International Journal of Coal Geology 42 Ž1999.

33–62
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterijcoalgeo

Sequence stratigraphy of coastal alluvial plain

Westphalian B Coal Measures in Northumberland
and the southern North Sea
Peter T. O’Mara 1, Brian R. Turner )

Department of Geological Sciences, UniÕersity of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK

Received 9 June 1998; accepted 18 June 1999

Abstract

Westphalian B coastal alluvial plain Coal Measures of Northumberland and the southern North
Sea are susceptible to stratigraphic base-level fluctuations of various magnitudes which create a
hierarchy of flooding surfaces: Ž1. high magnitude third order maximum flooding surfaces
corresponding to the Anthracoceratites Õanderbeckei and Anthracoceras aegiranum marine
bands defining the top and bottom of the succession, when vast areas of the Westphalian foreland
basin were flooded by marine incursions; Ž2. high frequency fluctuations promoting small-scale
fourth order flooding of the entire or large areas Ž100’s km2 . of the alluvial plain resulting in
deposition of non-marine bivalve beds or marine bands depending on their position on the third
order base level curve; and Ž3. small-scale localised base level rises due to differential compaction
and autocyclic switching of minor crevasse-splays and distributary channels. A regionally
extensive third order tectonically induced sequence boundary is also recognised in the southern
North Sea, slightly above the maximum stand in stratigraphic base level recorded by the
Õanderbeckei marine band. This sequence boundary, which represents the lowest point on the
background eustatic base level curve between the two maximum flooding surfaces, is overlain by
the multilateral, multistorey Caister Sandstone. The lack of significant erosional relief beneath this
channel sandstone suggests that accommodation space at this time was being created at a very low
rate. The succession above the Caister Sandstone sequence boundary, up to the aegiranum marine
band maximum flooding surface, records an increasing rate of stratigraphic base level rise. This
equates to a third order transgressive systems tract or sequence set, comprising a number of fourth
order sequences which change upwards in response to the background low frequency rise. The

)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q44-91-374-2539; Fax: q44-91-374-2510; E-mail: b.r.turner@durham.ac.uk
1
Present address: Arco British, Cross Lanes, Guildford, Surrey GU1 1UE, UK.

0166-5162r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 6 - 5 1 6 2 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 2 8 - 2
34 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

increasing rate of base-level rise and increased accommodation space is accompanied by a change
in fluvial style to more isolated channels enclosed within floodplain deposits. q 1999 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Coal Measures sequence stratigraphy; Westphalian B; southern North Sea

1. Introduction
During Westphalian B times the Northumberland Basin and Silverpit Basin of the
southern North Sea were located along the proximal, northern margins of the more
extensive Pennine Basin ŽFig. 1., where a low relief, humid Ževerwet., coastal alluvial
plain developed remote Ž) 200 km. from open marine influences. The alluvial plain was

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of northern England and the southern North Sea, in relation to the Pennine
Basin and the Northumberland Trough, and the study areas in Northumberland and offshore southern North
Sea. FF s Featherwood Fault, AF s Alwinton Fault, SF sStublick fault, NF s Ninety Fathom Fault, PFFF s
Pressen–Flodden–Ford Faults and CG sCheviot Granite.
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 35

drained by predominantly low gradient sandy distributary channels feeding numerous

interdistributary freshwater lakes, either directly or via crevasse splay sub-delta systems
ŽHaszeldine, 1981; Fielding, 1984, 1986; Guion and Fielding, 1988; Samuels, 1993..
The channels, which formed laterally restricted, elongate belts associated with levee and
floodplain fines, flowed essentially southwards down the regional palaeoslope ŽGuion
and Fielding, 1988; Fraser and Gawthorpe, 1990; Rippon, 1996.. Accumulation occurred
under tectonically quiescent conditions during a period of thermally controlled regional
subsidence ŽTurner et al., 1993..
The succession is predominantly non-marine in character and consists of shale,
mudstone, siltstone and sandstone arranged in vertically stacked, predominantly coarsen-
ing-upward intervals capped by a seatearth and coal seam, interbedded with a number of
distributary channel sandbodies ŽTurner and Smith, 1995; O’Mara and Turner, 1997..
The coal-bearing intervals result from a combination of autocyclic switching of crevasse
splay delta lobes and minor distributary channels, on which the effects of differential
compaction and high frequency base level changes have been superimposed. The
thicker, economically more important, mineable coals in these intervals occur in the
lower part of the Westphalian B succession. In the southern North Sea, some of the
channel sandstones in this part of the succession, such as the Caister Sandstone, form
important natural gas reservoirs ŽRitchie and Pratsides, 1993; O’Mara, 1995..
Sporadic marine influences on sedimentation are recorded by up to 19 widespread,
thin Ž; 0.3–6 m thick. faunal concentrates Žcondensed horizons. or marine bands. These
are of nearly uniform distribution and are composed of pelagic sediment. The marine
bands record marine flooding events, when glacially driven eustatic rises in sea level
drowned all or parts of the alluvial plain ŽLeeder, 1988; Leeder and Hardman, 1990..
Thus, the marine bands are fundamental to a proper understanding of the succession
since they reflect the most significant changes in stratigraphic base level Žrelative sea
level. across the entire alluvial plain. Stratigraphic base level, in turn, affects lake levels,
bankfull channel depths and the groundwater table, all of which influence the distribu-
tion and development of sedimentary facies, coal seams and stratigraphic architecture
ŽO’Mara, 1995..
Marine bands, when integrated with the existing palynology, have historically
allowed correlation of Coal Measure sediments in individual sub-basins of the Pennine
Basin, and from basin to basin, extending into eastern Europe Žsee O’Mara and Turner,
1997 for discussion.. The integration of these techniques has allowed preliminary
correlation of Westphalian B sediments with those in the southern North Sea ŽO’Mara,
1995.. However, the stratigraphic spacing between marine bands, and the imprecise
nature of the palynological zonation which divides the Westphalian B, mean that the
resultant zonation is coarse. Modern exploration and development drilling require a
much higher resolution correlation than can be obtained by these techniques, especially
away from existing well control. Sequence stratigraphy, using both sequence boundaries
and flooding surfaces, has been used for high resolution correlation in many marine and
some non-marine environments, including Coal Measure strata ŽFlint et al., 1995.. It
emphasizes the allocyclic controls on sedimentary successions Žtectonism, climate and
eustacy, Shanley and McCabe, 1993. and can provide an improved understanding of the
controls on deposition and the sedimentary system ŽFlint et al., 1995..
36 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

This study is based on surface and subsurface data from the Northumberland Trough,
and subsurface data from Quadrant 44 in the southern North Sea ŽFig. 1.. The purpose
of the study is: Ž1. to undertake a sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Westphalian B
succession in Northumberland and offshore southern North Sea, and to critically assess
some of the existing approaches to Coal Measure sequence stratigraphy; and Ž2. to try
and use the results of the analysis to improve the resolution of the chronostratigraphi-
cally constrained stratigraphic subdivisions recognised to date. This in turn may have
direct implications for development drilling in determining facies stacking patterns and
the aerial distribution of genetic facies within facies associations. In onshore settings, it
will also have direct implications for analysing coal seam distribution and thickness
variations to allow for exploration of mineable coals. Details of these facies and facies
associations are given by O’Mara Ž1995.. The generalised lithostratigraphy of the
Westphalian A–C Coal Measures in the Northumberland Coalfield, and the sequence
stratigraphic interpretation of the Westphalian B part of the succession are shown in Fig.
2. Fig. 3 shows the comparable Westphalian B succession in the southern North Sea, its
interpreted flooding surface hierarchy and position of candidate sequence boundaries.

2. Sequence stratigraphy of coastal alluvial plain Westphalian B Coal Measures

environments

2.1. Coal seam distribution

Coal seams in the Westphalian B Coal Measures were deposited in peat swamps
which must have co-existed with active clastic depositional systems on a low relief
coastal alluvial plain, in interdistributary bays and on overbank areas ŽHaszeldine, 1981;
Fielding, 1984, 1986.. However, Flint et al. Ž1995. suggest that coal-forming peat
swamps with potential to produce thick, mineable coals are unlikely to develop in such
environments, because of the regular introduction of flood-generated overbank siliciclas-
tics; a view reinforced by McCabe Ž1984; 1987.. A possible explanation for this
apparent anomaly is the presence of raised mires which are able to deflect siliciclastic-
bearing currents ŽMcCabe, 1987.. Although raised mires have been recognised in the
Westphalian B from coal petrography ŽSmith, 1962, 1968; Bartram, 1987; Fulton, 1987.,
such an explanation is untenable for the majority of the coal-forming swamps on the
low-lying, low relief Westphalian B coastal alluvial plain where the mires clearly drape
and infill the underlying pre-coal formation topography ŽHaszeldine, 1989; Rippon and
Spears, 1989.. Alternative explanations include: Ž1. the partial filtering of siliciclastics
by vegetation, which may also reduce current activity, thereby allowing peat swamps to
become better established ŽHaszeldine, 1989.; Ž2. confinement of distributary channels
within fault-controlled depressions ŽHaszeldine, 1981; Fielding, 1984, 1986., thereby
limiting channel shifting and allowing more time for peat swamp formation; Ž3. the
preferential location of peat swamps on higher topographic parts of the alluvial plain
ŽFerm and Weisenfluh, 1989. will also help to protect the swamp from excessive
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 37

Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphy of the Westphalian A–C of the Northumberland Coalfield, and the sequence
stratigraphic interpretation of the Westphalian B succession proposed in this study.

siliciclastic influx. Variations in topographic relief across the low-lying Westphalian B

coastal alluvial plain are controlled by fluctuations in the rate of sediment supply to the
overbank areas via distributary channels, fault controlled depressions or uplifted blocks
and differential compaction. Thus, there were many areas on the alluvial plain where
38 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 39

coal swamps could potentially develop, but in view of the inherent sedimentary
instability of the crevasse splay swamp sites their lateral continuity and synchroneity are
unlikely. This is especially so along the more active margins of the basin, close to the
source of sediment supply, and along major sediment pathways. Those factors men-
tioned above result in facies changes which are pronounced both laterally and vertically
through time. Consequently, variations in coal seam thickness will occur across the
alluvial plain, as evidenced by facies architecture and coal seam distribution in Quadrant
44, southern North Sea ŽO’Mara, 1995..
Large amounts of siliciclastic sediment in crevasse splayrsubdelta systems and minor
distributary channels were deposited contemporaneously with peat swamp formation, as
evidenced by numerous seam splits ŽO’Mara, 1995; Rippon, 1996.. The crevasse splay
fed subdelta systems and minor distributary channels filled shallow interdistributary
lakes, up to 10 m deep and 15 km wide ŽHaszeldine, 1981., to produce vertically stacked
coarsening-upward packages, or intercoal intervals, up to 15 m thick ŽFig. 4; Haszeldine,
1981; O’Mara, 1995.. The above arguments suggest that as peat growth was contempo-
raneous with clastic sedimentation, the supply of sediment was never completely shut
off across the entire alluvial plain, or even large areas of the alluvial plain. Thus, the
contemporaneous formation of laterally extensive coal seams is unlikely Žcf. Flint et al.,
1995; see also Rippon, 1996.. The exception could occur where a rapid rise in
stratigraphic base level caused the fluvial sediment supply systems to shift landward.
However, we would argue that under these conditions the peat swamps may be drowned
by the rapidly rising base level as plant growth could not keep pace with rising base
level, resulting in thin coal seams.
Coastal alluvial plain Westphalian B coal seams tend to occur preferentially above
lake-filled crevasse splay delta lobes and in abandoned channels ŽHaszeldine, 1981;
O’Mara, 1995.. Flint et al. Ž1995. suggest that with a static groundwater table, which
approximates to stratigraphic base level, humification rates Ždecay of organic material
within the peat profile. limit coal seam thickness to about 3 m ŽClymo, 1987..
Admittedly, most coals in the Pennine Basin are not more than 3 m thick, but it is
argued here that the preservation of coals of this thickness is a function of rising local
stratigraphic base level Žgroundwater table.. The coal swamp once established will not
build at a rate above that of the rising base level as it would otherwise be destroyed by
oxidation. Even raised mires can only build to an optimum height, which may be up to
30 ft ŽAnderson, 1964., above the water table before requiring base levelrwater table to
rise Žsee discussion in Flint et al., 1995.. Furthermore, most coal seam roof rocks in the
coastal alluvial plain setting of the Westphalian B are lacustrine mudstones indicative of
lacustrine flooding of the peat swamp, a rise in local stratigraphic base level and
increased accommodation space ŽFig. 4; O’Mara, 1995.. Under these conditions, the
coal swamp will be preferentially preserved.

Fig. 3. Generalised stratigraphy and flooding surface hierarchy of the Westphalian B succession in the
southern North Sea, based on a comparison with the Westphalian B succession in Northumberland ŽFig. 2..
The Caister Sandstone occurs just above the Õanderbeckei marine band which defines the base of the
Westphalian B succession.
40 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Fig. 4. Logged core section through fourth order coarsening and shallowing-upward package from the
Westphalian B succession in Quadrant 44 in the southern North Sea. Refer to text for details.

2.2. Flooding surface hierarchy

The first step in any sequence stratigraphic analysis of a new data set is the location
of maximum flooding surfaces ŽPosamentier and James, 1993., or initial flooding
surfaces of low third order sequences. The Westphalian B throughout Great Britain and
Europe is delineated by the Anthracoceratites Õanderbeckei marine band at its base and
the Anthracoceras aegiranum marine band at its top ŽFig. 2.. These two marine faunal
bands imposed fully developed marine conditions over much of their aerial extent
ŽCalver, 1968.. They record the greatest marine encroachment and water depths of all
the Westphalian B marine bands, as indicated by their deep water faunal assemblages
ŽCalver, 1968.. Thus, these marine bands are considered to be third order maximum
flooding surfaces Žcf. Flint et al., 1995.. The Westphalian B, between these two marine
bands represents a third order depositional sequence, which in turn contains fourth order
sequence sets ŽAitken and Flint, 1994, 1995. within which are several fourth order
maximum flooding surfaces ŽFig. 2..
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 41

The most readily identifiable flooding surfaces in the Coal Measures generally overlie
coal seams ŽFig. 4.. Stratigraphic base level in a swamp is that surface, or water level,
above which humification exceeds organic supply ŽFlint et al., 1995., and the level to
which a swamp can build ŽMcCabe, 1984, 1987.. Swamps develop under conditions of

Fig. 5. Graphic and gamma-ray logs of a schematic Westphalian B coarsening-upward crevasse-splay fed delta
sequences. This is based on onshore and southern North Sea data and illustrates the flooding surface hierarchy
developed in this study. Ž1. Localised flooding surface with thin lake mudstone interbeds above, abundant
drifted plant fragments and moderate gamma-ray response. Ž2. Fourth order flooding surface with nonmarine
bivalves Žoccasionally contains marine fossils., high to moderately high gamma signature. Ž3. Third order
maximum flooding surface, abundant marine fossils with nonmarine bivalves above, thick smooth gamma-ray
response lake mudstone package containing high gamma and uranium responses, except in the case of the
Õanderbeckei marine band ŽO’Mara, 1995., with extensive sonic low ŽFig. 13..
42 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

rising stratigraphic base level, and they are able to maintain themselves in this way for
thousands of years ŽFielding, 1984.. Lowering stratigraphic base level, and thereby
lowering the water table, exposes the peat, which leads to oxidation and degradation of
organic matter. Ultimately, the swamp will give way to better drained conditions and
coal is not preserved, only thick palaeosols ŽBesly and Fielding, 1989.. A rise in
stratigraphic base level at the same rate as organic matter production will lead to thicker
coal seams.
Many swamps, although initiated by rising stratigraphic base level are also destroyed
by it ŽHaszeldine, 1989., if and when the rate of stratigraphic base level rise exceeds
organic matter production. Under these conditions, water depth or accommodation space
creation will inundate the swamp and terminate peat formation, as evidenced by marine
band incursions. This can be seen in the increased clay layers towards the top of coal
seams, which ultimately may give rise to cannelised coals and carbonaceous mudstones,
and culminates in the deposition of lake or marine mudstones depending on the relative
increase in stratigraphic base level rise ŽFig. 5.. Increased base level rise may ultimately
prompt coal swamp formation to shift diachronously and evolve into previously more
elevated parts of the alluvial plain such as abandoned crevasse splay fed delta lobes.
This is concomitant with a shift in the graded fluvial profile, as sediment supply and
erosion shift in a landward direction. In this way, coal swamps, which have wide
geographic extent, are not formed contemporaneously across the entire floodplain but
are diachronous.
With a rapid rise in regional stratigraphic base level, large parts of the alluvial plain
will become flooded, drowning the entire suite of Westphalian B facies, including active
channels and crevasse splays, as well as deepening existing lakes and drowning swamps.
In contrast to this, less significant flooding events may be aerially restricted to individual
interdistributary lake or bay areas. Thus, the magnitude and rate of stratigraphic base
level rise controls the type of flooding surface, and three scenarios are envisaged for the
development of flooding surfaces of different hierarchical level in the Westphalian B
Coal Measures. Ž1. At the lowest level, autocyclic differential compaction and high
frequency Ž10y2 –10y3 mryr. switching of minor crevasse splay delta systems or
distributary channels leads to a small-scale, or fifth order localised stratigraphic base
level rise ŽMitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991.. This promotes flooding of a peat swamp
by lake waters with deposition of mud of the interfluvial lake facies association
ŽO’Mara, 1995.. The geographic extent of the resultant coal seam would approximate
the dimensions of lakes they fill ŽGuion and Fielding, 1988; Fig. 4., that is, up to 15 km
wide ŽHaszeldine, 1981.. Ž2. Cyclic stratigraphic base level fluctuations of various
frequencies, as discussed by Maynard and Leeder Ž1992., reflect stratigraphic base level
changes in the Carboniferous that are responsible for ‘‘cyclothems’’, such as have been
described from the Namurian by Church and Gawthorpe Ž1994.. From the rationale
developed above the fourth order periods that cause flooding of the entire, or large areas
of the alluvial plain, result in deposition of extensive lakes. The Blackhall Estheria bed

Fig. 6. Core log of Caister Sandstone from the Murdoch Field, Quadrant 44, southern North Sea, showing the
thickness and stacked nature of the channel sandbodies.
P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 43
44 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 45

of the Northumberland coalfield, which represents such a fourth order flooding surface,
can be mapped lithologically and biostratigraphically across individual coalfields ŽLand,
1974.. Poorly developed marine bands such as the Clowne marine band ŽFig. 3. may be
of a similar origin Žsee also Rippon and Spears, 1989 for a detailed description.. These
fourth order flooding surfaces overprint the effects of the more localised autocyclic
higher frequency cycles in Ž1. and provide much more extensive and therefore strati-
graphically more useful flooding surfaces. Ž3. Third order maximum flooding surfaces
that flood the entire basin with marine environments such as the Õanderbeckei and
aegiranum marine bands, reflect high magnitude stratigraphic base level changes ŽFig.
2..
Thus, fourth order flooding surfaces are characterised by either non-marine bivalve
beds or marine bands depending on the overall background Žthird order. stratigraphic
base level trend. On the rising limb of the low frequency third order curve, approaching
the third order maximum flooding surface, the background stratigraphic base level is
relatively high with the result that the associated fourth order flooding surfaces are
typically marine bands. This is illustrated by the concentration of marine bands such as
the Sutton and Haughton marine bands around the third order aegiranum marine band
maximum flooding surface ŽFig. 3.. In contrast, that part of the third order stratigraphic
base level curve that reflects a low stratigraphic base level rise contains associated
fourth flooding surfaces that are characterised by non-marine bivalve beds ŽLand, 1974..

2.3. Sequence boundary recognition — comparison of Central Appalachian Basin and

UK examples

The second step in sequence stratigraphic analysis of a new data set is the location of
the sequence boundaries. When stratigraphic base level drops below the depositional
surface in the low stand portion of base level fluctuation, incision occurs across the
exposed floodplain and incised valleys are cut and partially filled, with an associated
unconformity defining the sequence boundary ŽFlint et al., 1995.. This situation has not
been recognised in the British Westphalian B Coal Measures ŽRippon, 1996., contrary to
the claims of Flint et al. Ž1995., who base their assumptions on studies of the
Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group of eastern Kentucky ŽAitken and Flint, 1994, 1995; Flint
et al., 1995.. The Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group is of similar age, and was deposited
under similar depositional conditions to the British Westphalian B Coal Measures, and is
thought to have undergone a similar regime of base level fluctuation to that of the UK.
In the Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group, medium to coarse-grained multistorey, channel-fill
sandstones with basal pebble lag conglomerates are incised into marine and alluvial
plain deposits, at a number of stratigraphic levels ŽAitken and Flint, 1994, 1995; Flint et
al., 1995.. These were interpreted as low stand incised valley-fill complexes overlying
sequence boundary unconformities. In alluvial sediments incision and apparent basin-

Fig. 7. Cross-section showing Caister Sandstone correlation and distribution. The cross-section, which is some
35 km long, is biostratigraphically well constrained and illustrates the lateral continuity of the sandbody. The
inset map shows the location of the wells in the southern North Sea.
46 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

ward shift of facies tracts can be confused with more localised channel scour unless they
meet the following criteria ŽAitken and Flint, 1995.: Ž1. high degree of facies tract
dislocation, e.g., where proximal braided fluvial sediments overlie distal floodplain
sediments; Ž2. marked contrast in grain size andror petrographic composition; Ž3.
degree of incision, e.g., where the depth of incision is intuitively greater Ž) 20 m. than
normally expected from a single channel pass; Ž4. contrast in depth of individual
channel-fills in relation to total depth of incision; and Ž5. the regional mappable extent
along depositional strike andror dip of the contemporaneous erosional surfaces indica-
tive of fluvial incision.
In the Breathitt Group, incised valley-fills are represented by major stacked fluvial
sandbodies ŽAitken and Flint, 1994.. These stacked sandbodies have low stand sequence
boundaries at their base, interpreted as such because of sharply based major facies tract
dislocations, and subsequent changes in fluvial style and architecture. The major stacked
sandbodies in eastern Kentucky ŽAitken and Flint, 1994, 1995. have a similar aerial
extent and individual channel unit thickness to the major stacked fluvial systems, such as
the Caister Sandstone in Quadrant 44 of the southern North Sea ŽFigs. 6 and 7. and the
Seaton Sluice Sandstone on the Northumberland coast ŽFigs. 8 and 9.. The Caister
Sandstone is between 30 and 40 m thick, and can be traced laterally over some 250 km2 ,
while the Seaton Sluice Sandstone is up to 15 m thick and can be traced over an area of
about 100 km2 . Both these sandstones occur in the lower part of the Westphalian B
succession ŽFigs. 2 and 3., separated by some 120 m of palynologically constrained
strata. Both the Seaton Sluice and Caister Sandstones are unique to the local West-
phalian B successions in which they occur ŽO’Mara, 1995.. They are coarse, poorly
sorted, arkosic to subarkosic sheet sandbodies that were deposited by low sinuosity,
perennial, bedload-dominated, multichannel braided river systems, as sand bars, sand
flat complexes and channel-fills ŽLand, 1974; Haszeldine, 1983; Ritchie and Pratsides,
1993; O’Mara, 1995.. The base of both sandstones is defined by a laterally extensive
erosion surface, which is seen to incise into the underlying coal-bearing coastal alluvial
plain sediments. The sediment removed is approximately one coal-bearing interval
Ž- 15 m. in the case of both sandstones ŽFig. 8..
The Seaton Sluice Sandstone, which has been used as an analogue for the Caister
Sandstone in the southern North Sea ŽO’Mara, 1995., shows distinct changes in grain
size, minerological composition, geometry, lithofacies architecture, depositional style
and palaeocurrent direction across the lower erosion surface. These changes are inter-
preted to represent a significant basinward shift in fluvial facies tracts ŽO’Mara, 1995.,
but do not elucidate the cause of this shift. However, the erosion surface shows several
features characteristic of sequence boundaries defining incised valley-fill sands and low
stand stratal complexes in fluvial rocks ŽAitken and Flint, 1994.. The Seaton Sluice

Fig. 8. Westphalian B Coal Measure stratigraphy between Tynemouth and Seaton Sluice based on data in the
works of Jones Ž1967. and Land Ž1974.. The arrows, which show the palaeocurrent directions responsible for
deposition of each of the named major channel sandbodies in the succession, represent cross-bed foreset dip
orientations plotted with respect to the orientation of the outcrop face. Thus, a azimuth of 2708 is shown by a
horizontal arrow pointing to the left. Each arrow is a vector mean based on a minimum of 20 readings.
Correlations are based on outcrop and subsurface data.
P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 47
48 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Fig. 9. Isopach map of the Seaton Sluice Sandstone within the Westphalian B Coal Measures of coastal
Northumberland. The isopach map is based on the stratigraphic correlation shown in Fig. 8 Žafter Land, 1974..

Sandstone, moreover, is the only sandbody in the local succession to have been
deposited by currents flowing from the east ŽFig. 8., across the southerly palaeoslope,
from a source area located somewhere out in the present day North Sea. The identity of
this source area and its relationship to the Seaton Sluice river system has not been
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 49

established but preliminary palynological analysis of rare carbonaceous-rich intervals in

the Seaton Sluice sandstone indicates the presence of a well preserved upland flora ŽH.
Armstrong, 1995, written communication.. The spores show little evidence of extensive
reworking or abrasion, implying derivation from a local upland source. Further evidence
on the nature of this source area is provided by the geophysical studies of Donato et al.
Ž1983. which reveal the presence of a number of Caledonian age granites in the southern
North Sea ŽFig. 10.. One of these granites, the Farne Granite ŽLeeder and Hardman,
1990., lies off the Northumberland coast approximately 80 km northeast of Seaton
Sluice, and is covered with older Namurian and possibly Dinantian sediments ŽO’Mara,
1995.. The North Sea is dominated by two fault trends: NE–SW and NW–SE, with
some of the NW–SE faults thought to be related to older basement structures ŽHol-
lywood and Whorlow, 1993.. Movement along these faults in the southern North Sea
began by at least mid Westphalian B times ŽBesly, 1988., and possibly sooner ŽLeeder
and Hardman, 1990., in response to compression from the approaching Variscan
deformation from the south, but they have not been linked to Caledonian granites. It is
suggested that reactivation of a NW–SE trending basement fault led to uplift of the

Fig. 10. Map showing Caledonian age granites in the southern North Sea, major faults, onshore basin and
block structure and the location of Seaton Sluice. The Caister Sandstone in Quadrant 44 of the southern North
Sea lies to the southwest of the Dogger Granite Žsee Figs. 1 and 7.. The inset map shows the parallel
relationship between faults and washouts in the Bensham coal seam, and palaeocurrent patterns in the Seaton
Sluice Sandstone at Seaton Sluice and Crag Point. The position of the faults controlling Seaton Sluice
Sandstone deposition, including the Hartley Station fault, are shown on Fig. 11.
50 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Farne granitersediment block ŽFig. 11.. The fault may possibly have had a strike slip
component of movement also, as seen in other southern North Sea structures ŽHol-
lywood and Whorlow, 1993.. Uplift of the Farne granitersediment block would increase
the floodplain gradient thereby creating a relative fall in stratigraphic base level and
producing incision found at the base of the Seaton Sluice Sandstone. Erosion of the
uplifted hinterland would source the sudden influx of coarse feldspathic detritus
delivered to the depositional site by a high energy, braided river system Žcf. Collinson et
al., 1993; Fig. 11..
The Caister Sandstone is located immediately above the Õanderbeckei marine band
ŽFig. 3. and is interpreted to have been deposited initially by fault-controlled, braided
streams following a regional fall in sea level in the early part of the Westphalian B
ŽRitchie and Pratsides, 1993.. However, no incision consistent with this interpretation is
seen, as the Õanderbeckei marine band maximum flooding surface, that occurs only a
short distance beneath the sandbody, is seldom removed by erosion, suggesting that
subsidence rates were high. Despite the abrupt change in facies tracts at the base of the
Caister Sandstone, interpreted as a type 1 sequence boundary, it does not fit into the
high magnitude, low frequency third order base level curve. The Sandstone immediately
overlies the Õanderbeckei maximum flooding surface, and hence a continued high stand
in base level would be expected.
Members of the NUNA Working Group describe similar sandbodies overlying
sequence boundaries and associate them with allocyclic phenomena ŽVan Wagoner et
al., 1990; Shanley and McCabe, 1991, 1993; Davies et al., 1992; Gibling and Bird,

Fig. 11. Schematic model showing the inferred relationship between fault-controlled reactivated uplift of the
Caledonian Farne Granite and associated Carboniferous sediments, and the Seaton Sluice Sandstone braided
river system. A similar model has been proposed for deposition of the coarser-grained, more proximal Caister
sandstone and adjacent Dogger granitersediment block in Quadrant 44 in the southern North Sea by O’Mara
Ž1995..
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 51

1994.. We agree that the Westphalian B equivalents of the major stacked fluvial
sandbodies in Kentucky described by Aitken and Flint Ž1994; 1995. relate to a
significant fall in relative sea level promoting extension and change of the fluvial profile
ŽWestcott, 1993.. However, we would argue that the controlling factor in Northumber-
land and the southern North Sea is tectonically induced uplift of intrabasinal areas
ŽLeeder and Hardman, 1990; O’Mara, 1995.. As a result, sediment supply and grain size
increased, and the graded fluvial profile shifted landwards. This in turn increased
erosion and a concomitant basinward shift of the bayline, as defined by Shanley and
McCabe Ž1994., allowing coarse-grained braided river channel sandstones, more typical
of the better-drained proximal alluvial plain, to overlie floodplain fines and small-scale,
fine-grained high sinuosity channel sandbodies.
The aerial extent and thickness of these tectonically induced fluvial systems, such as
the Caister–Seaton Sluice systems, are a function of the size of the source area and
magnitude of tectonic uplift. Thus, only significant uplift of a large source area is likely
to produce a basinwide sequence boundary with a regionally important sandstone above
it, such as the Caister Sandstone in the southern North Sea ŽFig. 7.. Tectonic uplift
results in a significant lowering of relative stratigraphic base level, which is superim-
posed on the background eustatic base level curve. The Seaton Sluice Sandstone is
thinner and less extensive in comparison to the Caister Sandstone ŽFigs. 8 and 9.. This is
attributed to the effects associated with lower magnitude uplift andror a smaller
intrabasinal source area, producing a more localised, tectonically induced, uncon-
formably based sandstone that does not overlie a sequence boundary ŽO’Mara, 1995..
Significant incision is not associated with either the Seaton Sluice Sandstone or the
thicker, aerially more extensive Caister Sandstone. The incision and washout of the
underlying Bensham coal seam ŽFigs. 8 and 9. associated with the Seaton Sluice
Sandstone ŽJones, 1967. is attributed to a fault controlled depression concentrating the
erosive effects at the centre of the channel as originally suggested by Haszeldine Ž1983..
This relationship is depicted in Fig. 11. Elsewhere little erosion at the base of this
sandbody has occurred, although it can be traced laterally into the subsurface for at least
17 km ŽLand, 1974.. This is also the case with the Caister Sandstone, which overlies the
Õanderbeckei marine band throughout much of Quadrant 44 in the southern North Sea
ŽFig. 7.. Although local erosional relief of up to 15 m occurs at the base of this
sandstone there is no evidence of more significant erosion otherwise it would have
affected the Õanderbeckei marine band. In fact the marine band, as noted above, is only
rarely missing, indicating that incision beneath the sandbody was limited; and where the
marine band is missing it is attributed to local erosion along a fault controlled depression
ŽO’Mara, 1995; cf. Fig. 11..
Further evidence for the lack of incision comes from the seismic interpretation of the
Coal Measures lithological units, which have a remarkably consistent thickness and no
visible unconformity ŽQuirk, 1993.. Thus, sedimentation appears to have been uninter-
rupted during deposition of the entire Westphalian A to lower Westphalian C succession,
in that subsidence always exceeded stratigraphic base level fall at this time, as evidenced
by the apparent lack of unconformities ŽO’Mara, 1995.. Support for this view comes
from the Northumberland Coalfield where coal-bearing intervals also have a relatively
constant thickness over the entire coalfield ŽLand, 1974.. Interestingly, Aitken and Flint
52 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Ž1994; 1995. recognise the sheet-like geometry of regionally extensive major stacked
fluvial sandbodies in Kentucky yet they advocate an incised valley fill origin, despite the
fact that significant incision is unlikely to have occurred on such a basinwide scale.
In such low relief ramp settings, as the Westphalian B coastal alluvial plain Žsee
O’Mara, 1995 for discussion., lowering of stratigraphic base level will not normally give
rise to incision ŽShanley and McCabe, 1993.. However, it will dramatically change the
fluvial style due to an abrupt reduction in accommodation space. Low sinuosity braided
streams typify high gradients and low accommodation space, whereas high sinuosity
streams typify low gradients and high accommodation space. In times of high accommo-
dation space creation, there is more space for sediment accumulation and therefore more
potential to preserve floodplain material, and streams are more sluggish due to lower
gradients. In low rates of accommodation space creation, channels cannabilise and
rework the floodplain deposits because of the lack of space for sediment to accumulate
between channels. This gives rise to a high net sandstone to gross package ratio, with
the sequence boundary at the base of such sandbodies representing an abrupt change in
the rate of accommodation space creation. This, together with increased sediment supply
produces a marked facies shift and explains why proximal type fluvial channels overlie
coastal alluvial plain deposits, as with the Caister Sandstone ŽO’Mara, 1995..

2.4. The Westphalian B third order sequences

Between the two regionally important third order maximum flooding surfaces delin-
eating the top and bottom of the Westphalian B succession, major stratal surfaces can be
recognised. These surfaces record a maximum rate of stratigraphic base level rise and
rate of accommodation space creation. Conceptually, a point would occur where
stratigraphic base level is at a minimum and accommodation space creation is slow or
even negative, producing a sequence boundary ŽFig. 12.. We interpret this point to be at
the base of the regionally correlatable Caister Sandstone where the lack of significant
incision suggests that accommodation space was not actually negative but created at a
very slow rate Žcf. Shanley and McCabe, 1993.. It also appears to occur at a point only
slightly above the maximum stand in stratigraphic base level recorded by the Õander-
beckei marine band whereas in a normal symmetrical sequence it would occur in the
middle of the genetic sequence ŽGalloway, 1989.. The asymmetry of the position of this
candidate sequence boundary was cited as evidence for the tectonic origins of this
sequence boundary by O’Mara Ž1995.. The occurrence of the multistorey, multilateral
Caister Sandstone showing little evidence of incision, overlying a regionally important
surface that was deposited during slow rates of accommodation space creation, assigns
this sandstone to part of an alluvial transgressive systems tract ŽFig. 2. Žterminology of
Shanley and McCabe, 1994.. Nevertheless, it still overlies a third order sequence
boundary since it represents the lowest point on the stratigraphic base level curve
between the two maximum flooding surfaces.
The remainder of the Westphalian B succession therefore, represents a gradual rise in
stratigraphic base level from the low point, above the sequence boundary and beneath
the Caister Sandstone, to the maximum flooding surface at the aegiranum marine band
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 53

Fig. 12. Sketch illustrating how the observed sequence stacking patterns might fit a third or fourth order
relative stratigraphic base level curve allowing for subsidence. See text for details.

ŽFig. 13.. This equates to a third order transgressive systems tract or sequence set which
comprises a number of fourth order sequences ŽMitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991..
These fourth order sequences reflect high rates of accommodation space creation
punctuated by fourth order fluctuations. The rate of sediment supply from a source area
to the north must have always managed to keep pace with the high rates of subsidence.
This is evidenced by the rapid vertical aggradation of sediment and the development of
frequent emergent surfaces for the establishment of coal swamps, such as abandoned
crevasse splay fed delta lobes and abandoned distributary channels. It is confirmed by
the lack of major unconformities in the Coal Measures in Northumberland and the
southern North Sea ŽLand, 1974; Quirk, 1993.. Concomitant with this increasing rate of
stratigraphic base level rise and accommodation space creation is a change in fluvial
style from multistorey, multilateral sandstones of low sinuosity braided channel origin to
increasingly isolated, thinner sandstones deposited by channels of various sinuosities.
This is illustrated in a vertical profile of the Caister Sandstone where a transition from
incompletely preserved multistory, multilateral low sinuousity braided channel sand-
stones to a single, completely preserved upper braided channel sandstone is seen ŽFig.
6.. A similar progression was noted in Triassic and Cretaceous alluvial strata in
Argentina by several workers ŽMancilla et al., 1988; Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989;
Kokogian, 1991; Legarreta and Uliana, 1991. and in southern Utah by Shanley and
McCabe Ž1991. and Shanley et al. Ž1992..
Concurrent with this change in fluvial style is a change in coal seam thickness. For
example, the thickest coal seam Ž2 m thick., which developed across the Caisterr
54 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 55

Murdoch Field in the southern North Sea occurs immediately above the alluvial
transgressive systems tract sandstones ŽCaister Sandstone. that provide the gas reservoir
for the field. These laterally extensive lower Westphalian B coal seams ŽO’Mara, 1995.
can be traced from approximately the same stratigraphic level in Northumberland into
the southern North Sea ŽFig. 7.. This correlation is based on integrating wireline log data
and biostratigraphy, which is corroborated by seismic data, as the coals provide a
distinctive seismic marker ŽQuirk, 1993.. Because the rate of base level rise at this time
was broadly similar to the rate of subsidence, conditions were suitable for the initiation
and development of peat swamps. The thick coals developed here, compare with the
thick coals ŽG 3 m. described from transgressive systems tracts elsewhere ŽFlint et al.,
1995..
As the rate of stratigraphic base level rise and siliciclastic input increased, during
development of the transgressive systems tract, the coal seams became thinner and less
frequent as the coal-forming peat swamps drowned more rapidly. Lakes formed under
conditions of increasing rate of base level rise, would be deeper and more extensive and
they would, therefore, require more sediment and time to fill before emergent conditions
developed. Thus, thick, more frequent coals are associated with thin lacustrine deposits
in the lower part of the succession Žabove Caister sequence boundary., and thin
infrequent coals with thick lacustrine deposits in the upper part of the succession, a
relationship clearly evident from electric logs ŽFig. 5.. The culmination of this increas-
ing rate of stratigraphic base level rise is that in the upper Westphalian B marine
conditions became more important with the result that individual coal seams were
drowned by transgressions of marine water. This indicates that the rate of stratigraphic
base level rise was higher than that previously seen in the lower Westphalian B, and of
such a magnitude that it gave rise to marine conditions. The first marine band in this part
of the succession is the Maltby, with three others up to the third order maximum
flooding surface at the aegiranum marine band ŽFig. 13.. This succession of marine
bands show an increased abundance and diversity of faunal assemblages, which indicate
that conditions began to approach normal marine salinities, and the marine bands were
deposited in deeper, more openly connected marine water upwards.
Superimposed on this stratigraphic base level curve are variations in basinal topogra-
phy or palaeoslope which become more pronounced in the upper Westphalian B due to
the closing of the Variscan foreland basin in response to the northward migration of the
Variscan front ŽLeeder and Hardman, 1990.. As a result, the onset of well-drained
alluvial plain conditions, normally associated with the Westphalian C, occurs in the
upper Westphalian B in the northerly, more elevated areas of Quadrant 44 in the
southern North Sea ŽBesly et al., 1993; O’Mara, 1995.. This apparent stratigraphic base
level fall occurs concurrently with the relative stratigraphic base level rise in basinal
areas, and is a consequence of a steeper gradient to the palaeoslope from margin to basin

Fig. 13. Log section of Well 44r27-1 from Quadrant 44 of the southern North Sea illustrating the cyclic
coal-bearing package referred to in the text, the location of the Caister Sandstone and the large-scale
fining-upward cycle between the Õanderbeckei and aegiranum marine band third order maximum flooding
surfaces.
56 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

centre. This may have occurred in response to the onset of Variscan tectonism or
possibly more localised intrabasinal source area uplifts ŽO’Mara, 1995.. Concomitant
with these uplifts was an increase in sediment supply and grain size Žcf. terminal fans of
Besly et al., 1993.. Intercalations of grey Coal Measures, which represent poorly drained
facies, within the predominantly well drained alluvial Žred beds with variegated
palaeosols. environment may well correlate with marine incursions and stratigraphic
base level acmes in the basinal areas Žse also Besly et al., 1993..

2.5. The Westphalian B fourth order sequences

Superimposed on the third order transgressive sequence set are high frequency fourth
order fluctuations on the stratigraphic base level curve ŽFig. 12.. The most readily
identifiable surfaces are fourth order maximum flooding surfaces which record a rise in
base level and an increase in accommodation space within these sequences, as discussed
above. These are characterised by lacustrine shales that cap coarsening- and shallowing-
upward packages of prograding minor crevasse splay delta systems ŽFigs. 4 and 5.,
which probably form in response to an upward decrease in the creation of accommoda-
tion space. Thus, vertically accreted suspension fall-out lacustrine sediments pass
upwards into crevasse splays showing increased rates of progradation into adjacent
lacustrine areas as accommodation space declined.
In the more elevated portions of the alluvial floodplain, where lake environments are
less common, shallower swamps predominate, and the lower magnitude of stratigraphic
base level rise precludes crevasse splay delta system aggradation. Thus, intercoal
intervals here are characterised by predominantly stacked palaeosols and overbank sheet
floods Žsee Besly et al., 1993; Figs. 7 and 8.. Such soils are described by Besly et al.
Ž1993. as being evolved palaeosols and comprise, gley, reduced gley, low humic
semi-gley, eutrophic peats and podzolic palaeosols ŽBesly and Fielding, 1989.. Lateral
facies equivalents to these environments are minor, high sinuousity distributary channels
that commonly occur at the top of infilled lake packages into which they may incise as
stratigraphic base level is at its lowest in the fourth order sequence.
The idealised fourth order sequences are complicated by small-scale autocyclic
processes such as differential compaction and channel switching that affect stratigraphic
base level and typically drown peat swamps. However, the basinwide fourth order
flooding surfaces can still be recognised by the high gamma-ray peak which responds to
the lacustrine facies containing the abundant non-marine bivalves that have been used to
correlate across coalfields in the UK ŽTrueman and Weir, 1946; Calver, 1956; Eager,
1956.. These fourth order sequences are equivalent to coal-bearing intervals in Northum-
berland ŽLand, 1974. and the southern North Sea ŽQuirk, 1993.. As stressed earlier, they
do not vary markedly in thickness across the floodplain, except towards the more rapidly
subsiding basin depocentre. In the Pennine basin this depocentre was situated in the
vicinity of Manchester, whereas in the southern North Sea it was situated in the southern
part of Quadrant 44r26 ŽO’Mara, 1995.. Here there are thicker fourth order sequences
comprising more sequences of a smaller fifth order and lower, not thicker fourth order
sequences, suggesting that sediment supply was always able to keep pace with rising
stratigraphic base level. This allowed peat swamps to form in response to frequent
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 57

emergence of the floodplain concomitant with lake filling. Consequently, in the de-
pocentre areas, there are more coal seams, their associated flooding surfaces and

Fig. 14. Logged core section through an intercoal interval, characterised by a distributary channel sandstone
from a Quadrant 44, southern North Sea well log.
58 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

intercoal intervals in the same time span ŽRippon, 1996.. These are of fifth, and lower
order magnitude, and may amalgamate into fourth order flooding surfaces or coal seams
towards the margins of the basin. Thus, correlation across the palaeoslope perpendicular
to main channel flow is more reliable than up or down the palaeoslope parallel to main
channel flow.
Interspersed with these intercoal intervals generated by fourth order sequences are
blocky, multistorey sandbodies Žmajor distributary channel. or single storey fining-up-
ward sandbodies Žminor distributary channel. ŽFig. 14.. These sandbodies are probably
the lateral facies equivalents of the various Westphalian B facies, in that both are feeder
channels supplying sediment deposited in crevasse splay delta systems and overbank
areas ŽFielding, 1984, 1986. following overbank floods and crevasse channel develop-
ment. How much fourth order stratigraphic base level changes control their develop-
ment, distribution, stacking and geometry is uncertain as these changes are probably
indistinguishable from autocyclic processes such as channel switching. This is due to the
high rates of subsidence, so that small-scale fourth order base level falls superimposed
on the rising third order base level curve would have little effect on the overall relative
base level curve ŽFig. 12a.. Because small scale fourth order base level falls are difficult
to distinguish from autocyclic processes, and their influence on sandbody formation is
uncertain, they are of more limited use in sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Only
gross changes in channel style, geometry and net sand to mud ratio will assist in
stratigraphic base level curve interpretation.

3. Conclusions

Westphalian B alluvial plain facies associations are susceptible to stratigraphic base

level fluctuations of various magnitudes. The surface, defined as stratigraphic base level,
is a regional stratigraphic surface which locally approximates to the groundwater table,
lake level or channel bankfull depth at the time of deposition, depending on facies. Two
third order maximum flooding surfaces are defined and identified in the Westphalian B
succession in Northumberland and the southern North Sea, and these correspond to the
stage defining Õanderbeckei marine band at the base and the aegiranum marine band at
the top of the succession. These marine bands resulted from high points on the
stratigraphic base level curve at a time when vast areas of the Pennine basin were
flooded by a marine incursion.
A third order tectonically induced sequence boundary can also be recognised, which
represents the lowest stand in stratigraphic base level, and as such it can be used to
enhance correlation across Quadrant 44. It is directly overlain by a multilateral,
multistorey sandstone, the Caister Sandstone, which forms part of an alluvial transgres-
sive systems tract. This sandstone resulted from low, but never negative rates of
accommodation space creation Žcf. incised valley formation., immediately following the
maximum low point on the third order stratigraphic base level curve defined by the two
maximum flooding surfaces.
Superimposed on this third order stratigraphic base level curve are fourth order base
level fluctuations. These are identifiable across the floodplain as base level rises that
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 59

drowned large areas of the floodplain, but are of a smaller magnitude than third order
maximum flooding surfaces. These are recognised as having a regional to subregional
extent which enables them to be distinguished from localised autocyclicly driven
flooding surfaces, thereby defining a fourth order flooding surface hierarchy. Base level
falls of this magnitude are indistinguishable from autocyclicly driven base level falls
because of the high subsidence rates inherent in the depositional system. This is
evidenced by the vast thickness of the Wesphalian B succession, deposited in a brief
period of time, whereby high subsidence rates negate small-scale base level falls.
Recognition of base level fall requires a third order magnitude fall, which is able to
overcome the effects of base level rise created by tectonically induced high subsidence
rates Že.g., Caister Sandstone.. From the relative position of the third order maximum
flooding surfaces and sequence boundary, together with the relatively high levels of
stratigraphic base level stand Žcf. Westphalian C. the Westphalian B succession is
interpreted as a transgressive sequence set.
Sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the Westphalian B succession has led to a
greater understanding of coal seam thickness and distribution. For example: Ž1. the
flooding surface hierarchy has helped improve correlation of coal seams in the subsur-
face; Ž2. the recognition of a sequence boundary and overlying sandstone development
allows for the correlation and definition of regionally important, major sandbodies in the
succession, some of which are economically important natural gas reservoirs in the
southern North Sea ŽCaister Sandstone. ŽRitchie and Pratsides, 1993.; and Ž3. the
interpretation of the sequence architecture as a third order transgressive sequence set
allows for coal seam frequency within the overall succession to be determined.

Acknowledgements

This study is based on part of an MSc dissertation funded by Arco British through the
award of a research studentship to P.T. O’Mara at the University of Durham. We are
grateful to Arco British for their support and encouragement throughout this study, and
for permission to publish the results of the work. We should like to thank Mike
Whateley for his comments and suggestions on an earlier version of the manuscript, and
Karen Atkinson for drafting the diagrams. The thorough and helpful review of the
manuscript by journal reviewer Romeo Flores is much appreciated.

References

Aitken, J.F., Flint, S., 1994. High frequency sequences and the nature of incised valley fills in fluvial systems
of the Breathitt Group ŽPennsylvanian., Appalachian Basin, eastern Kentucky. In: Boyd, R., Dalrymple,
R.W., Zaitlin, B. ŽEds.., Incised Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleont.
Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51, pp. 353–368.
Aitken, J.F., Flint, S., 1995. The application of sequence stratigraphy to fluvial systems: an example from the
Late Carboniferous of the Appalachians. Sedimentology 42, 3–30.
Anderson, J.A.R., 1964. The structure and development of peat swamps of Sarawak and Brunei. J. Trop.
Geog. 18, 7–16.
60 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Bartram, K.M., 1987. Lycopod successions in coals: an example from the low Barnsley seam ŽWestphalian B.,
Yorkshire, England. In: Scott, A.C. ŽEd.., Coal and Coal-bearing Strata: Recent Advances, Vol. 32. Geol.
Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 187–199.
Besly, B.M., 1988. Palaeogeographic implications of late Westphalian to early Permian redbeds, central
England. In: Besly, B.M., Kelling, G. ŽEds.., Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex: The Upper
Carboniferous of NW Europe. Blackie, London, pp. 200–221.
Besly, B.M., Fielding, C.R., 1989. Palaeosols in Westphalian coal-bearing and red- bed sequences, central and
northern England. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 70, 303–330.
Besly, B.M., Burley, S.D., Turner, P., 1993. The Late Carboniferous Barren Red Beds play of the Silver Pit
area, southern North Sea. In: Parker, J.R. ŽEd.., Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe. Proceedings of
the 4th Conference, Geol. Soc. Lond., pp. 677–687.
Calver, M.A., 1956. Die Stratigraphische Verbreitung der nichtmarinen Muscheln in den penninischen
Kohlendelfern Englands. Z. Dtsch. Geol. Ges. 107, 26–39.
Calver, M.A., 1968. Distribution of Westphalian marine faunas in North England and adjoining areas. Proc.
Yorks. Geol. Soc. 37, 1–72.
Church, K.D., Gawthorpe, R.L., 1994. High resolution sequence stratigraphy of the late Namurian in the
Widerpool Gulf ŽEast Midlands, UK.. Mar. Pet. Geol. 11, 528–544.
Clymo, R.S., 1987. Rainwater fed peat as a precursor of coal. In: Scott, A.C. ŽEd.., Sedimentology of Coal and
Coal-Bearing Strata: Recent Advances, Vol. 32. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 17–22.
Collinson, J.D., Jones, C.M., Blackbourn, G.A., Besly, B.M., Archard, G.M., McMahon, A., 1993. Carbonifer-
ous depositional systems of the southern North Sea. In: Parker, J.R. ŽEd.., Petroleum Geology of
Northwest Europe. Proceedings of the 4th Conference, Geol. Soc. Lond., pp. 677–687.
Davies, H., Burn, M., Budding, M.C., Williams, H., 1992. High resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis of
fluvio-deltaic cyclothems: the Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group, East Kentucky. AAPG, Annual Meeting,
Program with Abstracts, pp. 27–28.
Donato, J.A., Martindale, W., Tully, M.C., 1983. Buried granites beneath within the Mid North Sea High. J.
Geol. Soc. ŽLondon. 140, 825–837.
Eager, R.M.C., 1956. Additions to the non-marine fauna of the Lower Coal Measures of the north-midlands
coalfields. L’pool Manchr. Geol. J., 328–369.
Ferm, J.C., Weisenfluh, G.A., 1989. Evolution of some depositional models in Late Carboniferous rocks of the
Appalachian coal fields. Int. J. Coal Geol. 12, 259–292.
Fielding, C.R., 1984. Upper delta plain lacustrine and fluvio-lacustrine facies from the Westphalian of the
Durham coalfield. Sedimentology 31, 547–567.
Fielding, C.R., 1986. Fluvial channel and overbank deposits from the Westphalian of the Durham coalfield.
Sedimentology 33, 119–140.
Flint, S., Aitken, J.F., Hampson, G., 1995. Application of sequence stratigraphy to coal-bearing coastal alluvial
plain settings: implications for the UK Coal Measures. In: Whateley, M.G.K., Spears, D.A. ŽEds..,
European Coal Geology, Vol. 82. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 1–16.
Fraser, A.J., Gawthorpe, R.L., 1990. Tectono-stratigraphic development and hydrocarbon habitat of the
Carboniferous in northern England. In: Hardman, R.F.P., Brooks, J. ŽEds.., Tectonic Events Responsible
for Britain’s Oil and Gas Reserves, Vol. 55. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 49–86.
Fulton, I.M., 1987. Genesis of the Warwickshire Thick Coal: a group of long residence histols. In: Scott, A.C.
ŽEd.., Coal and Coal-bearing Strata: Recent Advances, Vol. 32. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp.
201–218.
Galloway, W.E., 1989. Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin analysis: 1. Architecture and genesis of
flooding surface bounded depositional units. AAPG Bull. 73, 125–142.
Gibling, M.R., Bird, D.J., 1994. Late Carboniferous cyclothems and alluvial paleovalleys in the Sydney Basin,
Nova Scotia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 106, 105–117.
Guion, P.D., Fielding, C.R., 1988. Westphalian A and B sedimentation in the Pennine Basin, UK. In: Besley,
B.M., Kelling, G. ŽEds.., Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex: The Upper Carboniferous of
NW Europe. Blackie, London, pp. 153–177.
Haszeldine, R.S., 1981. Westphalian B coalfield sedimentology in north–east England and its regional setting.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Strathclyde.
 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62 61

Haszeldine, R.S., 1983. Fluvial bars reconstructed from a deep straight channel, Upper Carboniferous
Coalfield of NE England. Sedimentology 31, 811–822.
Haszeldine, R.S., 1989. Coal reviewed: depositional controls, modern analogues and ancient climates. In:
Whateley, M.G.K., Pickering, K.T. ŽEds.., Deltas: Sites and Traps for Fossil Fuels, Vol. 41. Geol. Soc.
Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 289–308.
Hollywood, J.M., Whorlow, C.V., 1993. Structural development and hydrocarbon occurrence of the Carbonif-
erous in the UK Southern North Sea. In: Parker, J.R. ŽEd.., Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe.
Proceedings of the 4th Conference. Geol. Soc. Lond., pp. 689–696.
Jones, J.M., 1967. The geology of the coastal section from Tynemouth to Seaton Sluice. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc.
Northumberl., Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne XVI, 153–192.
Kokogian, D.A., 1991. Estratigrafia sequencial en cuencas continentales Cuenca Cuyana, Argentina. In:
Exploracion Pertolera en las Cuencas Subandinas. 4th Symposio Bolivarians 4, pp. 14–30.
Land, D.H., 1974. Geology of the Tynemouth District. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. 15. HMSO,
London.
Leeder, M.R., 1988. Recent developments in Carboniferous Geology: a critical review, with implications for
the British Isles and NW Europe. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 99, 73–100.
Leeder, M.R., Hardman, M., 1990. Carboniferous geology of the southern North Sea Basin and controls on
hydrocarbon prospectivity. In: Hardman, R.F.P., Brookes, J. ŽEds.., Tectonic Events Responsible for
Britains Oil and Gas Reserves, Vol. 55. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 87–105.
Legarreta, L., Gulisano, C.A., 1989. Analisis estratigrafico sequencial de la cuence Nuequina ŽTriasico
superior-Terciario inferior.. Cuencas Sedimentarias Argentinas, pp. 221–243.
Legarreta, L., Uliana, M.A., 1991. Jurassic–Cretaceous marine oscillations and geometry of back–arc basin
fill, central Argentina Andes. In: McDonald, D.I.M. ŽEd.., Sedimentation, Tectonics and Eustacy, Vol. 12.
Int. Assoc. Sediment. Spec. Publ., pp. 429–450.
Mancilla, O.H., Barrionuevo de Arce, L., Corsico, N., 1988. Analisis estratigrafico sequencial en el subsuelo
de la Cuenca Cuyana, Province Mendoza, Argentina. 1st Congresso Nacional de Exploracion de Hidrocar-
buros, pp. 715–737.
Maynard, M.J., Leeder, M.R., 1992. On the periodicity and magnitude of Late Carboniferous glacio-eustatic
sea-level changes. J. Geol. Soc. ŽLondon. 149, 303–311.
McCabe, P.J., 1984. Depositional environments of coal and coal-bearing strata. In: Rahmani, R.A., Flores,
R.M. ŽEds.., Sedimentology of Coal and Coal-Bearing Sequences, Vol. 7. Int. Assoc. Sediment. Spec.
Publ., pp. 13–42.
McCabe, P.J., 1987. Facies studies of coal and coal-bearing strata. In: Scott, A.C. ŽEd.., Sedimentology of
Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata: Recent Advances, Vol. 32. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., pp. 51–66.
Mitchum, R.M., Van Wagoner, J.C., 1991. High frequency sequences and their stacking patterns: sequence
stratigraphic evidence of high frequency eustatic cycles. Sediment. Geol. 70, 131–160.
O’Mara, P.T., 1995. Correlation, facies distribution and sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Westphalian B
Coal Measures in Quadrant 44 of the southern North Sea. Unpublished MSc Thesis, University of Durham.
O’Mara, P.T., Turner, B.R., 1997. Westphalian B marine bands and their subsurface recognition using
gamma-ray spectrometry. Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc. 51, 307–316.
Posamentier, H.W., James, D.P., 1993. An overview of sequence stratigraphic concepts: uses and abuse. In:
Posamentier, H.W., Summerhayes, C.P., Haq, B.U., Allen, G.P. ŽEds.., Sequence Stratigraphy and Facies
Associations, Vol. 18. Int. Assoc. Sediment. Spec. Publ., pp. 3–18.
Quirk, D.G., 1993. Interpreting Upper Carboniferous of the Dutch Cleaver Bank High. In: Parker, J.R. ŽEd..,
Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe. Proceedings of the 4th Conference. Geol. Soc. Lond., pp.
689–696.
Rippon, J.H., 1996. Sandbody orientation, palaeoslope analysis and basin-fill implications in the Westphalian
A–C of Great Britain. J. Geol. Soc. ŽLondon. 153, 881–900.
Rippon, J.H., Spears, D.A., 1989. The sedimentology and geochemistry of the Sub-Clowne cycle ŽWestphalian
B. of north–east Derbyshire. UK Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc. 47, 181–198.
Ritchie, J., Pratsides, P., 1993. The Caister Field, Block 44r23a, UK North Sea. In: Parker, R.J. ŽEd..,
Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe. Proceedings of 4th Conference, Geol. Soc. Lond. pp. 759–769.
Samuels, H., 1993. Westphalian B cyclothems between St. Mary’s Island and Seaton Sluice, Northumberland.
Undergraduate Project, University of Newcastle upon Tyne ŽUnpublished., 57 pp.
62 P.T. O’Mara, B.R. Turnerr International Journal of Coal Geology 42 (1999) 33–62

Shanley, K.W., McCabe, P.J., 1991. Predicting facies architecture through sequence stratigraphy — an
example from the Kaiparowits Plateau, Utah. Geology 19, 742–745.
Shanley, K.W., McCabe, P.J., 1993. Alluvial plain architecture in a sequence stratigraphic framework: a case
history from the Upper Cretaceous of southern Utah, USA. In: Flint, S., Bryant, I. ŽEds.., Quantitative
Modelling of Clastic Hydrocarbon Reservoirs and Outcrop Analogues, Vol. 15. Int. Assoc. Sediment.
Spec. Publ., pp. 21–55.
Shanley, K.W., McCabe, P.J., 1994. Application of sequence stratigraphic principles to non-marine strata. In:
Johnson, S.D. ŽEd.., High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy: Innovations and Application. Conference
Abstract Volume, pp. 293–294.
Shanley, K.W., McCabe, P.J., Hettinger, R.D., 1992. Tidal influence in Cretaceous fluvial strata from Utah,
USA: a key to sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Sedimentology 39, 905–930.
Smith, A.H.V., 1962. Palaeoecology of Carboniferous peats based on the miospores and petrography of
bituminous coals. Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc. 41, 423–474.
Smith, A.H.V., 1968. Seam profiles and seam characters. In: Murchison, D.G., Westoll, T.S. ŽEds.., Coal and
Coal-bearing Strata. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, pp. 31–40.
Trueman, A.E., Weir, J., 1946. A monograph of British Carboniferous non-marine Lamellibranchia. Palaeon-
togr. Soc Monogr., London.
Turner, B.R., Smith, B.B., 1995. The Carboniferous and Permian rocks between Tynemouth and Seaton
Sluice. In: Scrutton, C.T. ŽEd.., Northumbrian Rocks and Landscape: A Field Guide. Yorks. Geol. Soc.,
pp. 92–104.
Turner, B.R., Younger, P.L., Fordham, C.E., 1993. Fell Sandstone Group lithostratigraphy southwest of
Berwick-upon-Tweed: implications for regional development of the Fell Sandstone. Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Soc. 49, 269–281.
Van Wagoner, J.C., Mitchum, R.M., Campion, K.M., Rahmanian, V.D., 1990. Siliciclastic sequence stratigra-
phy in well logs, cores and outcrops: concepts for high resolution correlation of time and facies. AAPG
Methods in Exploration Series 7, 55 pp.
Westcott, W.A., 1993. Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of fluvial systems — some implications
for sequence stratigraphy. AAPG Bull. 77, 1208–1218.