss in detail about the electro stream drilling.[8]
Describe about abrasive jet machining.[7]
a) Draw the schematic layout of abrasive jet machine and explain its operational
characteristics. What are the methods adopted to have an effective control over the mass
flow rate of the abrasive. [10]
b) What are the applications of water jet machining? [5]
pg. 149
Explain with neat sketch, working of Electro stream drilling and discuss their advantages,
limitations and applications. [15]
a) Write short notes on material removal rate and wear rate of nozzle in WJM. [8]
b) Explain how material is removed in AWJM. [7]
Explain in detail about working principle, advantages and applications of shaped tube
electrolytic machining. [15]
a) Discuss the effect of following process parameters on MRR in AJM.
i). Stand of distance and MRR [3]
ii). Effect of abrasive grain size and flow on MRR
[3] iii). Effect of Mixing ratio on MRR [3]
b) State clearly the process capabilities of AJM [6]
a) Explain in detail about applications of shaped tube electrolytic machining. [8] b)
Explain working of abrasive flow finishing with neat sketch. [7]
a) Explain the working principle of Water jet cutting with neat sketch. [8]
Material removal rat in AJM is 0.5 mm3/sec. calculate MRR/impact if the mass flow rate
of abrasive is 3gm/min, density is 3 gm/CC and grit size is 60 microns. Also calculate the
indentation radius. [7]
10. Write short notes on following:
i). Principle of magnetic abrasive finishing [5]
ii). Applications of abrasive flow finishing [5]
iii). Limitations of Electrostream drilling [5]
a) Write the applications of different types of abrasives used in AJM. [8] b)
Write advantages, limitations and applications of Water jet machining. [7]
Explain the principle of abrasive flow finishing with neat sketch. State their
Advantages, limitations and Applications. [15]
a) Explain how would select the best possible abrasive and nozzle materials to be used in
abrasive jet machining. [8]
b) Discuss the applications of Abrasive water jet machining. [7]
pg. 150
Mention advantages and limitations of electro stream drilling and how this process is
suitable for machining brittle materials. [15]
a) State clearly the process capability of AJM. [6]
b) Explain with block diagram of water jet machining. [9]
Explain the principle of Magnetic abrasive finishing with neat sketch. State their
Advantages, limitations and Applications. [15]
Write five important variables of AJM process. Draw a sketch showing the effect of
these variables on MRR. [15]
a) Explain in detail about applications of shaped tube electrolytic machining. [7]
b) Explain working of Electro Stream Drilling with neat sketch. [8]
Describe the AJM process with the help of neat sketch and list out the advantages and
limitations of AJM. [15]
Write working principle and uses of the following process:
Magnetic abrasive finishing process
Abrasive jet machining process
Electro stream drilling
Shaped tube electrolyte machining [15]
Draw the simple sketch of Abrasive Water jet machine, label the important parts and
discuss the working process. Also write the various abrasive particles used in the
process. [15]
Write the important process parameters of the following process:
a) Explain the effect of various parameters which affect the on the surface finish and rate
of metal removal in abrasive water jet machining. [8]
b) Enumerate the differences between water jet machining and abrasive jet machining. [7]
pg. 151
Explain the important characteristics of the following process: a)
b) Abrasive jet machining process
c) Electro stream drilling
d) Shaped tube electrolyte machining [15]
a) Explain the process control measures to be taken to control quality and MRR.[8] b)
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of AJWM. [7]
Write the applications and limitations of the following process:
Describe the working principle of Abrasive Jet machining using schematic diagram.
a) Describe the various parameters that effects the working of magnetic abrasive
finishing process.
Explain the importance of electrosteam drilling and write its significance.
29. Discuss the parametric analysis of Abrasive jet machining.
30. a) Briefly describe the shaped tube electrolytic machining system.
What is meant by abrasive flow finishing process?
31. Derive the material removal rate for brittle and ductile material for abrasive jet
machining.
32. Explain the working principle and process performance of electro stream drilling
process.
33. Discuss the process capabilities and applications of abrasive jet machining process.
Describe the working principle of magnetic abrasive finishing process using aschematic
diagram.
pg. 152
Explain clearly with a neat diagram, Abrasive Jet Machining method. State also its
advantages, disadvantages and applications.
What is the principle of Shaped tube electrolytic machining? Explain its advantages and
typical applications.
Explain the method of Water Jet Machining with a schematic diagram . Name the
typical materials that can be machined with Water Jet Machining.
Discuss the differences between Magnetic Abrasive finishing and Abrasive Flow
finishing.
a) Explain the method of Abrasive Jet Machining with a schematic diagram.
b) Write the advantages and applications of Water Jet Machining.
What is the principle of Electro-stream drilling? What are its specific

advantages?Explain its applications.
a) Explain the mechanics of metal removal in Abrasive Jet machining. b)
Write about the process variables in Abrasive Jet machining method.
NA
4.6.10 Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round -

Placements)
NA
pg. 153
Nithin Cylinders V.S. Laxmi narayana Duvvada Visakhapatnam private
1. Mr.N. Srinivasa Rao , General Manager Sahuwala cylinders

NA

Not applicable
pg. 154
Reference text books/web material etc.,
Textbooks:
0 Advanced machining processes/ VK Jain/ Allied publishers.
1 Modern Machining Process / Pandey P.C. and Shah H.S., TMH.
2 New Technology / Bhattacharya A/ The Institution of Engineers. India 1984.
pg. 155
Mid Question Paper + Schemes of Evaluation.
<Please include atleast three mid 1 and three mid 2 papers with scheme of evaluation
for each of them. Note: All of the papers are to be included here in this section as
softcopy. Please do not attach scanned hardcopies at the end.>
IV B.Tech-I Sem Mechanical Engineering

MID –I EXAMINATION
Subject: Unconventional Machining Processes
Name: Max Marks: 15M
Why are non conventional machining processes preferred for hard materials? Explain.
Draw the simple sketch of Ultrasonic Machine; label the important components
on it. Explain its working and applications in detail.
Discuss the process capabilities and applications of abrasive jet machining process.
Scheme of evaluation:
Write the need of non conventional machining processes preferred for hard materials.
Draw the simple sketch of Ultrasonic Machine; label the components on it. Write working and
applications
Write any six applications of abrasive jet machining process.
IV B.Tech-I Sem Mechanical Engineering

MID –II EXAMINATION
Subject: Unconventional Machining Processes
Name of the Faculty: Max Marks: 15M
Describe about the Electron Beam Machining with neat sketch.

Sketch and explain plasma arc machining process.
Explain the working principle of Water jet machining with neat sketch.
Scheme of evaluation:
0 Draw the diagram of electron beam machining and write description.
1 Draw the diagram of plasma arc machining
2 Draw the diagram of water jet machining and write the Principle.
pg. 156
Fast track material for Back-Log students.
0 A) Explain about non traditional machining process
Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes on the other hand are characterized as
follows:
1 Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation may take
place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical
machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
2 In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet machining,
machining is carried out by laser beam. However in Electrochemical Machining there is a
physical tool that is very much required for machining.
3 In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For example, in EDM,
copper is used as the tool material to machine hardened steels.
Need for non-traditional machining methods
In conventional machining the ability of the cutting tool is utilized to stress the
material beyond the yield point to start the material removal process. This requires that
the cutting tool material be harder than the work piece material. A harder and difficult to
machine materials such as carbides, stainless steel, nitralloy, hastelloy and many other
high strength-temperature resistant alloys find wide application in aerospace and nuclear
engineering industries.
Explain the principle and working of usm?
PRINCIPLE OF USM:
In this machining method, a slurry of small abrasive particles are forced against the work
piece by means of a vibrating tool and it causes the removal of metal from the work piece
in the form of extremely small chips.
Fig. 1.4:USM Working Principle
pg. 157
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
Construction: The general arrangement of ultrasonic machining is shown in Fig.1.3.
It consists of abrasive slurry, work piece, fixture, table, cutting tool, circulating pump,
reservoir, ultrasonic oscillator, leads, excitation coil, feed mechanism, ultrasonic
transducer, transducer cone, connecting body and tool holder.
The ultrasonic oscillator and amplifier also known as generator is used to convert the applied
electrical energy at low frequency to high frequency.
The transducer is made up of magnetostrictive material and it consists of a stack of nickel
laminations that are wound with a coil.
The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy, into mechanical energy.
An abrasive slurry, usually a mixture of abrasive grains and water of definite proportion (20-
30 percent), is made to flow tinder pressure through the gap between tool and. work
piece. The gap between the tool and work piece is of the order 0.02 to 0.1 mm.
The most commonly used abrasives are boron carbide (134C), silicon carbide (SiC),
aluminium oxide Al2O3),( and diamond. Boron carbide is most commonly used abrasive
slurry, since it has the fastest cutting abrasive property.
Working:
Electric power is given to ultrasonic oscillator and this oscillator converts the electrical
energy at low frequency to high frequency (20 kHz).
High frequency power (20 kfli) from oscillator is supplied to the transducer.
The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy into mechanical vibrations.
The transducer is made up of magnetostrictive material, which is excited by flowing high
frequency electric current and this results in the generation of mechanical vibrations. The
vibrations are generated in the transducer of the order of 20 kHz to 30 kHz and hence
ultrasonic waves are produced.
Abrasive slurry pinnped from the reservoir and it is made to flow under pressure through the
gap between tools. and. / work piece.
In an abrasive 'slurry, when the cutting tool vibrates at high frequency, it leads in the removal
of metal from the work piece.
The ultrasonic machining process is a copying process in which the shape of the cutting tool
is same as that of the cavity produced.
ELEMENTS OF USM PROCESS:

High Power Sine Wave generator (Ultrasonic Wave Generator)
Acoustic Head (Ultrasonic Transducer)
Tool Connector (Tool holder) (Horn)
Tool
Abrasive Slurry (Vibrating Abrasives)
Work Material
pg. 158
Explain about Electro chemical grinding?
Electrochemical grinding
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) utilizes a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel,
electrolyte solution, and a positively charged workpiece, as shown in Fig. The process is,
therefore, similar to ECM except that the cathode is a specially constructed grinding
wheel instead of a cathodic shaped tool like the contour to be machined by ECM. The
insulating abrasive material (diamond or aluminum oxide) of the grinding wheel is set in
a conductive bonding material. In ECG, the nonconducting abrasive particles act as a
spacer between the wheel conductive bond and the anodic workpiece. Depending on the
grain size of these particles, a constant interelectrode gap (0.025 mm or less) through
which the electrolyte is flushed can be maintained.
Fig2.2 Surface ECG
The abrasives continuously remove the machining products from the working area. In the
machining system shown in Fig.2.3, the wheel is a rotating cathodic tool with abrasive
particles (60–320 grit number) on its periphery. Electrolyte flow, usually NaNO 3, is
provided for ECD. The wheel rotates at a surface speed of 20 to 35 m/s, while current
ratings are from 50 to 300 A.
Explain the Working of Electric discharge grinding? Working
principle of Electric Discharge grinding (EDG)
Electrical discharge grinding (EDG) is a non-traditional thermal process for machining
difficult to machine hard and brittle electrically conductive materials. It is a process
which is basically the same as EDM. EDG has been developed by replacing the
stationary electrode used in electrical discharge machining (EDM) with rotating
electrode. In EDG process, material is removed melting and vaporization as same as
EDM process. But there are ample differences with EDM instead of mechanism of
material. In EDG process, an electrically conductive wheel is used as a tool electrode
instead of stationary tool electrode used in EDM. There is no contact with work piece and
tool electrode (rotating wheel) except during electric discharge.
pg. 159
Due to the rotational motion of wheel electrode, the peripheral speed of wheel transmitted
to the stationary dielectric into gap between work piece and wheel resulting flushing
efficiency of process is enhanced. Therefore, the molten material is effectively ejected
from gap and no debris accumulation take place into gap while in EDM debris
accumulation is major problem which adverse effect on performances of process. Due to
the enhanced in flushing, higher material removal and better surface finish is obtained as
compare to the conventional EDM process. At the same machining condition, EDG gives
better performances than EDM and it is machined extremely hard materials faster (2-3
times) as compare to the conventional grinding. The high speed of wheel is not always
beneficial and after a certain value of speed, the spark becomes instable and produces
adverse effect on performance. There is no physical contact between work piece and
wheel, so that the process becomes more advantageous for machining thin and fragile
electrically conductive materials.
Dielectric Flow
Dielectric
Working principle and operation of EDG.

5. Explain the working of electron beam machining?
In the thermal type EBM process, the surface of thermo electronic cathode is
heated to such a high temperature that the electrons acquire sufficient speed to escape out
to the space around the cathode. The stream of these large number of electrons moves as
a small diameter beam of electrons towards the anode. As a result, the work piece is
heated by the bombardment of these electrons in a localized area, to such a high
temperature that it is melted and vaporized at the point of bombardment.
In the second type (non-thermal EBM) process, the electron beam is used to cause
a chemical reaction. Here, only the first type of EBM process (thermal type) is discussed.
pg. 160
Construction of EBM (Machining Inside the Vacuum Chamber):
The schematic arrangement of Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is shown in Fig.5.1. There
are three important elements of EBM system, viz vacuum system, electron beam gun and
power supply.
It consists of electron gun, diaphragm, focusing lens, deflector coil, work table, etc.
Arrangement of Electron Beam Machining
In order to avoid collision of accelerated electrons with air molecules, vacuum is required.
So, the entire EBM setup is enclosed in a vacuum chamber, which carries vacuum of the
order 10~5 to 10~6 mm of mercury. This chamber carries a door, through which the work
piece is placed over the table. The door is then closed and sealed.
The electron gun is responsible for the emission of electrons, which consists of the following
three main parts.
0Tungsten Filament — which is connected to the negative terminal of the DC power

supply and acts as cathode.
pg. 161
1Grid cup — which is negatively based with respect to the filament.
2Anode - which is connected to positive terminal of the DC power supply.

The focusing lens is used to focus the electrons at a point and reduces the electron beam up to
the cross sectional area of 0.01 to 0.02 mm diameter.
The electromagnetic deflector coil is used to deflect the electron beam to different spot on the
work piece. It can also be used to control the path of the cut.
Explain the working of Laser beam machining?
Working
The xenon or argon gas present in the flash tube is fired by discharging a large capacitor
through it. The electric power of 250 to 1000 watts may be needed for this operation.
This optical energy i.e., light energy from the flash tube is passed into the ruby rod.
The chromium atoms in the ruby rod are thus excited to high energy levels. The excited
atoms are highly unstable in the higher energy levels and it emits energy (photons) when
they return to the original levels.
pg. 162
The emitted photons, in the axis of ruby rod are allowed to pass back and forth millions of
times in the ruby with the help of mirror at the two ends. The emitted photons other than
the axis, will escape out of rod.
The chain reaction is started and a powerful coherent beam of red light is obtained.
This powerful" beam- of red light goes out of the partially reflective mirror at one end of the
ruby rod.
This highly amplified beam of light is focused through a lens, which converges it to a chosen
point on the workpiece.
This high intensity converged laser beam, when falls on the workpiece, melts and vapourise
the workpiece material.
The laser head is traversed over the work material by manually adjusting the control panel
and an operator can visually inspect the machining process.
The actual profile is obtained from a linked mechanism, made to copy the master drawing or
actual profile placed on a near-by bench.
Explain the Working and construction of PAM?
Working Principle
In plasma arc machining process, material is removed by directing a high velocity jet of
high temperature (11,000°C to 28,000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece. This high
temperature plasma jet melts the material of the workpiece
Construction and Working od PAM

The plasma arc cutting torch carries a tungsten electrode fitted in a small chamber.
This electrode is connected to the negative terminal of a DC power supply. So it acts as a
cathode.
The positive terminal of a D.C power supply is connected to the nozzle formed near the
bottom of the chamber. So, nozzle act as an anode.
A small passage is provided on one side of the torch for supplying gas into the chamber.
Since there is a water circulation around the torch, the electrode and the nozzle remains water
cooled.
pg. 163
Working
When a D.C power is given to the circuit, a strong arc is produced between the electrode
(cathode) and the nozzle (anode).
A gas usually hydrogen (H2) or Nitrogen (N2) is passed into the chamber.
This gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of 11,000bC to 28,000°C by
using an electric arc produced between the electrode and the nozzle.
In this high temperature, the gases are ionized and large amount of thermal energy is
liberated.
This high velocity and high temperature ionized gas (plasma) is directed on the workpiece
surface through nozzle.
This plasma jet melts the metal of the workpiece and the high velocity gas stream effectively
blows the molten metal away.
The heating of workpiece material is not due to any chemical reaction, but due to the
continuous attack of plasma on the workpiece material. So, it can be safeiy used for
machining of any metal including those which can be subjected to chemical reaction.
Explain the Working principle of AJM process?
pg. 164
Schematic representation of AJM
AJM is different from standard shot or sand blasting, as in AJM, finer abrasive grits are
used and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better control over
product quality.
In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge on the
work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a stand off
distance of around 2 mm. The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient
to provide material removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting
by the abrasives.
Equipment
In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5
bar is used as the carrier gas as shown in Fig. 6.2. Fig. 6.2 also shows the other major parts of
the AJM system. Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be
issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is
first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. The gas is
then passed through an air dryer to remove any residual water vapour.
pg. 165
AJM set-up
To remove any oil vapour or particulate contaminant the same is passed through a series
of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a closed chamber known as the mixing chamber. The
abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve. The sieve is
constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of abrasive (15
gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its
frequency. The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining
chamber via an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to
contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner. The
machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the
nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.
pg. 166
Sample Question Papers with solutions
0 a) Explain few differences between water jet machining and abrasive jet machining. 3M
0 Draw the simple sketch of Ultrasonic Machine and label the important components on it.
1 Explain functions of electrolyte used in ECM and name three electrolytes.
2 List out few differences between the electron beam machine and laser beam machine
3 Discuss about metal removal mechanism of PAM.
1 a) Give a classification scheme for the unconventional machining processes based on

mechanism of material removal and mention the energy transfer media.
0 Distinguish between non-traditional machining methods and traditional methods in
respect of MRR, surface finish, accuracy and cost.
2 a) Explain the method of Water Jet Machining with a schematic diagram. Name the typical
materials that can be machined with Water Jet Machining
0 Discuss the effect of following process parameters on MRR in AJM.
3 Stand of distance and MRR [3]
4 Effect of abrasive grain size and flow on MRR [3]
5 Effect of Mixing ratio on MRR [2]
a) Explain the mechanism of EDM showing the circuit and movements of ions. b)
Describe the wire cut EDM process with neat sketch.
a) Enumerate the differences between chemical machining and electrochemical machining. b)

Explain the working principle and the process of ECM with the help of neat sketch.
a) Draw the neat sketch and explain the process of electron beam machining. b)
Discuss the applications of plasma in manufacturing.
a) Write short note on the following:

0 Abrasive flow finishing ii) Magnetic abrasive finishing.
b) Explain in detail about applications of shaped tube electrolytic machining.
pg. 167
Virtual Labs if required
0 Please provide the details of any virtual labs if applicable. Please provide the links
to the videos etc. Please do NOT embed videos as it will increase the size of the
documents.
pg. 168
10. Mapping of Assignments / Question Papers with course objective learning outcomes.
Course Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Add more

objective t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 columns if
there are
extra
assignment
s
Please Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No

write
Objectiv
e 1 from
section 1

write
Objectiv
e 2 from
section 1
So on….
Learning Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Add more

Outcome t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 columns if
s there are
extra
assignment
s

write
Learning
Outcome
1 from
section 1
pg. 169
Pleas Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No
e
write
Learning
Outcome
2 from
section 1
So on….
pg. 170
Bloom’s Taxonomy checklist
Bloom's Digital Taxonomy Checklist

Check the skills that apply to determine the level at which the student is working
Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Cre

bookmarking comparing building classifying appraising animating
choosing diagramming constructing dissecting blogging constructing
defining explaining developing distinguishing critiquing designing
finding interpreting editing examining defending developing
labeling outlining experimenting with inspecting disproving elaborating
listing relating modeling linking influencing imagining
matching summarizing playing mashing interpreting inventing
recalling tagging solving simplifying measuring publishing
pg. 171
pg. 172

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COURSE FILE

UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

S.NO. Content Page No.

Mapping of Assignments / Question Papers with course objective learning 169

1.1. Course Objectives

The objectives of the course are:

0 The course aims in identifying the classification of unconventional machining

1 To understand the principle, mechanism of metal removal of various

unconventional machining processes.

unconventional machining processes.

machined on various unconventional machining processes.

4 To understand the applications of different processes.

1.2. Course Outcomes

After completing this Course, the student should be able to:

0 List out the different types of unconventional machining processes.

1 Understand the principle of working of each and every unconventional machine.

2 Understand the mechanism of metal removal in the various unconventional

3 Identify the process parameters and their effect.

4 Identify the applications of different processes.

5 Give the applications for the different machining processes.

6 Debate on which machining process can be performed on which type of work.

Introduction: Need for non-traditional machining methods- classification of modern machining

Electro - Chemical Machining: Fundamentals of electro chemical machining, electrochemical

Lecture Unit Number Topic

12. Fundamentals of electro chemical machining and

22. General principle and applications of Electric Discharge

32. Basic Principle and theory of Electron Beam Machining.

43. Application of plasma for machining.

53. Basic principles, equipment’s & process variables of Abrasive

4.1. Unit – I – Introduction & Ultrasonic machining

Introduction: Need for non-traditional machining methods- classification of modern machining

4.1.1. Unit Objectives:

Define non-traditional machining methods.

4.1.3. Unit Lecture Plan

0 Conventional Machining Processes

Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of chips by

The major characteristics of conventional machining are:

0 Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation,

S.No. Material Method of Machining

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Mechanical Energy Thermoelectric Energy Electro Chemical and

1. Mechanical Energy Methods:

In mechanical energy methods, the material is removed by mechanical erosion of

1 Thermoelectric Energy Methods:

A. Thermal Energy Methods:

In these methods, heat energy is concentrated on a small area of the work

B. Electrical energy methods:

1 Electro Chemical and Chemical Energy Methods:

A. Electro Chemical Energy Methods:

In these methods, material is removed ion displacement of work piece

1 Chemical Energy Methods:

In order to make use of non-traditional machining processes efficiently, it is necessary to

For producing micro holes - LBM is best suited.

For producing small holes - EBM is well suited.

For shallow holes - USM and EDM are well suited.

For honing - ECM is well suited.

For Grinding - AJM and EDM are best suited.

For deburring - USM and AJM are well suited.

For threading - EDM is best suited.

For clean, rapid cuts and profiles - PAM is well suited.

For shallow - AJM is well suited.

The machining characteristics can be analyzed with respect to