Skillful LS4 Student's Book Audioscript

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Listening&Speaking Audioscript
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Woman 2: What handout? I don’t have the Meeting 3

CD1 handout.
Woman 1: OK. Does anyone have an extra Man 1: Gentlemen, let’s get started. Wow.
handout for … sorry what’s your name? It’s good to see so many new faces. We
Track 02 have been going strong now for over
Woman 2: Susan.
Meeting 1 eighty years on campus, and it’s really
Woman 3: Yes. Here you are. only because we get so many new
Professor: Good afternoon, everyone. Yes, Woman 2: Thanks very much. Sorry about members arriving every year.
good afternoon. that. I wasn’t in the class when we were It’s really great to be part of something
Class: Good afternoon. given the handouts for this project. with so much history. I think all our
Professor: Thank you, and welcome to Woman 1: That’s okay. former members will agree that being
Sociology 101. My name is Professor Woman 2: And I had to call a friend to find in the university debating society is
Chiu. It’s very nice to meet you all. Can out which group I was in, and she told a great way to integrate into campus
you all… umm… can you all hear me me … life, make new friends and meet other
well? Yes? Even at the back? Good. So, Woman 1: OK. So first we need to decide people with similar interests. But not
welcome again to Sociology 101. This how … only that, it’s also great for your future.
course will introduce you to the study Woman 4: I’m sorry, I think I’m in the Taking an active role here really can
of one of the most important aspects wrong group. I can’t see my name on help your speaking and presentation
of the human race – the social group. If the list. skills, help you to think critically and
you think about it, everything that we Woman 1: Oh. OK. analytically, and build your résumé.
do is influenced by the society in which First of all is that, as members, you can
Woman 4: Sorry, I’ll just leave now. Excuse
we live. All our achievements are the ask me, or one of the other people up
me. Excuse me.
product of human groups, of gatherings here, anything you need to know about
of people together. The aims and Woman 1: So. Are we ready to start? Does
the debating society. We have an “open
objectives of this course are … everyone have the handout?
door” policy, so we encourage you to
Professor: That sounds like someone’s All: Yes.
drop by anytime.
phone ringing. Or it’s a text message. Woman 1: Everyone in the right group?
Man 2: Excuse me?
Or an email. I forgot to say before, All: Yes.
Man 1: Yes?
there are some do’s and don’ts in this Woman 1: So. How do we want to start this
Man 2: Can I ask a question now?
class. Phones making noises count as a project? I mean, should we divide it
“don’t,” So, can I ask everyone to please Man 1: Sure, go ahead.
into sections?
turn off their phones or put them in Man 2: You have an office? I don’t know
(murmurs of agreement)
silent mode?I guess I’d better do the where the office is.
Woman 1: There are six of us, so I think the
same. Man 1: I was just getting to that. It’s on the
work might go quicker if we divide it
Yes. Yes. Where were we? Yes, the third floor of Smith Hall. Room 305.
into three sections and two people take
aims and objectives of the course. We share it with the chess club and
a section each.
In Sociology 101, we will examine the accountants association. Actually if
Woman 2: How about two of us do the
the various skills and techniques everyone can just wait for the end of the
initial research, two of us interview
sociologists use when they are studying meeting for questions. We’ve got a lot
some professors and the other two put
groups of people. We will also examine to tell you and maybe your questions
the PowerPoint together?
a wide variety of groups and the will be answered.
Woman 3: Maybe we can have a fourth
behaviors that characterize them. Man 2: OK.
group write the script for the whole
Man 1: Great. Let’s get started then. What
project when we present it.
have I talked about? Ummm … getting
Meeting 2 Woman 1: Exactly. Although perhaps we
involved. Check. Open door policy.
can all write the script together. Do you
Woman 1: Hello everyone. Are we all ready Check. Next … oh yeah. The most
think we need a coordinator? Someone
to get this meeting started? Well. This important thing! Our first debate is
who can take minutes and distribute
term we’ve been given a project that we next week!
meeting information to the group?
have to do as a team. Professor Baker Man 3: What is the topic?
(murmurs of agreement)
nominated me as the group leader so … Man 4: What day is it?
Woman 4: You should be the coordinator!
Now, sooner or later we need to figure Man 5: Will there be time to practise?
out how we’re going to work on this. I Woman 1: I don’t mind. What … what do
Man 6: How do you choose the teams?
thought we could start now. other people think?
Man 1: Please everyone. PLEASE. Just wait
Woman 2: When is the project due? (murmurs of agreement)
until the end of the meeting before
Woman 1: The information is on the first Woman 1: Right, so I will coordinate the
asking the questions. We have a LOT to
page of the handout that the professor project. Who wants to do the initial
explain! So … as I was saying …
gave us. research?
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Track 03
Professor: Right, and depending on cultural 2
factors, this may result in open conflict A: I’m sorry, but I can’t come to the
Getting from you and me, to we within the group. You could say this is meeting today.
a make or break stage. For some groups, B: Oh, OK. We’ll have the meeting next
Professor: So, are we ready? Our first
they never get past stage 2, they break week then.
topic is group dynamics in the online
up as a group there – but once the 3
environment. Does anyone want to
storm has passed, the group moves into
start us off? A: I’m sorry, but I can’t come to the
stage 3, norming. Sam?
Well, you’ve all come across Bruce meeting today.
Sam: This is when the group agrees on
Tuckman’s work on group dynamics B: Oh, OK. We’ll have the meeting next
how to behave, and how their goals can
theory? Yes? If you remember he talks week then.
be achieved.
about stages of group formation. Can
anyone remember what these are? Jane: A bit like the calm after the storm. Track 05
Sam: I can. Sam: The members of the group A: So, shall we get started?
understand each other, and can move
Professor: Go ahead. All: Yes, sure, OK.
forward.
Sam: Tuckman’s theory tells us that when A: OK, then. So. A study group. First thing
Professor: And then? Stage 4?
a group forms, it goes through several to decide is if we have enough people
distinctive stages. These are Forming, Rachael: Performing. I have it here. In this here for a study group, I mean, there are
Storming, Norming, Performing and stage the team is working effectively only four of us …
Closing. and efficiently towards a goal. It is
B: Sorry. Three of us. Chris can’t do the
during this stage that the team leader
Jane: I read adjourning. Forming, study group. Right, Chris?
can take more of a back seat. Individual
storming, norming, performing and C: Yeah. But I’ll stay for this first meeting.
members take more responsibility
adjourning. A: Should we try to get another group
in the group process, and their
Sam: I think closing is like adjourning. participation is stronger. The group’s together with us for this?
Anyway, there were five stages. energy is strong, and it can achieve a lot B: No, I don’t think so. I think three is
Professor: So. Forming, storming, norming, during this stage. fine.
performing and adjourning. Now this Professor: And finally stage 5? D: Me, too.
theory was written in 1965. Before A: OK. Three people then. What next?
Jane: Is the last one, closing or adjourning.
the Internet came into our lives. The
It’s about closing and moving on, this B: What about a meeting place? We can’t
question is, do people form groups in
stage. meet here …
the same way online? Let’s go through
Tuckman’s stages one by one to make Professor: So, those are the stages, but A: I know. It’s a little noisy and not very
sure we’re all on the same page. Stage the question is, do groups online go comfortable.
one is forming. What happens? through the same stages? D: Can I say something here?
Rachael: In this stage the members of the Rachael: I think so, yes. In fact, according to A: Sure, go ahead.
group first come together. Forsyth in his … just a second, OK yes, D: There’s a study hall next to the
here it is. According to Forsyth in his cafeteria. It’s almost always empty.
Professor: Exactly. Now, can you think of
2009 text Group Dynamics, members in Could we meet there?
examples where online groups might
online groups are as likely to conform
form, even though the members are A: Sounds good to me.
to group behaviour as those in face to
distributed? B: Yeah. I’ve never been there but …
face groups.
Sam: Online game communities? A: So. We should decide how long to meet
Professor: Yes, exactly. And this is what’s
Jane: Groups of bloggers communicating? for, and how often.
interesting, given that originally many
Or groups within social media? experts thought that online groups D: I read somewhere that you should
Rachael: People working on a wiki? would be chaotic and unstructured make the meeting at the same time
Sam: I read that in this stage, the forming since nobody could really see each every week. Like a class. That way we’d
stage, it’s important that there is clear other. And of course, it’s interesting take it more seriously.
leadership and direction from the team to note that—in the area of online B: We may as well make it for this time
leader. education—online classes, when since we’re all here. Is this time okay?
Professor: Yes, and, that’s of particular moderated by a teacher successfully, D: Works for me.
relevance to the area of online reproduce many of the stages of group A: Me, too.
education, where there needs to be a dynamics that Tuckman outlined. C: Hang on just a minute. I know I’m not
skilled facilitator. So what about stage going to be in this group, but aren’t we
two? Track 04 supposed to have a seminar at this time
Jane: Stage two is storming. Individual 1 every other week?
members may begin to voice their A: I’m sorry, but I can’t come to the A: Umm. No. That’s on Thursday.
differences. There may be splits of meeting today. (murmurs of: Thursday, yes, right)
opinion, or disagreements as to how B: Oh, OK. We’ll have the meeting next C: Sorry. Forget I said anything.
the group should work. week then. A: Don’t worry about it.
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B: So everyone agrees that this time is how the brain responds to rewards and doing something in a game, you get a
fine? Every week? the likelihood of learning. How does credit, through points or advancement.
A: How long should we make it? this work? Well, when someone receives Success is rewarded, but often other
B: An hour? a reward a part of the brain called the skills such as persistence, speed and
nucleus accumbens is activated. This in observation skills win credit, too. For
D: Two hours?
turn increases dopamine uptake. But instance, you may gain an extra life for
A: Two hours seems like … too much. At the nucleus accumbens is also activated playing a level for a certain amount of
least to start with. when we anticipate a reward, and the time, even though you don’t complete
B: Ninety minutes? Compromise? level of dopamine spikes twice: first at the level, or you might get extra points
A: Is that okay with you Jeff? the moment of anticipation, and also at for completing a task quickly. What it
D: Fine by me. the moment of receiving the reward. So, teaches us about life is two things: the
A: OK, so I guess all we have left to decide the level of dopamine is proportional first is that it’s important to try, but also
is exactly what we will do when we to the amount you desire something. that there are rewards for using different
meet. I actually have a list of do’s and So, how can understanding the neural strategies and skills to tackle problems
don’ts that I got off the Internet. We processes of the brain’s response to and tasks.
could use these as a starting point … gaming—a very rewarding stimulus— Lesson number three is what we can
help us in learning? Well, because learn from feedback. As stated in a
Track 06 dopamine helps focus our attention, research paper Game-based Learning
Video games: Lessons for life it enhances our potential for learning. from 2012 by Jessica Trybus Director
As we anticipate a reward, dopamine is of Edutainment at Carnegie Mellon
Professor: Good morning, everyone. First released, and the brain is in an optimal University—in a game we work
of all I’d like to thank you and your learning-ready state. Video games are towards a goal, choosing actions and
lecturer for inviting me here today as often structured so that our anticipation experiencing consequences along
your guest. For those of you who don’t of reward is central to how the game is the way. So the research paper makes
know, I’m principally a lecturer at the played. Let’s look more closely at this reference to how gamers learn that there
university’s Entertainment Technology area and link this to five specific points are positive and negative consequences
Centre, I also design video games and of learning that can be fostered by to their actions and they learn this quite
I wrote a book called Video Games: gaming. quickly. We have seen how, in a video
Lessons for life. The first point is learning to achieve game, you can get rewards. For example,
That’s what I am here to talk to you long-term and short-term aims. In order you may gain an enormous amount of
about today—video games and the to progress in a typical game, you points, which allows you to continue
lessons they can teach us about life, and have to complete a number of small the game comfortably. However, you
in particular, about learning. I believe tasks, and you are generally rewarded could easily lose everything. You can
that by looking at how video games for each. This in turn helps you get lose all of your points or even die with
motivate players and also at how we closer to your long-term aim, which one risky move. This is also true in real
can learn specific skills from them, we is to complete the game. According to life. This is a very important lesson to
can become better students. technology theorist Tom Chatfield in take in because no one can learn unless
First of all, let’s look at motivation. 2010, this can be translated into the they are able to connect consequences
Many people enjoy playing video real world of education—as a student to actions, especially when the
games. In fact, they are extremely you can be taught to organize your consequences are in the distant future,
addictive. But why? Why do we want work into smaller tasks like complete like global warming or the dangers
to keep on playing? What do video these five questions, finish this unit of of pollution. Being able to consider
games do to motivate us? The answer work, collaborate with other people a range of possible consequences to
is that video games offer us very strong or attend a certain number of classes an action allows students to think
emotional rewards. How do they do per semester. What you learn is that more reflectively and creatively in the
this? The answer is that they directly you have to break down your work classroom.
engage the brain. As you may know into smaller pieces that you complete Our fourth and fifth lessons are not
from your studies this semester, the simultaneously. This can be the key linked to motivation, reward or video
neurotransmitter connected to learning to drawing attention to how you can game structure, but are tangible skills
called dopamine is also associated achieve real life long-term goals such which everyone can learn from the
with reward-seeking behaviour. Dr as finish secondary school or get a gaming experience.
Paul Howard-Jones, a professor in university degree. The first is enhanced visual attention.
neuroscience in education at the The second lesson is what reward for According to a study by Green and
University of Bristol, is currently doing effort can teach us. Neurologist Judy Bavelier at the University of Rochester,
research into ways of helping students Willis stated in a 2011 study that 2003, playing video games enhances
learn. He pinpoints video games as an video games reward player effort with our visual skills. Please note that this is
area that gives us greater insight into incremental goal progress, not only distinct from the concept of attention,
how learning takes place. Scientists have final results. What Willis suggests as in the ability to pay attention in
found a strong relationship between here is that every time you succeed in class. What do we mean by visual
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attention? Well, there is far more visual and skills that can be transferred into breaks down because the proposal is
information available to us than we are real life situations and benefit us in a considered unfair, then both nations
capable of processing. Visual attention learning context. Who said that gaming lose the benefits of the trading
is a mechanism through which items was a mindless activity? agreement.
are selected for further processing Thank you all for coming along. This has interesting sociological
while others are left unnoticed. What is consequences, as some social scientists
compelling about this is that by playing Track 07 say it proves a human being’s
we are actually doing a vital physical Game theory Part 1 unwillingness to accept injustice.
exercise because video games help us According to Güth in his 1995 article
focus on what we need to see, but also Student 1: I’ve chosen the game Rock, Paper, called “On Ultimatum Bargaining
stay aware of what is going on around Scissors. Ummm … for this game Experiments,” there is quite a bit of
us. The real life benefits of enhanced basically you need two players. I’m sure debate on whether human decision-
visual attention can be seen in drivers you know the rules, but I’ll explain making is purely driven by monetary
who are able to monitor more objects them again. Each player has to put their incentives, and he clearly states a
at once—this ability makes them safer hands behind their backs and count preference for fairness as one other key
drivers. In an academic context, greater to four. On three they have to make a factor in the process.
visual attention helps students develop decision and make the form of a rock Student 3: The best example of the
the reading skills of skimming and (a fist), paper (hand open), or scissors assurance situation in game theory that
scanning. Skimming refers to glancing (two fingers outstretched). When they I could find was The Stag Hunt. Two
through a text to determine its gist or count four, both players “throw” their individuals go out on a hunt. Each has
general theme, while scanning refers gesture towards each other. You then to individually choose to hunt a stag
to glancing through a text in search of calculate who wins using these rules. or hunt a rabbit, and they must choose
specific information or to determine Rock beats scissors. Scissors beats paper. which animal to hunt without knowing
its suitability for a given purpose. Paper beats rock. what the other chooses. An individual
Given the number of texts an average This simple game illustrates the concept can get a rabbit by himself, but a
university student has to read during a of a zero-sum game. The first person rabbit is worth less than a stag. If an
degree course, it is a great asset to have to lay the foundations of this game individual hunts a stag, he must have
enhanced visual attention. theory was the mathematician John the cooperation of his partner in order
The fifth and final lesson from von Neumann in his 1928 paper “The to succeed.
gaming that I’d like to refer to today is Theory of Parlor Games.” In a zero-sum There are two outcomes to the stag
creativity—I find this point particularly game, one participant’s gain is balanced hunt. Either both hunters hunt the stag
fascinating. According to Linda Jackson, by another’s loss. In other words, there together, or both hunters hunt rabbits
professor in psychology at Michigan is one winner and one loser, always. on their own.
State University, in 2011, children To explain it mathematically, if you I think you could say that this situation
who play video games tend to be add the gains and subtract the losses, is about risk and a test of social
more creative. Her study is the first to the total is zero because the number cooperation. Both hunters would prefer
provide clear evidence that child gamers of gains is the same as the number to hunt a stag, but they can only do this
become more creative in classroom of losses. In real life there are, I read if they work together. If either hunter
tasks, such as drawing pictures and anyway, that there are few real zero-sum isn’t sure what the other will choose,
writing stories. And, significantly, the games. But you could find examples in they will choose the rabbit as a safe
research showed that gender and also trade and economics. For example, two option. This scenario was described by
the kind of video game played does not companies bidding on one contract. the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau
have any impact on creativity. Although Only one company can win the in his book from 1754, A Discourse on
boys favoured sports games or games contract, and the other has to lose. Inequality.
with violent content, and girls preferred Student 2: OK, I’m … well I’m going to talk I think we could say it has applications
games that involved interaction with about a situation called the ultimatum. in how businesses can cooperate
others, regardless of gender or type of It’s a money-sharing situation. In the together. This game represents real-
game played there was a clear increase ultimatum, a sum of money is given life situations in which people or
in creativity. to two players to share between them. businesses can cooperate together for
As we know, there are also the negative When the situation begins, the first greater rewards—the stag—but if they
sides to video games, for instance, player makes a proposal as to how don’t trust each other, they opt for
game addiction. However, that’s an the money will be split. If the second the less rewarding but more certain
area you will deal with in your next player accepts the proposal, they split choice—the rabbit—and risk less.
lecture. I came here today to give you the money as agreed. But, if the second
the positive view of gaming and its player refuses the proposal, neither Track 08
educational value. We can see from player gets any money.
these five examples, and there are many Game theory Part 2
One real-life example of this could
more, that through video gaming, we be bilateral trade negotiations Student 4: I chose the anti-coordination
can learn techniques for motivation between countries. If the negotiation situation. This one was quite easy, as
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the example most often cited is one this is all about cooperating even when
Track 11
I’d heard of before. It’s the game of something isn’t in your best interests.
chicken. Two drivers drive towards How to deal with homesickness
each other on a collision course. One Track 09
Lecturer: Hello and welcome to our special
of the drivers has to swerve to avoid 1 I’m principally a lecturer at the
podcast this week. As senior lecturer
the other, or they will crash. But if one university’s Entertainment Technology
in psychology, I have been asked
driver swerves and the other does not, Centre.
to organize a podcast dealing with
the one who swerves is called a chicken, 2 He pinpoints video games as an area homesickness among those students
meaning a coward, and is the loser. that gives us greater insight into how who have moved from faraway places to
So, the principle of the game is that learning takes place. study for their degrees with us here in
each player prefers not to yield to (or 3 No one can learn unless they are able the south of England. Our own research
swerve away from) the other, but if they to connect consequences to actions, survey shows that a little over 90%
don’t yield, they get the worst possible especially when the consequences are of first year students at this university
outcome. It’s also known as the in the distant future. experience some level of homesickness.
Hawk-dove game. I was reading Ross 4 In real life there are, I read anyway, that In due course we will hear from three
Cressman’s book The Stability Concept there are few real zero-sum games. of our second-year students who have
of Evolutionary Game Theory from 1992,
5 There are two outcomes to the stag agreed to share their experiences,
and he describes the same scenario as a
hunt. Either both hunters hunt the stag but first of all let’s consider what
situation in which there is competition
together, or both hunters hunt rabbits homesickness actually is. For many
for a shared resource and the
on their own. new students, the beginning of their
contestants can choose either resolution
6 Two drivers drive towards each other on university life generates both eagerness
or conflict. One real-world application
a collision course. and apprehension. This could be about
here is in the world of negotiation in
making the move, beginning academic
international diplomacy, where neither
Track 10 work or meeting new people. For some,
side wants to back down or lose face,
1 this anxiety is quickly overcome as they
but risks total loss if they don’t.
adapt to their new environment; for
Student 5: OK, the Prisoner’s Dilemma is Student 1: That was an interesting lecture on
others the transition takes longer and
the most famous and important of video games today, wasn’t it?
sometimes develops into homesickness.
all game theory situations. At least Student 2: Yeah, definitely.
The student longs for and becomes
from what I read. Albert W. Tucker Student 1: It makes sense to me that we can distressed over the loss of what is
formalized the game aspect in his book become better drivers by playing video familiar and secure. Mostly it is the
Contributions to the Theory of Games from games. I don’t have my license, yet, but loss of people, but it can also include
1950. The simple scenario to explain I’m happy to know that I’m improving loss of routine, nostalgia for a place or
this theory is that it’s a mathematical vital skills while playing video games. the simple knowledge that family life
explanation of why people cooperate. Student 2: I’m with you on that one. continues in a far off place without
In this game, two prisoners are both However, I’m not so sure about gaming them. In some of these cases the
being held by the police for the same improving my creativity. You know student will be prone to the symptoms
crime. They are in different cells and the the amount of time that I spend on of homesickness several weeks before
police interview each one separately. different games, but I can’t draw and the move, for others, quite surprisingly,
Now, each prisoner has a choice. He can I’ve never written a decent story in my it may affect them much later—
remain silent, or confess and tell the life! after the first holiday or even at the
police that his partner is guilty. More Student 1: I’d say the exact opposite. The beginning of the second year. However,
importantly, each prisoner knows that lecturer did provide strong evidence to homesickness largely strikes within the
the other has the same choice. suggest that it does, so I’ll have to side first few days. Although homesickness
If both prisoners stay silent, they each with him on that one. is not a serious medical condition,
get a one-year sentence. If both confess, 2 it can result in distressing symptoms
if they both try to blame the crime on Student 1: So the Prisoner’s Dilemma shows like sleeplessness, anxiety, and feeling
each other, they each get three years us that it’s better to cooperate … tearful and emotional, and can lead
in jail. But, and here’s the tricky part, to feelings of loneliness and isolation.
Student 2: I beg to differ. In this situation,
if only one confesses and blames the Sometimes it means that an individual
the best outcome is to go free, which is
crime on the other, he goes free. But he feels unable to fully engage with other
only possible if you don’t cooperate.
sends his partner away for five years. people or take part in activities, both of
Student 1: I see your point, but I can’t agree
What makes it a real dilemma is that, which can be beneficial in the first few
with you. If you don’t cooperate, you
logically, the best strategy for each days or weeks of life away from home.
risk five years in prison and you betray
prisoner individually is to confess and According to a report by the National
your partner.
blame the crime on the other. But it Audit Office in the U.K., one in five
Student 2: Yes, there’s an element of risk—I
could provide a worse outcome. students drop out after the first year of
would agree with that. But …
I think the real-world application of study. What was first known as Nostalgic
Disease in sixteenth century Swiss
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literature is thought to be one of the and for these help should be sought did. I found that a good way to get rid
most common causes of withdrawal from your doctor. For mild cases of of that homesick feeling was to always
from tertiary education courses each homesickness, counselling can be have something that has sentimental
year. extremely beneficial. The next question value with me. When I was younger, it
Some of our students have taken we asked the students in our focus would be a teddy bear or a blanket, but
part in a focus group on the topic of group was: what did you do to help as I got older I discovered that I still
homesickness, and they’ve very kindly you get over homesickness? And, what needed my comfort objects. By that I
agreed to let me share extracts from the advice would you give to those students mean photos, my own pillow, a familiar
recording. suffering from homesickness at the perfume or cologne, favourite music,
First of all we asked each student to moment? Here’s what they said. films or even an old diary. Having
introduce themselves and tell us how First, Nicola… familiar things around you can help
homesickness had affected them. Here’s Nicola: Well, I guess that calling home was you feel more at ease. In fact, I looked
what they said… what made me really settle down. You at photos from when I was in Australia,
Nicola: Hi, I’m Nicola from California. have to understand that your family and even set up my new room like my
When I came last year it was the first and friends are only a phone call away. old one was. It really helped jog my
time I’d ever been to the U.K. And I Just hearing my parents’ voices on the memory on how happy I always felt in
… um … really felt like an outsider other end of the line always calmed me my bedroom when I was younger.
here in the beginning. The lifestyle, the down. I even used webcam chats—they
Track 12
people, and the weather were all very really made up for the lack of face-to-
different from what I was used to. I sort face contact. It’s not totally the same, How to deal with homesickness—
of felt anxious and insecure … and I but it was a big help. I didn’t overdo the three students’ perspectives
found it really difficult to concentrate it—I mean, I didn’t call home every
on anything. I was really forgetful – day. I only called when something new Nicola: Hi, I’m Nicola from California.
everything just seemed to slip my mind happened, you know, when I bought When I came last year it was the first
and my work suffered a lot in the first something or met new people. Using time I’d ever been to the U.K. And I
few months. social networks is also a great way to … um … really felt like an outsider
catch up with your friends, and it makes here in the beginning. The lifestyle, the
Amanda: Hello, I’m Amanda from the
you feel like you’re still with them people, and the weather were all very
north of England. It was the first time
back home. Just sharing jokes, photos, different from what I was used to. I sort
I’d been away from home and I felt
and experiences every day brings them of felt anxious and insecure … and I
really lost. My homesickness actually
closer to you. found it really difficult to concentrate
gave me physical symptoms. I really
Lecturer: Then, this is what Amanda had to on anything. I was really forgetful—
had difficulty eating and sleeping, and I
say… everything just seemed to slip my mind
ended up being quite ill for most of the
and my work suffered a lot in the first
first term. You know, severe headaches, Amanda: I had way too much contact
few months.
feeling dizzy—that type of thing. As a with my family during my first term.
result, I missed a lot of lectures and I I realized that going home every Amanda: Hello, I’m Amanda from the
scored really low marks on all of my weekend was actually making me feel north of England. It was the first time
assignments in the first term. I had worse. What I would advise is to get I’d been away from home and I felt
joined a few different clubs in the first out there and make contact with the really lost. My homesickness actually
week but eventually I stopped going to people around you. You’re not the gave me physical symptoms. I really
them, too. only one who’s going through this had difficulty eating and sleeping and I
because your classmates are in the ended up being quite ill for most of the
Chloe: Hey, there. I’m Chloe from Australia.
same boat as you. Talk to them and ask first term. You know, severe headaches,
My first year was awful—university
them how they’re dealing with things. feeling dizzy—that type of thing. As a
sort of felt like a prison. I didn’t know
This gives you a great opportunity to result, I missed a lot of lectures and I
anyone at all and there was nothing
make new mates. It also allows you scored really low marks on all of my
to do but study. Maybe that was my
to form your own support network, assignments in the first term. I had
own fault. I suppose I could have made
meaning you can get over common joined a few different clubs in the first
more of an effort to meet people. But,
difficulties together. Listening to other week but eventually I stopped going to
in the end I locked myself away in my
people’s problems can also put yours them, too.
room and hardly saw anyone. Before
long I was suffering from depression. I into perspective. Meeting new people Chloe: Hey, there. I’m Chloe from Australia.
lost confidence in my own ability and helps put homesickness out of your My first year was awful—university
ended up losing interest in the course. I mind and allows you to embrace your sort of felt like a prison. I didn’t know
stopped doing research for assignments new environment. I joined a film club, anyone at all and there was nothing
and ended up failing the first year which helped me meet more people. to do but study. Maybe that was my
exams. Lecturer: And here are Chloe’s thoughts on own fault. I suppose I could have made
the subject… more of an effort to meet people. But,
Lecturer: As I said before, homesickness
in the end I locked myself away in my
is not a serious medical condition. Chloe: You really have to put those negative
room and hardly saw anyone. Before
However, depression and anxiety are, thoughts behind you—that’s what I
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long I was suffering from depression. I back memories and call up powerful Let’s refer to the study by Toffolo et
lost confidence in my own ability and responses almost instantaneously? The al at Utrecht University from 2011. In
ended up losing interest in the course. I reason is the olfactory bulb, which is an experiment aimed at investigating
stopped doing research for assignments a part of the brain responsible for the aversive memories, similar to those
and ended up failing the first year perception of odours, is also part of the experienced by PTSD patients, seventy
exams. brain’s limbic system, an area so closely healthy women watched a film designed
linked with memory and feeling that to provoke aversion – the scenes in the
Track 13 it’s sometimes called the “emotional film included a car accident, genocide
Memory and smell brain”. Research has shown that when and a circus accident involving people
areas of the brain connected to memory being trod on by an elephant. They
Professor: Good morning everyone. Let’s are damaged, the ability to identify were also simultaneously exposed
move on from our initial studies smells is actually impaired. to olfactory, auditory and visual
of nostalgia by recapping what we Let’s consider how powerful olfactory- triggers—a particular smell, coloured
discovered in our previous lesson. Well, evoked recall can actually be. I would lights on a black wall and neutral
we’ve now seen that nostalgia can be like to refer to Doctor Johan Willander’s background music. One week later
described as a yearning to return to study of groups of adults, whose the participants were exposed to only
our past. We can also say that rather average age was 75; the researchers one of the three stimulants and asked
than reminiscing about our real past offered three different sets of the same to relate their memories of the film.
we tend to conjure up a romanticized 20 memory prompts—the prompt as a The results revealed that smell-evoked
version of it—psychoanalysis calls this word, the prompt as a picture and the memories of aversive events were more
screen memory because we’re inclined prompt as a smell. The scientists found detailed than those evoked by auditory
to filter out the negative experiences to that the word and visual cues brought triggers. Visual triggers were also more
give us an ideal version of what really back memories mainly from subjects’ effective than auditory ones.
happened. Remember that we came to adolescence and young adulthood. The findings of that study concluded
the conclusion that nostalgia did not However, the smell prompts called up that smells are more effective than
refer to any specific memories; a more recollections from early childhood, music when triggering traumatic
accurate description would be that of under the age of 10. Despite such memories, and are as effective as visual
an emotional state. memories coming from the extremely stimuli. Remember that music has
Now, this morning we’re going to distant past, the volunteers claimed always been considered to provide
look at more research in this area that that they tended to convey the sudden equally powerful memory triggers. We
suggests that these past emotions are sensation of being taken back in time— should also note that because all of the
particularly connected to the sounds, they described these memories much participants were women, the research
smells and images that we experienced more clearly. does not include the whole human
simultaneously with those feelings. I The ability of smells to trigger population. Nevertheless, research by
should add that all the senses may be autobiographical memories that are Tolin and Foa proves that more women
used to trigger the nostalgic experience: exceedingly graphic and detailed than men suffer from PTSD—therefore
hearing music, touching a fabric, tasting is widely known as the Proust the results are meaningful for this
a particular food, seeing photographs, phenomenon. According to Marcel particular group. So, how can olfactory-
but one of the most powerful is smell. Proust in his novel In Search of Lost evoked recall methods be useful in the
This is sometimes known as olfactory- Time, odour and taste trigger very treatment of PTSD patients? Let us now
evoked recall. emotional and detailed memory look at a real case study. Can you all
Nearly everyone has experienced a recall. However, Proust’s ideas were turn to page …
moment when a smell has made them expressed in a novel. Is there any
recall a long-lost memory from the scientific research to support the idea Track 14
distant past. It may be the smell of that olfactory stimuli can provoke long- Memory and smell
chlorine reminding you of a summer term memories more effectively than
spent splashing around in a swimming other sensory stimuli? And how do we Let’s consider how powerful olfactory-
pool, the perfume of a long lost friend determine the concept that olfactory- evoked recall can actually be. I would
or the aroma of freshly baked bread evoked recall methods are useful to us like to refer to Doctor Johan Willander’s
taking you back to your grandmother’s in possible treatment of patients? study of groups of adults, whose
kitchen. The smell of wood smoke can If we can find evidence, then we should average age was 75; the researchers
put a nostalgic smile on our faces as be able to apply this knowledge to offered three different sets of the same
we look back on a summer camping our particular area of interest this 20 memory prompts—the prompt as a
trip from our childhood, whereas the week, which is the treatment of post- word, the prompt as a picture and the
smell of mouthwash may give us a traumatic stress disorder or PTSD. prompt as a smell. The scientists found
flashback to a rather unpleasant trip to As we’ve discussed before, PTSD is that the word and visual cues brought
the dentist. an anxiety disorder that can develop back memories mainly from subjects’
Why do smells produce such strong after experiencing any event that is adolescence and young adulthood.
emotions? How can a smell bring psychologically traumatic. However, the smell prompts called up
recollections from early childhood,
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under the age of 10. Despite such 2 According to the Office of National down either. In fact, according to the
memories coming from the extremely Statistics, one in five students drop out United Nations Fisheries Department,
distant past, the volunteers claimed after the first year of study. they may be rising.
that they tended to convey the sudden 3 When I came last year it was the first Presenter: Why is it so dangerous? Why so
sensation of being taken back in time time I’d ever been to the U.K. many fatalities?
– they described these memories much 4 What I would advise is to get out there Michael: The danger comes from hauling
more clearly. and make contact with the people nets or cages that weigh hundreds of
The ability of smells to trigger around you. pounds. This in itself poses great risks,
autobiographical memories … 5 In fact, I looked at photos from when I but now imagine the same with ice cold
experiencing any event that is was in Australia. waves, wind, and heavy rain hitting you
psychologically traumatic. from all sides.
6 In an experiment aiming to investigate
Let’s refer to the study by Toffolo et aversive memories, similar to those Presenter: Not to mention the risk of
al at Utrecht University from 2011. In experienced by PTSD patients… drowning, I suppose?
an experiment aimed at investigating Michael: Yes, exactly.
aversive memories, similar to those Track 16 Presenter: So fishing can be considered a
experienced by PTSD patients, seventy very dangerous pursuit indeed. What
healthy women watched a film designed
The world’s most dangerous jobs
next?
to provoke aversion – the scenes in the Presenter: Good afternoon and welcome Michael: Well, although this does not rank
film included a car accident, genocide back to World of Work. In this week’s quite as high in the U.S., it’s certainly
and a circus accident involving people podcast we look at the most dangerous a very high-risk job in many other
being trod on by an elephant. They jobs in the world. Now, we all know countries. Window cleaners.
were also simultaneously exposed to that many jobs come with health risks.
olfactory, auditory and visual triggers Presenter: Window cleaners?
If you sit in front of a computer or
–a particular smell, coloured lights on Michael: Yes. Especially the people who
in an office all day you run the risk
a black wall and neutral background clean the outside of windows on tall
of getting stress, eye strain, and back
music. One week later the participants skyscrapers. Frankly, you would need
problems. But some jobs are much
were exposed to only one of the three nerves of steel to do this job. High
more dangerous and can in fact kill
stimulants and asked to relate their winds and surfaces slippery with soapy
you. Crashing into a fiery explosion,
memories of the film. The results water can, of course, cause you to fall,
being crushed by heavy equipment,
revealed that smell-evoked memories which is the main cause of death in
or falling from a great height are on-
of aversive events were more detailed this profession. That being said, it’s
the-job dangers that many workers
than those evoked by auditory triggers. very hard to get statistics worldwide on
face every single day. Joining us in the
Visual triggers were also more effective window cleaning, as in many countries
studio is Dr. Michael White, an expert
than auditory ones. it’s an unregulated profession.
on risky jobs, from California. Based on
The findings of that study concluded Presenter: Every time I see someone
his own research and figures worldwide,
that smells are more effective than cleaning one of those very tall buildings
he has recently drawn up a list of the
music when triggering traumatic on the outside it always makes me
most dangerous jobs in the world, and
memories, and are as effective as visual nervous.
he is going to share some of them with
stimuli. Remember that music has us today. Welcome, Michael. Michael: Yes, me too. But curiously, the
always been considered to provide majority of accidents with window
Michael: Thank you for having me.
equally powerful memory triggers. We cleaners come from falling off a ladder
Presenter: So, let’s get started. The first job
should also note that because all of the while cleaning windows that are not
you have on your list is, quite frankly,
participants were women, the research so high off the ground. The misuse of
one I had never even considered.
does not include the whole human ladders is one of the leading causes
Fisherman?
population. Nevertheless, research by of fall-related injuries and deaths
Michael: That’s right, Peter. Being a according the International Window
Tolin and Foa proves that more women
fisherman is an extremely dangerous Cleaning Association.
than men suffer from PTSD – therefore
job. According to the United Nations
the results are meaningful for this Presenter: Really?
Fisheries and Aquaculture Department,
particular group. So, how can olfactory- Michael: Yes, and this number could be
it’s probably the most dangerous job
evoked recall methods be useful in the reduced by offering safety training
in the world. Data collected from
treatment of PTSD patients? Let us now to people responsible for setting up
countries show that occupational
look at a real case study. Can you all window cleaning equipment. The
fatalities in fishing industries far exceed
turn to page … issue of safety training is one that
the national average. For example, in
comes up again and again in many
Track 15 Australia the fatality rate for fishers is
dangerous professions, like window
143 per 100,000 compared with 8.1 per
1 The student longs for and becomes cleaning or construction. Window
100,000 nationally. In the U.S.A. the
distressed over the loss of what is cleaners suffer many of the same risks
fatality rates for fishers is 25 to 30 times
familiar and secure. as those working on construction
the national average. These figures are
sites. Construction work is also very
not only high, but they are not going
dangerous for falls and accidents.
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Presenter: I can imagine so. Professor: We can all think of examples of Student 2: If the chance of something bad
Michael: The next job on the list is also activities that we think are safe, but happening is really, really small …
one that many people don’t consider we can also imagine that for each safe Student 1: But how small is really small?
automatically as a dangerous one. It’s activity there is a possibility of danger. Professor: Well, there is one measurement
loggers. Student 1: Can we say an activity is safe if that has emerged. The one-in-a-million
Presenter: Loggers. People who cut down the possibility of danger is very, very measurement. Have any of you come
trees? Why is that so dangerous? small? across that?
Michael: Well, loggers work on unstable, Professor: Hmm. Perhaps. But let’s take It originated in the 1960s in the United
uneven terrain, such as mountain two activities. Climbing a mountain States and is now widely used around
slopes. They are also working at great and driving a car. Both are dangerous the world, including by the World
heights, with chain saws and logging activities. And in fact, more people Health Organization. Let’s say you are
machines that are dangerous even when die from car accidents than mountain responsible for deciding if a certain
used properly. Add to that the need accidents. In the United States, product, like a shampoo or a kind of
to watch out for the momentum and according to the Alpine Club of medicine, is dangerous. The one-in-a-
massive weight of a huge falling branch America, there are 25 deaths on average million test asks “does this substance
or an entire tree. This work has to take per year from mountain climbing. But (shampoo, or medicine) have more
place in all kinds of weather, and if a there are between 30 and 40 thousand than a one-in-a-million chance of
tree is not cut down properly it can deaths from car accidents every year as causing death?”
come crashing down in a completely well, according to the U.S. Census. So Student 1: One in a million feels pretty safe.
different direction and roll violently why do most people feel that driving a Professor: Yes, it does. But it’s not 100% safe.
down a slope, crushing anyone in its car is safer? Let’s look at another example. Clean
path. Student 1: It’s easier than climbing a drinking water in a city. How do you
Now, statistics for logging fatalities mountain. decide if it is dangerous or safe? And
are not as high as those of fisheries Student 2: Maybe it’s because it’s a danger if it’s safe, what is a safe level? Well, if
or construction, but it can still be we can control. So it feels safer. the local health administration decided
classified as a high-risk occupation and Professor: But it’s still not without risks. that by drinking the local water over a
regularly makes the lists of “dangerous One of the first points we have to lifetime the chances of a person dying
occupations” by bodies such as the understand is that safety is NOT the from drinking that water were one in
United States Labor Bureau. same as zero risk. So what makes us a million or less, then that would be
Presenter: Well. Here I was thinking you willing to engage in an activity that considered acceptable risk.
would be talking about bodyguards, has risk? Or, more to the point, why Student 2: Makes sense. I guess the same
stuntmen, spies, or other jobs like would most people, given the choice, concept can be used for all kinds of
that. Instead we’re discussing fishing, prefer to take the risk of getting in a car things?
logging, construction, and window as opposed to hanging off the side of Professor: Of course. Acceptable risk informs
cleaning. the mountain? The answer lies in the decisions about what we drink, about
Michael: Don’t get me wrong. It’s safe to notion of acceptable risk. Does anyone the food we eat, about the products that
say that those other jobs you mention have a definition of this? are sold to us, and about the activities
also entail risks. But there are, in fact, Student 1: Yes, I’ve got it here. “Acceptable we are allowed by law to do.
far fewer accidents in those areas than risk” describes an unwanted event Student 1: But professor, you mentioned at
in more mundane professions I’ve been which can meet any one of these the beginning something about driving
outlining. There is considerably less categories: 1. it’s very unlikely to cars? The risk of having a fatal car
glamor, and lots more danger. happen; 2. the consequences of the accident is more than one in a million.
Presenter: Thank you very much for joining event are not very serious; 3. the I’ve got it here, at least in the figures
us today. benefits of taking the risk are great. for the U.K. the odds of dying in a car
Michael: My pleasure. Professor: Very good. We have the concept accident in the U.K. are 1 in 240.
of acceptable risk because we know that Student 2: And probably more in this city.
Track 17 absolute safety is almost impossible to Professor: Very good point. Over a lifetime
What is acceptable risk? achieve. of driving, the risk to your life is much
Student 2: Acceptable risk is often discussed more than one in a million. In some
Professor: Welcome back everyone. I’d like in decisions about environmental places, it’s a lot more than the figure
us to take a break from looking at health and safety, right? of 1 in 240 that was just quoted. And
environmental law to discuss safety and Professor: Exactly. Does anyone else we still allow it, and everyone does
danger in more general terms. You’ve all have anything on that? (silence) For it. Remember we had three aspects to
been given some reading about risk to example, is there a measurement of the definition of acceptable risk? The
do. I’d like to start by asking you all a acceptable risk? first was that the event was unlikely
question. Is it possible to ever really be Student 1: I read that many authorities to happen, the second was that the
completely safe from danger? are reluctant to specify what is an consequences of the event were small
Class: yes/no/not sure acceptable risk. Which, I guess, is and the third was …
understandable …
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Student 2: That the benefits of taking the the center of the cities. This model was dominate urban growth, both in
risk were great. the same for many cities around the the United States, but also arguably
Professor: Yes. A higher level of acceptable world that were built more than 200 around the world. However, in the
risk may in fact be tolerated if the years ago. face of worsening traffic congestion,
benefits are considered much larger. The next key period in the development urban decay, lack of efficient public
Additionally, we may also tolerate of transportation in the city lasted transportation, and the scarcity of oil
higher risks if they are voluntary—if we between 1880 and 1920. The walking we have to urgently reconsider our
choose to take them—than if they are city was superseded by the streetcar relationship with cars.
involuntary. Feeling in control will help city. Cities were feeling the impact of The European Union, in a 2011
us tolerate higher risk. industrialization and the arrival of White Paper on transportation,
Student 1: And I guess people have a sense thousands of immigrants to work in revealed that they wanted to eliminate
of control when they drive. I mean, the factories. For instance, the upper conventionally-fueled cars from
people feel more in control driving a classes began to flee the city center to all cities by 2050. It is commonly
car than taking an airplane, I guess. And live in newly created suburbs. Cities understood that people would have
I know that airplane accidents are a lot grew, but around public transportation to rely on electric cars, or on public
less common than car accidents, which lines, such as trolleys and streetcars. transportation. Moves such as these and
means technically it’s safer. But I feel This period came to an end when the others around the world suggest that we
that it’s riskier … automobile became more and more may be about to shift towards a fourth
Professor: Indeed. So. To conclude … available. type of city, the post-automobile city.
The automobile’s impact was The post-automobile city is not car-free,
Track 18 enormous. Let me explain the reasons but is redesigned to offer infrastructure
why I say that. Suddenly people had for pedestrians and those who desire to
What is acceptable risk? —
access, individually, to all kinds of live without cars. There are more parks,
Conclusion
places previously difficult to get to. gardens, pathways, pedestrian shopping
Professor: In the end, we still come back You could transport yourself and streets, and bicycle lanes. Such a vision
to the notion that danger exists your family wherever you wanted, is already becoming a reality in many
everywhere. There is nothing in life that whenever you wanted. You could cities. That is where I wish to turn my
is completely risk-free. We just have to access the countryside or go away for attention next …
learn how to manage it, and live with it. the weekend. Most importantly, you
didn’t need to live close to the place Track 20
Track 19 where you worked, so the growth of the Making cities more liveable—Part 1
suburbs was no longer limited to places
Cars and cities
served by public transportation. Urban Podcaster: The world’s population is rising
Presenter: There can be few inventions sprawl accelerated rapidly. As more and at an increasingly rapid pace. According
that we know of today that have more individuals bought cars, more to a recent United Nations population
transformed the cities as much as the and more government policies in urban publication, two thirds of our planet’s
automobile. I say this because in the development began to change. inhabitants will live in cities by the
United States of America, where I’m The automobile, coupled with the year 2050. This fast-paced urbanization
from, it is currently estimated that arrival of long distance forms of around the globe produces both social
almost one half of all land in cities is communication, such as the telephone and environmental challenges for city
dedicated, in one way or another, to and telegraph, meant that cities could planners. In the first of our course
cars. Streets, roads, parking lots, gas continue to expand and become podcasts during the second semester we
stations, traffic signals, traffic signs, and progressively more decentralized. The are going to focus on the term liveable
companies devoted to the automobile suburbs became pushed out further cities. We have invited representatives
industry are such a part of the modern and further. Governments also began from two cities that have entered this
city that we barely notice them. to build freeways and highways, great year’s Philips Liveable Cities Award.
roads that would transport people to Unlike some liveability ranking data
How did cars take over our cities? Let
and from the workplaces in the city, as this award doesn’t focus on salaries,
me give you a clear example. If we
well as linking cities with each other. it focuses on well-being. This contest
look at the history of urban growth in
The most famous example of this will reward the most innovative and
the United States, we can see that our
in American history was the Federal feasible ideas for improving the health
cities have gradually evolved due to the
Interstate Highway Act of 1956, which and well-being of people living in
automobile. Historians divide the late
encouraged further urban sprawl across cities. Let me explain the criteria for
nineteenth and twentieth centuries into
the continent. The automobile had this competition. According to the
three periods. First were the walking
transformed the landscape into real Philips Think Tank there are three
cities. This was the model pre-1880.
estate. Empty land, now connected by vital ingredients of a liveable city. The
Cities were small and compact, and
roads and cars, could gain value and be first is Resilience—this refers to a city’s
they featured a mixture of residences
sold. ability to adapt to the requirements of
and workplaces. People were expected
For the rest of the twentieth century its citizens. The second ingredient is
to walk to work, and the rich resided in
the automobile continued to
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Inclusiveness, which describes the city’s act as small communities by mixing to reduce the amount of traffic in the
ability to generate a community in all all the different functions together: centre and bring our citizens back to a
sections of the population regardless the living spaces, parks, retail areas part of the city, rich in heritage, which
of gender, age or ethnicity. The final and leisure spaces are all assimilated has been lost because of the city’s road
element is Authenticity. This refers to the into the design of the building. This system.
city’s character and identity. gives people the opportunity to come One thing we are looking at is parks.
together and enjoy their lives close to Parks are vital to the city’s resilience;
Track 21 home. Moving all these elements closer they are the lungs of New Delhi, and
Making cities more liveable—Part 2 together also means we can actually this is vital in an environmental sense.
keep population density low and create If parks are the lungs, then water is
Podcaster: So, to talk to you about what a sense of community among our the blood of a city! Another plan is to
projects these two cities are developing citizens. rejuvenate an ancient drainage system
this year, I’d like to welcome Maja Another issue we have had to deal that will fill the dry canals with water,
Jorgenson from Copenhagen in with is the seasonal variations in and develop these canals into public
Denmark and Adhira Joshi from New daylight because of Denmark’s northern areas, for example, walkways and cycle
Delhi in India. location. There are very short days paths for people to enjoy their city
Maja and Adhira: Hello. during winter as well as very long more peacefully.
Podcaster: Good afternoon to you both. summer days. Our aim is to enhance At the heart of the development of
Thanks for coming along to talk to people’s lives by varying the type and social spaces is the concept of inclusion.
us. Maja, could you start by telling us amount of lighting from the dark We want to provide a refuge for people
about Copenhagen’s contribution to autumn months to the longer and from all walks of life; these are spaces
their citizens’ health and well-being? darker winter months. for everyone, and everyone should
Maja: Hello. Yes, certainly. In Copenhagen We have invested heavily in city be able to afford the activities being
we feel that urban planners have to lighting to satisfy our citizens’ physical, planned for these areas.
adapt to the needs of the people. So, social and psychological needs. We Commerce is also an important
we believe in involving our citizens in believe cities should be provided aspect in every city. In New Delhi
the decision-making that will mould with light when it is needed; we want our street traders add vibrancy to
our city’s future by consulting them as residents to use the city at night. Well- the neighbourhoods and this is
part of the urban development process. lit environments foster creativity, something we aim to encourage.
Inclusiveness is a vital part of making a social activity and help build strong We have made ample space for this
city more liveable. This method allows communities. It also cultivates a sense activity and reduced the cost of rent
us to see what people expect from our of trust and safety, which is a vital factor for our merchants. People walking
planners. We also believe that it helps for people to have the freedom to enjoy home at night feel much more secure
residents feel that they can help mould our city. in lively streets full of commercial
the present and the future of the city. activity. It helps create a safe and close
So, what do people expect? Well, first community.
of all, we now know that there is an CD2 We also really want to encourage civic
overall acceptance that good quality pride in New Delhi and promoting
architecture should always be an Track 01
heritage can be one way of doing it.
integral part of city planning. This gives One of our latest projects is the Guru
people a certain feeling of pride in Making cities more liveable—Part 3 Tegh Bahadur memorial, which is
Copenhagen’s identity. a new public area dedicated to the
Podcaster: Thank you, Maja. I’m now going
Our current city planning isn’t only great Sikh gurus. This is truly a place
to ask Adhira to speak about a rather
about architecture; it also includes for the people who can have the dual
different set of urban issues that India’s
green spaces. We know that if we make experience of relaxing around the
largest city, New Delhi is striving to deal
the city green, with gardens, parks and central tower in a much-needed, green
with.
trees, it will make it an attractive place, public space while contemplating the
Adhira: Hi, there. Yes, New Delhi isn’t teachings of the gurus that are engraved
a place where people will want to stay,
India’s largest city; it’s the largest on huge monoliths placed in a circle
and not seek to escape. Rather than go
metropolitan area in India. It’s what around them.
outside in search of nature, people can
we call a mega city, which means a
find it right on their doorstep. Podcaster: Thank you, Adhira. Well, as we
city with a population in excess of 10
A sense of community is very important have heard, two different cities on
million. We actually have 23 million.
to us, so we feel that where necessary opposite sides of the world with one
So as you can see, it’s a populous city.
we have to introduce new ways of common aim: Making their city more
It has been said that mega cities bring
fostering this. Part of our recent success liveable.
mega problems and traffic is certainly
is integrating community functions by one of the biggest challenges we face
bringing public life into the building. in New Delhi as regards quality of life.
We have created urban blocks that We are currently working on a scheme
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and family rituals in their analysis of And it’s good for us in other ways.
Track 02
17 previous studies on weight, food Various studies across North America
1 consumption, and eating habits. and the United Kingdom show that
Maja: Our current city planning isn’t only The study sample took in the family the more often families eat together,
about architecture; it also includes eating routines of 182,000 children the more likely children are to have
green spaces. and adolescents. A family routine confidence in themselves. Children who
2 typically involves communication eat regular meals with their parents
Adhira: New Delhi isn’t India’s largest city; about something that needs to be were found to be 40% more likely to
it’s the largest metropolitan area. done. Once the act is completed it is score good grades and felt that their
3 not really thought about. For example, parents were proud of them. Robin
Adhira: If parks are the lungs, then water is a food-related routine might involve Fox, an American anthropologist who
the blood of a city! clearing the plates from the table or teaches at Rutgers University in New
picking up bread from the bakery. These Jersey, says that a meal is more than
Track 03 routines are repeated over time and just about the food. It’s about civilizing
become habits, but do not have deep people, about teaching them to be
Common sense tells us that more
symbolism. members of our culture.
people will use the subway if we make
it more easily accessible. A family ritual, on the other hand, And yet, many argue that this kind
involves communication of a more of ritual is in decline. According to
For instance, taking a bus means we will
symbolic nature. According to a number the American Institute of Pediatrics,
definitely be there before it starts.
of reports, not only does a ritual convey conflicting work schedules, lack of
It just makes sense to increase fares. The a sense of “who we are” as a group, but commitment, interference of television,
service has been suffering from a lack of it also makes the family feel like they and food-related problems such as
funding for years. belong together. For example, a family lack of cooking skills have all led to
We have to consider a one-ticket system mealtime ritual could be a symbolic the family meal becoming less and less
for all the services. I say this because I act, it could involve objects, or it could common. If we look at the statistics in
feel that, this way, more people will use be conversations. These do not have three countries, Britain, Canada, and
public transportation. to be large or extreme. It could be as the U.S., we see that less than half of
simple as a joke about who finishes all families with children eat dinner
Track 04
their food first or who says what at the together at home every day.
Family food legacies table. It could be a dish that the family What does the decline of families
eats on special occasions or a moment sharing mealtimes together mean for
Lecturer: Hi everyone, and welcome back of silence before a meal that everyone future generations? What are the social
to our family studies course. Last week respects. It could be the same repeated implications and what do we stand to
I promised we would address the issue subjects of conversation that only occur lose when we stop eating together? I
of food traditions and legacies in family at the dinner table. When a family ritual began this lecture explaining what I
units. I asked you all to write about is passed down through generations meant by a food legacy: something that
some kind of food-related tradition that it becomes a legacy. Only when the comes from the past, that is handed
you have experienced in your family rituals occupy an important part in down to us from the past, or that
and to upload it to our course forum. I each individual’s mind do they give the happens in the past. Before we go back
wanted to address this whole area a bit family its own meaning. to your great entries on the forum of
more in today’s class. And the family mealtime ritual has your own food-related memories I’d
Thank you so much for your varied been the subject of great interest in like you to reflect on one question.
responses. I can see that many of you the social sciences. There is something What food legacy do you want to leave
have rich and delicious memories about what happens when people share your children?
relating to the family table. Before we a meal that brings the family group
look at specific examples, I thought it together. Sharing of food is a deeply Track 05
might be worthwhile to go over some human instinct in all cultures, a point Technology legacies
of the theory and research that has gone drawn out in Russell Belk’s recent article
on in this area. “Sharing,” from the Journal of Consumer Student A: So, I thought maybe we could
First of all, by family food legacy I Research published by The University start with my choice since it’s the most
meant something food-related that of Chicago Press. Belk draws attention up to date and still current in everyone’s
comes from the past or that happened to the similar patterns of sharing on all minds.
in the past. This could be a special dish continents. During family mealtimes, Student B: OK, who’s that?
or recipe that is handed down from legends are passed down, jokes are Student A: Steve Jobs.
generation to generation. Or perhaps told, and the wider world is eventually Student B: Well, it’s certainly current. But
a family ritual that is connected in examined through the family’s own why him?
some way to food or mealtimes. values. This strengthens the family
Barbara Feise and her colleagues at Student A: Where do you want me to start?
connection; it strengthens the family
the University of Illinois make the Creates the Macintosh computer
identity.
distinction between family routines for Apple® in 1984. Leaves Apple
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and returns, releasing the new iMac World War Two, working on developing Student A: So. The man who invented
computer in 1998. Creates the iPod computers that could break German the first computer, the creator of the
music player in 2001. Starts iTunes in codes. Internet and the contributions of Apple
2003, changing the way music is sold Student C: So what was his legacy? Why to the world of computing. We’re
online. 2007 sees the launch of iPhone. would he be someone on the list? down to three from our original eight
Then we’ve got a few versions of the Student B: Well, there were no computers … I guess next we can put each into a
iPhone, the iPod and so on until (SFX: before then at all really. So, this was a slideshow and maybe ask the class to
shuffles paper), until 2010 when the iPad very important first step in the world say which they think had the MOST
is launched. By this point Apple is one of modern computing. I also read that important effect …
of the biggest companies in the world. Turing computers are still an essential
Student C: These are just products and dates element even today in the study of the Track 06
though. Remember the focus has to be theory of computing. And he had a test 1 A family mealtime ritual could be a
on how significant the impact of his named after him, the Turing test, which symbolic act // it could involve objects
work has been. You’d need more details measures artificial intelligence and is // or it could be conversations.
on why these achievements exactly— still widely used today. 2 Sure, it was the size of a room // and
the technological ones—have created a Student A: OK, sounds good. So to today’s tablets can fit in your pocket //
lasting legacy. summarize his legacy it would be … but still, it’s pretty impressive.
Student A: I think you could argue that Student B: Well, he developed the FIRST 3 No sooner do phone companies release
Apple changed the face of modern computer. Sure, it was the size of a the latest model // than a newer one
computing. Without Apple, there room and today’s tablets can fit in your comes out.
would not have been Windows. Before pocket, but still, it’s pretty impressive. 4 Only by reading someone’s biography
the Macintosh computer I think that Student C: OK, can I tell you about mine // and using their product // can you
computing was the domain of … of now? I chose Tim Berners-Lee. understand their technological legacy.
academics and scientists.
Student A & B: Mmmm. OK. The inventor of
Student B: So, how exactly? Specifically? the Internet. Track 07
Student A: It’s been argued that Apple and Student C: Yeah. Of all the claims to leaving 1
Steve Jobs were responsible for bringing a legacy, inventing the World Wide Web American female: It wasn’t the first, it wasn’t
computer icons and the mouse to a has got to be the best. Umm … Berners- the best—but it was the cheapest.
greater public. Therefore, both of these Lee was born in 1955. 2
made the use of computers a lot easier.
Student A: Best to stick to his achievements British male: This is an age when we can see
Plus we have the introduction of the
and how they left a lasting legacy in the as many adults as children going in the
iPod, which transformed the music
world of computing … same direction.
industry. There are more, let’s see—the
launch of the iPhone revolutionized Student C: OK, OK. In the 1980s, while 3
the phone industry. Err … they were the working at CERN (the European American male: I ask you when this should
first to introduce the tablet computer Organization for Nuclear Research) happen. I say now, today, this minute!
… the iPad, thus creating the tablet Tim Berners-Lee decides to experiment 4
industry. But I’d focus more on the with a system to share and update
American female: This technology has gone. It
transformation of computers from a information between researchers called
has passed on. It has ceased to be.
business machine to a machine for ENQUIRE. The system used hypertext
to send the information. 5
the wider public as his main legacy. British female: Do you know what? I certainly
Anyway, enough about mine. What Later in 1989, Berners-Lee sees the
opportunity to link hypertext to the know what I think, but what I am more
about each of you? concerned about is you.
Student B: Well, mine isn’t as contemporary Internet which, at the time, was only a
way of connecting computer networks 6
but I’ve chosen Alan Turing. You could
across the world. As a result, the World American male: So, what now? Well, all I have
argue that without Turing, Steve Jobs
Wide Web was born. Berners-Lee is left to say is out with the old and in
wouldn’t have had a job.
credited also with building the first web with the new.
Student A: OK, go on.
browser, creating the first web server,
Student B: Turing is considered the father and … Track 08
of modern computing. He was a
Student B: And so changing the world as we The Trans-Siberian Railway
mathematician at Cambridge who,
know it. (laughs)
at 23, created a machine which was Interviewer: The Trans-Siberian Railway
set up to read and write numbers and Student C: Of course. We are all so reliant
is a transcontinental Russian railway
do some simple functions. This was now on the Internet that it’s impossible
network that connects hundreds of
way back in 1937. This machine, the to imagine life without the World Wide
towns and cities in the European
Universal Turing machine, in principle Web. Not only did it revolutionize
and Asian parts of Russia. Stretching
could calculate all the things that were how we communicate with each other,
out from the centre of Moscow to
possible in mathematics. Then he also but also how we access and spread
Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan, the
became well known for his work during information.
9,289-kilometre—that’s approaching
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6,000 miles—journey will take seven Interviewer: John, you do a lot of travelling Petersburg, which means that driving
days to complete, as one passes through on the railway, and you also mentioned is only possible over short distances in
seven time zones and two continents. the word “special” earlier. I think you other parts of the country. Furthermore,
It is the most extensive railroad in the were referring to the journey itself, many roads in the Asian part of the
world and demonstrates just how vast weren’t you? country simply cannot support heavy
Russia actually is. John Ridgeway: Yes, I was. From my point goods vehicles and some do not even
For this week’s podcast we wanted to of view it is a special experience to have an asphalt surface, making rail the
discuss why so many people refer to it travel along this railroad. And I would only option for transporting goods.
as the special railway. With me here are point to two things that for me give Interviewer: So, really all long distance
two people we believe can shed some this journey so much romantic appeal. travelling has to be by train …
light on the topic, John Ridgway, a The first would be the Russian people Patrick Steel: Well, a lot of Russians
freelance journalist, and Patrick Steel, you meet along the way. Russians are have to travel gargantuan distances
a professor of Russian history. Patrick, generally misunderstood—they have and that is only possible by train
may I start by asking you a question, a reputation of being aloof—but to or plane. As flying is much more
which I will ask both of you; why do my mind when you’re on a train with expensive and sometimes impractical,
you consider the Trans-Siberian to be so them, they treat you like family. You depending on the destination, rail is
special? can spend up to 30 hours together sometimes the only option for the
Patrick Steel: Well, considering the history with the same locals. They share any vast majority. Another interesting
of the Trans-Siberian and what the food they have with them that they statistic we uncovered was that Russian
possibility of its existence meant to the think you should try—I have even Railways employ 1.5 million people,
Russian ruling family at the end of the been offered vegetables from a family’s a considerable figure that can only
nineteenth century, I would say that it garden. They can really shame you with be matched by the Russian army. I
has had a remarkable role to play in their kindness; I say that quite sincerely. certainly feel that the special railway
the development of Russia as a nation. I would say that the scenery may get refers to the importance it has for the
When the Tsar Alexander III ordered monotonous at times, but the people people.
the building of this great railway he do not. Interviewer: John, your latest article is called
promised that it would be the soul of Interviewer: That’s really interesting. I’ve “The Trans-Siberian Lifeline.” Can you
Russia. It was his dream to unite the never actually met anyone from Russia. tell us something about that?
country by colonizing the huge barren What was the other thing? John Ridgeway: Yes, what happened was that
area from the Urals to the Pacific. John Ridgeway: The very fact that you have the economic inactivity in the years
Interviewer: Wow! That was certainly a big the opportunity to cross two continents following the collapse of the Soviet
task. and see every part of them. Much to regime brought a lot of unemployment
Patrick Steel: It certainly was. The Trans- my delight, I have witnessed the most and hardship to the whole country,
Siberian winds across the most breathtaking landscapes. You really especially Siberia. This obliged many
inhospitable parts of Asia, which must make some stops along the way. I Siberians who had no source of
were largely uninhabited until the mean you have the chance to be in the earnings to turn to street vending,
early part of the twentieth century. middle of Siberia! When are you ever which in older and more prosperous
Understandably, the remoteness of this going to have that opportunity again? times was unthinkable. Many of them
vast land area isolated many groups of Interviewer: I’m still waiting for that chance! became what were known as round-
Russians across two continents, making Now, it’s also essential to understand trip passengers on the Trans-Siberian
it very difficult to rule as a nation. how important the Trans-Siberian is Railway, traveling to China, Turkey, and
Interviewer: And how did the railway make to the people of Russia. Patrick, you Poland to buy cheap products to resell
this possible? mentioned this importance earlier as back home and at the stations along the
Patrick Steel: With a continuous railroad we were setting up the podcast … route.
up and running in 1914, five million Patrick Steel: Yes, I did. I feel that it’s very Interviewer: I can see now that the railroad
people, most of them peasants, difficult to speak about the railway gave them the means to travel in
emigrated by train from European without mentioning what it means search of some type of income for their
Russia to Siberia. What once used to to the people of this country. I was families.
be a ten-month journey by horse and recently involved in a statistical study John Ridgeway: Yes, the city of Novosibirsk
cart was by that time possible in 72 of the Trans-Siberian’s significance to became the center of such transactions
hours by rail. Goods, services and raw the country’s infrastructure. To give as hundreds of street vendors from
materials could be transported back you some examples, 80% of all goods all over Siberia loaded with sacks of
and forth relatively quickly, which are transported by rail; there is no cut-price goods waited for trains to
helped boost the economy. In terms transcontinental road system in Russia, transport them hundreds of miles to
of uniting the Russian people and making it practically impossible to their destinations and then back to
increasing the proximity of Siberia to drive from Moscow to Vladivostok. their homes again. Each excursion
the capital, I would say that the railway Interviewer: Oh, I didn’t know that. could mean a 72-hour train ride in
has been fundamental. Patrick Steel: Yes, it’s true. Not surprisingly, third-class carriages and on average a
most of the quality road systems are 12-hour wait in Novosibirsk for a train
based around Moscow and Saint connection home.
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Interviewer: I’m just looking at the article food they have with them that they steep slope is a trial to be overcome very
now and I can see that one of the think you should try—I have even much like the trials of life. If you see a
photos shows the famous housewives been offered vegetables from a family’s barrier, you can’t pretend it isn’t there,
selling food … garden. They can really shame you with you have to get over it or under it. Our
John Ridgeway: Yes, these are the famous their kindness; I say that quite sincerely. next step could be deadly, but it could
babushkas. The railway gave them the I would say that the scenery may get equally be rewarding. Climbing allows
opportunity to sell homemade food at monotonous at times, but the people us to create our own reward sequence,
the stations—another important source do not. a source of satisfaction we can go back
of family income. As a regular traveler to again and again. An uphill slope
on the Trans-Siberian, I can tell you Track 10 represents an incentive and a peak
their tasty dishes are much better value Why do people climb mountains? symbolizes achievement.
for your money than the food served Naturally, climbing also compels us
in the restaurants on the trains. So, I Lecturer: Before his fatal mission to climb to explore and extend our physical
will echo Patrick by saying it certainly the colossal Mount Everest in 1924, limitations. It also lets us study the
is what Russians call the railway of the renowned mountaineer George Leigh interactions between our minds and
people. Mallory was asked why he wanted to our bodies. This is a pursuit that allows
Interviewer: That is all we have time for, I’m climb it. To this question he gave a us to really get to know ourselves and
afraid. Thank you both so much for short and simple answer: “Because it what we are capable of.
coming in to speak to us today. I feel is there.” Mallory and his climbing Let’s not overlook the fact that it also
we can now understand more of the partner disappeared when they were allows us to see the splendor of nature.
big picture and have a better idea why only a few hundred meters from the Imagine the beauty of being high up on
Russians call the Trans-Siberian a special summit. His fate remained unknown a mountain peak when the sun begins
railway. until his frozen body was discovered to rise and being the first one to see it.
75 years later. His rather dismissive There is no greater artist than Mother
Track 09 response to that final question was Nature herself, and there is no better
actually hiding the whole truth of the place to appreciate this than from high
The Trans-Siberian Railway— matter.
Extracts above on a mountain crest.
Why do we climb mountains? The Oddly enough, there is also another
Narrator: The Trans-Siberian Railway— obvious answer would be to say, “To side to climbing a mountain that many
Extract one get to the top.” However, I would people would not think of, and that is
say that is simply not the case. It is creativity. As we make our ascent, we
Interviewer: The Trans-Siberian Railway
understandably exciting to reach the feel like artists creating our own work
is a transcontinental Russian railway
summit, but this is only an end. It does of art. Making a new route that has
network that connects hundreds of
not take into consideration the means. never been trodden before gives us the
towns and cities in the European
Many individuals are mystified about same feeling of originality. Eventually,
and Asian parts of Russia. Stretching
why someone would risk their life climbing becomes part of us and we
out from the centre of Moscow to
going up and down a mountain, and feel we need to do it. Why do artists
Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan, the
then have nothing to show as a result. paint the pictures they do? They do
9,289- kilometre—that’s approaching
However, it is not the result that we it because they need to. This possibly
6,000 miles—journey will take seven
should be focusing on. explains Mallory’s response to that
days to complete as one passes through
seven time zones and two continents. You may even suggest that it is the risk famous question in 1924—“Because it
It is the most extensive railroad in the involved in the climb. I must say that is there.”
world and demonstrates just how vast many climbers admit that they enjoy
Russia actually is. the adrenalin rush as they face danger. Track 11
But, once again, I would call that an 1 possible possibility
Narrator: The Trans-Siberian Railway—
oversimplification. Mountain climbing 2 satisfy satisfaction
Extract two
is problematic, hazardous, and often
John Ridgeway: Yes, I was. From my point 3 exist existence
painful. So why do people do it?
of view it is a special experience to 4 achieve achievement
People climb mountains because they
travel along this railroad. And I would 5 develop development
love the pursuit itself. The means to this
point to two things that for me give 6 important importance
enjoyment consists of many factors.
this journey so much romantic appeal.
First of all, mountaineering brings 7 inactive inactivity
The first would be the Russian people
you meet along the way. Russians are a group of people together with a 8 employ employment
generally misunderstood—they have single goal. The group acts as one, and
you have to understand your fellow Track 12
a reputation of being aloof—but to
my mind when you’re on a train with climbers and the situation you are in. A: OK, I’d like to suggest that we begin by
them, they treat you like family. You Cooperation is needed to succeed, and looking at the practical applications of
can spend up to 30 hours together unity must prevail. Larsson’s theory. Are you happy with
with the same locals. They share any Then there is the challenge. Scaling a that?
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B: Uh, that would be good, but I think they all appear at the same time? Let’s or thick shells, and they can even taste
perhaps we need to clarify what exactly start by looking at the 17-year variety’s bad or be poisonous. The periodical
the theory is saying, first of all. What do peculiar life cycle. cicada appears to have developed its
you think about that? Newly born cicada nymphs burrow into own time period defense system. Many
A: I’m not sure it’s really necessary. I the ground to feed from liquid around predators have two- to five-year life
mean, I think everyone listening to plant roots. For the next 17 years, they cycles. If the cicadas appeared every
our presentation will already be pretty go through five stages of molting—that two or five years, their life cycle would
familiar with the theory. I think we is, losing their old skin—and growing coincide with those of their predators.
should just get straight to the main as they move deeper and deeper into By springing forth in their millions
point. the ground. When they finally emerge every 13 or 17 years, periodical cicadas
B: But there have been different almost two decades later, they climb not only minimize the chance of
interpretations of the theory, and I the nearest tree to molt one final time. predators eating them all at once,
think it would be helpful to make it Then they spend six days waiting for but they also maximize their chances
clear how we’ve interpreted it, before we their exoskeleton to harden before they of avoiding appearing during the
go any further. What would be wrong embark on the final three weeks of their predator’s average lifetime.
with doing that? lives. Their short life above ground has Glen Webb, a mathematician at
A: Well, it’s just that we only have 20 one purpose: reproduction. Vanderbilt University, sought to
minutes for the presentation, and I To begin with, the males sing a prove the life-cycle theory by setting
don’t think there will be enough time species-specific mating song to attract up a series of experiments in which
to cover the other points we want to the females. In North America, three mathematical models of the emergence
make. different species of cicada appear at the of periodical cicadas were compared
B: OK, I see your point. Perhaps we could same time, each with its specific mating with those of imaginary predators with
just include a very brief clarification… call. Most of the mating happens two- and three-year life cycles. His
in these “chorus trees.” Remember, results prove that Gould’s argument
A: Agreed. So, we’ll start by saying—
millions of these insects emerge in the could indeed be a valid one as no
quickly—how we interpret the theory,
same small area of land that, as you can predator coincided with the cicada.
and then we’ll look at its practical
imagine, will create considerable noise However, this has also been disputed
applications. Next,…
pollution for people living nearby. The as many scientists say that it was not
Track 13 mass singing can reach 100 decibels predators but climate that shaped the
and can be heard from up to one and a periodical cicada’s life cycle. The cicada
Metamorphosis—the secrets behind half kilometers away. That’s equivalent is believed to have evolved at the end
nature’s amazing change to someone using a chainsaw six meters of the last ice age, a time when glaciers
away from you. advanced and retreated across North
Professor: After biding their time
With mating finally over, the females America.
underground for 17 years, these
lay approximately 20 eggs in the Doctors C. E. Carlton and R. T. Cox
creatures rise from the ground and
branches of young trees. The eggs then have proposed a theory that, during
march like zombies to the nearest tree.
hatch and the newly born nymphs drop this time, cicada reproduction often
Starting to climb, they begin their final
to the ground to begin the 17-year cycle failed as summer temperatures failed
journey to unleash millions of their
all over again. to reach the 68 degrees required to
kind into just a few acres of land.
This brings us to our scientific support the insect’s life during the four
Well, good morning everyone. I hope
conundrum. Periodical cicadas crawl critical weeks of flight and mating. The
that has woken you all up and you are
out of their subterranean hideouts cicadas with a longer life cycle—those
intrigued.
every 13 or 17 years. This fact has that spent more time underground –
As you know, this is the final lecture
raised considerable interest with had a greater chance of avoiding cool
on metamorphosis and our final topic
mathematicians. Why? Well 13 and 17 summers and therefore reproduced
is the periodical cicada. The cicada is
are prime numbers. These are numbers in greater numbers than their cousins
a flying, plant-feeding insect found in
only divisible by themselves and 1. The with shorter life cycles. They eventually
most parts of the world. There are two
big question is whether the emergences became dominant in the gene pool,
main types: the annual cicada, which
of periodical cicada are timed to prime while the others died out.
appears every year and the periodical
numbers by coincidence or is there Yet, that doesn’t explain why the cicadas
cicada, which only appears every 13 or
some deeper mechanism behind it? settled on a 13- and 17-year cycle
17 years, depending on the species.
Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould and not 11, 19 or some other prime
It’s the remarkable life cycle of the
believed that the prime number life number. One thing we can be sure of,
periodical cicada that we will look at
cycle is no coincidence. He said that it though, is that the periodical cicada
today in order to consider a conundrum
actually evolved as an effort to avoid has evolved over time to ensure its own
that has puzzled experts for decades.
predators. Many species evolve in survival.
Why do they wait so long to complete
different ways to protect themselves
their metamorphosis? And why do
against attackers: they can grow spines
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tax was intended to discourage the Mrs. Mawer: The small tax that is being
Track 14
speculations that are blamed for large suggested would be used to help poorer
Metamorphosis—the secrets behind exchange rate fluctuations and serious countries. Even if we introduced a
nature’s amazing change—the first damage to national economies. 0.1% tax on exchanges, we could raise
part Announcer: What do you mean, between 50 and 300 billion dollars.
speculations? The United Nations estimates that with
Professor: After biding their time 225 billion dollars world poverty could
Mrs. Mawer: Well, what you need to
underground for seventeen years, these be eliminated. Currently they spend
understand is that more than one and a
creatures rise from the ground and around 10 million per year.
half trillion dollars is exchanged every
march like zombies to the nearest tree.
day on the global money markets. Of Dr. Jenkins: Again, I think this is just wishful
Starting to climb, they begin their final
this huge amount of money, more thinking. What Mrs. Mawer suggests
journey to unleash millions of their
than 80% of this trading is buying and sounds very noble, but the truth is that
kind into just a few acres of land.
selling money to make a profit. This countries that receive huge amounts
Well, good morning everyone. I hope is also called speculation. Financiers of financial aid become accustomed to
that has woken you all up and you are buy money in one currency and then relying on that income. What we need
intrigued. trade it quickly into another to make a is for those countries to create and
As you know, this is the final lecture profit. That’s fine, but this speculation develop their own efficient economy.
on metamorphosis and our final topic has played a very important role in the Mrs. Mawer: I don’t think that is the case …
is the periodical cicada. The cicada is financial crises that have rocked the Dr. Jenkins: And how can we assume that
a flying, plant-feeding insect found in world’s economy over the past 20 years. the rich countries, who are likely to be
most parts of the world. There are two As speculators have bought and sold the ones collecting this revenue, will
main types: the annual cicada, which currency, they have affected its value. share the money with their less well-off
appears every year and the periodical And that value has an impact in terms neighbours? It’s quite possible that they
cicada, which only appears every 13 or of trade. If suddenly your currency is in would want to keep it themselves.
17 years, depending on the species. demand, and value goes up, then the Mrs. Mawer: You could easily set up
It’s the remarkable life cycle of the cost of your goods to other countries international laws to determine where
periodical cicada that we will look at goes up too. That can have a massive the money is distributed.
today in order to consider a conundrum impact on consumer goods, agriculture,
Dr. Jenkins: Yes, but who would enforce
that has puzzled experts for decades. and ultimately, on the money in
those laws? How would you guarantee
Why do they wait so long to complete people’s pockets.
fair distribution?
their metamorphosis? And why do Announcer: So you think a currency tax is a
they all appear at the same time? Let’s Announcer: It looks like we have two very
good idea. Explain why.
start by looking at the17-year variety’s different points of view here.
Mrs. Mawer: Well, Tobin’s plan was to
peculiar life cycle. Dr. Jenkins: Well, Mrs. Mawer seems to
slightly increase the cost of trading in
assume that collecting this tax will be
currencies, by introducing the currency
Track 15 easy. But who is going to do it? What
transactions tax – costing the banks
A global tax on changing money? happens when people avoid the tax, or
and other institutions more money
begin to move money around illegally?
to get involved in this kind of trade. I
Announcer: Hello, and welcome back to It’s an impossible situation to police in
think this minimal tax is a good idea,
Money Talks. And let me begin with this globalized world.
as it would help slow down this kind of
a question. Have you ever changed speculation. Currencies would change Mrs. Mawer: Well, tax evasion should not be
money before, when travelling abroad, value less frequently, and there would an excuse for not introducing a tax. If
for example? Do you know the value be more stability. the argument is we should not have a
of your national currency? Does the law because people can break it, then
Announcer: Dr. Jenkins, you disagree. Why?
exchange rate change a lot? Today the whole idea of justice is pointless.
we’re discussing changing money, Dr. Jenkins: Mrs. Mawer is right that there The fact of the matter is that a very
and an interesting proposal for the is speculation in the money markets, small tax on so many transactions
world’s economy. We are joined by two and this can be harmful to the could make a big difference in the
economists, Mrs Sue Mawer and Dr world economy. But a tax on money world.
Barbara Jenkins. exchanges won’t improve anything. In
Dr. Jenkins: Yes, we all want to see a better
fact, it would do the opposite and hurt
(female voices): Hello. and fairer world. But I can’t quite see
the economy. If we put more tax on
Announcer: Now, Mrs. Mawer. Why don’t how this measure would accomplish
trading, either for money trading or any
you explain the idea of a currency tax? that. I personally think it would make
other kind of trading, it will slow down
Mrs. Mawer: Thank you. The idea isn’t a things worse.
an economy. This will hurt especially
new one. It goes back more than 30 the weaker economies. Track 16
years. Specifically to 1978. In this year Announcer: There is another question
James Tobin, a Nobel Prize winner 1
though, isn’t there? What would we
for economics, first presented his plan do with all this tax income if we did A: I didn’t understand what the professor
for a tax on currency transactions. The introduce the tax? was talking about.
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B: I had NO idea what the professor was more than 40 million dollars? Will activities is lost from reservoirs due to
talking about. this mean our taxes will go up? A evaporation.
2 hydroelectric dam like the one being These are compelling reasons not
A: Can you lend me your notes on the suggested is a massive project, and our to build the dam for water storage
first lecture? government just can’t afford it. purposes. As for a source of electricity,
B: I didn’t take ANY notes on the first Next, we’ve been told that local people we have all seen the predictions made
lecture. will benefit from this project – the in terms of hydroelectricity from this
dam will bring more money and jobs dam. It’s true that it will generate a
3
to the area, and so on. But let’s look at huge amount of power. Nonetheless,
A: We don’t know if this tax will work. the other side for a moment. There are we would like to point out that wind
B: I don’t think ANYBODY knows if this many examples of large dam projects and solar energy are two other options
tax will work. displacing local people, sometimes which would have much less effect
4 thousands of local people, from their on the local population, economy
A: You could set up laws to decide where homes. The plans for this dam are and wildlife and therefore should be
the money goes. no different. The reservoir created considered.
B: Yes, but who would ENFORCE those by the dam will flood areas up-river, I realize that my time may be up, and
laws to decide where the money goes? areas with people living, farming and that the committee needs to hear from
working in them. This will displace other people about the situation as
Track 17 these residents, causing unemployment well. I am prepared to present plenty
Not worth a dam and economic hardship. The World more data, and full and complete
Commission on Dams, a World Bank- documentation from independent
Representative: Good afternoon, members of sponsored initiative, estimates that sources that supports everything I
the committee. Thank you for giving me 40 to 80 million people have been have told you here today. I urge you
the opportunity to come and speak to displaced by dams. We believe that this to reconsider this project for the good
you, as I know you are all very busy. dam will continue that trend. Clearly, of our people, for the good of our
As a representative of the local local people will suffer more than they community, and for the good of our
environmental association, I am here benefit from this project. land. Thank you for your attention.
to ask you to reconsider the proposed Now, I’m sure you’ve all heard the
new dam project. We believe that our claims that the dam will be constructed Track 18
government does not have the money on environmentally friendly principles, The concept of flow
to spend on the initial investment. so that the impact on the environment
We also have objections to the dam will be minimal. Well, that depends Professor: Good afternoon, everyone.
for the following reasons. Firstly, we on how you define “minimal”. The Welcome to the first lecture of our new
believe that the dam will be a disaster statistics are sobering. Sixty per cent module called Positive Psychology,
for many villages that are alongside of the length of the world’s large river which as you know is one of the newest
the banks of the river where the dam systems is affected by dams. Dams are a branches to emerge in our field. While
will be built. Secondly, we believe that major reason for the loss of freshwater many other branches tend to focus on
the dam represents a threat to local fish. Around a third of freshwater dysfunction and abnormal behavior,
wildlife, especially aquatic wildlife. fish species are classified as extinct, positive psychology is centered on how
Thirdly, we consider that water would endangered or vulnerable. Also, when to help people become happier.
be better stored underground. And the river floods its banks, this can result I would like to begin by asking you a
finally, we believe that there are better in the loss of wildlife that previously question: What makes a happy life?
ways to generate energy than building inhabited that land. It is worth I’d like you to think about how you
this construction which will ruin our mentioning that a significant portion of would answer this question. When you
beautiful landscape. this wildlife is not displaced (as is the have an answer, I’d like you to tell the
I would like to say a few words about case with human beings), but actually person sitting next to you.
each of these reasons if the committee killed. I don’t know about you, but I Now I’m going to give you one
will permit me. First of all, about the wouldn’t call that a “minimal” impact. possible answer. A happy life is one that
cost of building this dam. We’ve all Another argument in favour of dams is characterized by complete absorption in
heard the argument that it will be a big is that they are an efficient way to what one does. How does this compare
economic stimulus so it’s worth the store water. However, we would argue with what you and your partner said?
cost. However, here’s the key question: that underground water-storage is a This answer comes from the work
where is the money going to come superior alternative, as storing water of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and the
from? We’ve been hearing from the above ground risks contamination, theory of flow. Csikszentmihalyi is a
government for some time now that evaporation, damage to ecosystems psychologist who has spent most of
there isn’t enough money to finance and flooding. For instance, according his professional life on the study of
new projects, and that times are tough. to the International Rivers Association, what makes people happy and how we
So why are we even contemplating a around 7% of the total amount of can attain happiness. His interest in
project with an initial investment of freshwater consumed by all human this began when he met people who
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had lived through traumatic wartime The fifth factor is that your subjective
Track 19
experiences, but who had survived and experience of time is altered—that
seemed happy, whereas other survivors means you have no sense of time The concept of flow—The last part
of war could not seem to get over their whatsoever.
Professor: Flow: The Psychology of Optimal
negative experiences. He wondered Finally, your experience of the activity
Experience also stipulates three
what could explain this difference. is intrinsically rewarding – what you
conditions that have to be met in order
Csikszentmihalyi put forward the are doing gives you great pleasure.
to allow you to enter a state of flow:
theory that happiness is not caused by Remember that intrinsic means an
Number one is that you have to be
external events, but is more a result action is satisfying in itself and not
focused on an activity with clear goals
of our perception of them. As such, affected by any external factor.
… very clear objectives. For example, in
we have to seek happiness in order to These aspects may appear individually
gymnastics you not only have to vault
find it. However, this does not mean when you are involved in an activity,
the apparatus, but also land with your
that we should relentlessly pursue but ONLY when there is a combination
feet perfectly positioned inside the lines
pleasure! Csikszentmihalyi came to the of ALL six can you enter into a state of
on the floor.
conclusion that our happiest moments flow. When one is in flow, one works at
are those when we are in a state of flow. The second is that you need to have
one’s full capacity.
immediate feedback on the action
The theory of flow can be summarized One thing worth noting here is that you
in case there are any changes to the
as a state of mind or a state of cannot force yourself to enter a state
conditions; this allows the person to
experience that we feel when we of flow. It simply happens when the
adjust their performance to maintain
are totally involved in what we are conditions are right. It is likely to occur
the flow state. If we take the high
doing. The inspiration to begin when you are actively involved in an
jump as another sports example, the
researching this theory was provided by action for intrinsic reasons. Note that
competitor must know that they have
Csikszentmihalyi’s interest in art. He passive actions, such as watching TV,
two attempts at one particular height—
noticed the way in which artists worked cannot produce a state of flow, as you
if the first attempt fails, they have to
in the studio. They completely lost track have to be actively involved.
raise their performance on the final
of time, they didn’t notice they were Flow: The Psychology of Optimal jump or be eliminated.
hungry—although they were tired, and Experience also stipulates three
they worked for days without stopping. Finally, there has to be a balance of
conditions that have to be met in order
Anyone I have spoken to who has challenge and skills. If the task were
to allow you to enter a state of flow:
experienced this state of concentration too difficult, it would cause you to feel
Number one is that you have to be anxious and block the state of flow.
has found it difficult to explain. The focused on an activity with clear goals
best metaphor I have heard is that it’s However, the same would happen if
… very clear objectives. For example, in the task were too easy—flow could not
like being in a river and the flow of the gymnastics you not only have to vault
water carries you away. occur due to the fact that you would
the apparatus, but also land with your consider it boring.
Let’s consider how one can enter such a feet perfectly positioned inside the lines
state. Csikszentmihalyi published Flow: Now, let’s consider this example …
on the floor.
The Psychology of Optimal Experience in The second is that you need to have Track 20
1990, and in it he identified six factors immediate feedback on the action
that accompany a state of flow: 1
in case there are any changes to the
First, there is intense and focused A: Yes. (emphatic assertion)
conditions; this allows the person to
concentration on the action you are adjust their performance to maintain B: Yes. (hesitating assertion)
performing—there is a high amount of the flow state. If we take the high 2
intrinsic motivation here. It must be an jump as another sports example, the A: No. (hesitating assertion)
activity that you really want to do. competitor must know that they have B: No. (emphatic assertion)
Secondly, your actions and awareness two attempts at one particular height— 3
merge—that means your concentration if the first attempt fails, they have to A: I guess so. (hesitating assertion)
is so strong that you are only aware of raise their performance on the final
what you are doing and nothing else. B: I guess so. (emphatic assertion)
jump or be eliminated.
Consequently, and this is the third 4
Finally, there has to be a balance of
factor, you lose reflective self- challenge and skills. If the task were A: Well, OK. (emphatic assertion)
consciousness—meaning that you do too difficult, it would cause you to feel B: Well, OK. (hesitating assertion)
not think of yourself at all, only the anxious and block the state of flow. 5
action. However, the same would happen if A: I don’t think so. (emphatic assertion)
The fourth factor is that you have a the task were too easy—flow could not B: I don’t think so. (hesitating assertion)
sense of control over the activity—you occur due to the fact that you would 6
are very aware that your actions are consider it boring. A: I’m not sure. (emphatic assertion)
playing a vital part in its execution. Now, let us consider this example … B: I’m not sure. (hesitating assertion)
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result must be morally right. If the

Track 21 Track 22
action doesn’t produce a good result,
Conflict of interest then it must be wrong. “The Sporting Spirit”
So for example imagine a factory that is
Presenter: Hi everybody, Thanks for coming. Professor: OK, guys. Let’s get started, shall
polluting the environment. If we close
Thanks for being here. Wow. This we? I asked you to prepare arguments
the factory then we will have cleaner
conference, it’s great isn’t it? I’ve been for or against the statement: Sport is an
air and water. So closing the factory is
having a great time so far. How about unfailing cause of ill will.
the correct thing to do as it produces a
you? Class: yes / ok / yes
good result.
I’d like to start my talk with a little test Professor: I also gave you an article called
Pause there for a second. What is a
for you. I want you to imagine that “The Sporting Spirit” written by the
good result? Is a good result something
a good friend of yours has just had a British author George Orwell as
that merely is good for you and
baby. Unfortunately the baby is rather background reading and asked you to
your own interests? Or is it good if it
unattractive. Very unattractive in fact. find more sources to use as support for
produces the greatest ratio of good
Your friend asks you, ‘isn’t she the most your reasons. Who would like to start?
for the most people? If it’s only good
gorgeous baby you have ever seen?’ Student 1: Well, I’m going to give a
for you, then this is an egotistical
What do you say? Honesty, that’s summary of Orwell’s stance, but first …
consequential view. If it produces good
important for you. On the other hand, Student 2: Yes, first we thought we needed to
for the most people it’s a utilitarian
you don’t want to hurt your friend’s clarify the context of the article. It was
consequential view.
feelings. You’ve got a dilemma here. written in 1945 in response to a soccer
Compare these questions to those
Now, this is a rather small dilemma, tour of Great Britain by the Soviet
posed by a non-consequential theory.
and it’s probably easy for most people Union side Dynamo Moscow. This
Non- consequential theories state that
to solve it. But what about situations was the aftermath of the Second World
other factors than the outcome, other
like the following? Imagine you are War when there was a growing mutual
factors than the consequence, must be
responsible for selecting a winner mistrust between the two countries.
taken into account when faced with an
of a scholarship. A good friend Um … we researched newspaper
ethical dilemma.
of yours applies for the job. Your articles from around the time preceding
Going back to our factory example.
friend is qualified, but then another the tour. And … according to one
If closing the factory means that
applicant who is even more qualified newspaper the event was inappropriate,
lots of people will lose their jobs,
applies for the same scholarship. The as it was right after World War Two.
and that a whole community might
second applicant probably needs the Another paper reported that using
suffer economically then this must be
scholarship even more than your friend. sports as a tool of international
considered and weighed against the
It is your decision alone. Who do you relations was dangerous. So, we can see
outcome of cleaner air and water.
give the scholarship to? that there was quite a lot of negativity
There are different kinds of non-
These are all examples of moral or before the tour took place and that
consequential theory. One is the
ethical dilemmas. There are different many people didn’t think it was a good
Golden Rule. This states that you
ways that we can address them. For idea for the two countries to compete
should treat others as you would wish
the rest of my presentation, I’d like against each other in a sporting event.
to be treated, regardless of the outcome.
to offer you frameworks and theories Professor: Go on.
Remember that scholarship we talked
on just how we can deal with a moral Student 1: Right. So, Orwell wrote the essay
about earlier? How would you feel
dilemma or conflict. Thinking through after the tour and he said that it created
if you lost it because the committee
these theories can help us, I believe, animosity on both sides—by this he
president gave it to his best friend? Bad?
make the best choices when we have means mutual bad feeling. He said that
Then don’t let it happen if you’re on a
these kinds of difficult situations. Now soccer was a source of passion, but it
committee deciding scholarships.
(chuckles), don’t be intimidated by the could be negative passion. To support
big words I’m going to use – each one Another non-consequential theory
this he mentions negative incidents
of these theories I’ll explain as clearly as states that a decision is good as long as
produced in two of the matches: violent
possible. you respect and follow certain duties,
conduct from players on both sides,
called the prima facie duties. These
For example, you can look at resolving the crowd booing the referee and the
could include justice, generosity or
ethical conflicts using a consequential players, and there were also accusations
loyalty.
theory or non-consequential theory. As of cheating from both the British and
the words indicate, these all have to do Faced with difficult choices and
the Russians. He doesn’t say anything
with the consequences of our actions. internal conflict, these theories, these
positive about the tour … I mean … the
Let’s begin firstly with consequential frameworks, I believe clearly help
Russians even went home early before
theories. A consequential theory states us. This is the first step to long-term
they played their final match. They
that your actions are judged by the success. Now, let me go more into
walked out, in a way.
results. An action that produces a good depth on …
Professor: OK, so we have an international
soccer event that seems to have caused
bad feelings on both sides. What
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evidence have you found to support the competition itself, the struggle to closing part when he writes, “I do not,
or go against the statement that the overcome your opponent, was more of course, suggest that sport is one of the
sport was the cause of the ill will or bad important than winning. You see, here main causes of international rivalry.” He
feeling as you say? we have what sports should be ideally. starts by saying it’s an unfailing cause
Student 3: You know, I think I can see two Student 2: Exactly! That is what it should be, and concludes by stating that it’s not
different points there. I feel Orwell’s but why isn’t it like that in practice? Is it one of the main causes. We feel that
getting at what competitive soccer does just human nature? nationalism and tribalism can come
to the players and how it influences Student 1: Listen, guys. I’m beginning to out during sports events. But, the cause
the spectators. In a negative sense, I think that maybe it isn’t sports that isn’t the sport itself – the rivalries are
mean. It was something he said later causes these rivalries. I was just thinking already there.
in the article. Where is it? Ah, here it is that … that sports give us the chance Students 2 and 3: Agreed.
… he talks about crowds having to be to express our rivalries—you know the Professor: Well, thank you to all of you
controlled by the police and incidents conflicts that are already there. The for putting your reasoned arguments
of spectators running onto the field sporting event just brings it out in the forward in today’s session. Now, we can
and harming the players. I see his open. go on to deal with …
point about soccer “provoking vicious Student 2: Ah, OK then. Do you think
passions in the general public. that he really wanted to criticize Track 23
Student 2: He also alludes to a lack of patriotism—not sports? He stated that 1 I’d like to offer frameworks and
sporting spirit between the players by the rise of serious sports was bound to theories.
saying that “Serious sport has nothing to the rise of nationalism. His own words 2 I see your point about this.
do with fair play” and that sport being are, “If you wanted to add to the vast 3 That exam was awful—if I pass it, I’ll be
competitive, “You play to win” and the fund of ill will existing in the world amazed.
game “has little meaning unless you do at this moment, you could hardly do 4 Nothing at all.
your utmost to win.” He seems to be it better than by a series of football
saying that it’s all about winning and 5 The team walked out of the stadium.
matches.” The examples he uses are
nothing else. Could that have been matches between Russians and Poles, 6 I’d like to say that I agree.
the cause of the bad feeling during the Germans and Czechs, and Britain and
soccer tour? Track 24
India who were obviously bitter rivals
Student 1: I think both of you make good at the time. A: … so I’m proposing that we use the
points there. If we think about soccer Student 3: OK, so you’re saying that this extra funding towards improving the
in general all over the world it does nationalism is already there and cafeteria and green spaces on campus.
tend to give us lots of incidents of both comes out during sporting events. How many people are in favour?
player violence and crowd violence, I mean, Orwell admits that sports B: Hold on a moment … so you’re saying
which you don’t find in other sports aren’t essentially nationalistic. He also that none of the money should go
quite as much. And, I can also say that declares that sports are not the cause of towards improving arts facilities?
I agree with the point that he makes international rivalry, but it’s rather “an A: Well, technically, arts facilities are
about being disgraced if you lose, effect” of the real causes that produce the responsibility of the individual
causing bad feeling—I mean—in soccer nationalism. This would back up what arts departments, and this funding
whether it’s the UEFA Champions you’ve just said. was intended for making general
League® or the FIFA World Cup™-- Student 2: So, by joining the two together in improvements on campus that will
everyone plays to win and it’s a disaster this article, could he be confusing what benefit all students, not only arts
when your team’s eliminated. sports can be and the real essence of students…
Student 2: Yeah, it’s like we want it all or sports? B: As a matter of fact, my proposal would
nothing at all. We have to win—we Professor: Can you reach a conclusion as benefit all students. If we use the
can’t accept that playing well is enough. to what the essence of sports is? Try by money to build an arts centre, it could
Student 3: I did consider that, so what I did defining the word sportsmanship. be used for all kinds of activities….
was look for something that would Student 3: We believe that sportsmanship for example social events, meetings of
suggest otherwise. In my research, I describes taking part in competition for various societies….
came across Pierre de Coubertain’s enjoyment only. It involves a sense of A: In other words it would have the same
speech from 1892. This speech was fairness and respect for our opponents. function as the Hodgson building,
made in support of the revival of the This is certainly what sports should be. which we already have. I just think we
ancient Greek Olympics. He states Professor: So, is sport the unfailing cause of need a better cafeteria more urgently.
that “The important thing in life is not ill will? And the green spaces are in a really bad
the triumph but the struggle, the essential state…
Student 1: Well, it’s really Orwell’s article
thing is not to have conquered but to B: OK, why don’t we have a vote on it?
that helps us come to our conclusion.
have fought well.” He saw the revival of A: Sure, that sounds like a good idea. So,
He begins by stating that “sport is an
the Olympic games as important in all those in favour …
unfailing cause of ill will.” Yet, we feel
supporting his philosophical ideal for
that he contradicts himself in the
athletic competition, which was that
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