Thermodynamics is the branch of physics dealing with the work and energy of a

system.Work, energy and heat all have the same units in physics despite having different
meanings and applications.

The SI (standard international) unit of heat is the joule.

Work is defined as force multiplied by distance, so, with an eye on the SI units for each of
these quantities, a joule is the same thing as a newton-meter.

Other units you are likely to encounter for heat include

the calorie (cal),

British thermal units (btu) and

the erg. (Note that the "calories" you see on food nutrition labels are actually kilocalories,
"kilo-" being the Greek prefix denoting "one thousand"; thus, when you observe that, say, a
12-ounce can of soda includes 120 "calories," this is actually equal to 120,000 calories in
formal physical terms.)

Gases behave differently from liquids and solids. Therefore, physicists in the world of
aerodynamics and related disciplines, who are naturally very concerned with the behavior of
air and other gases in their work with high-speed engines and flying machines, have special
concerns about the heat capacity and other quantifiable physical parameters related to matter in
this state. One example is enthalpy, which is a measure of the internal heat of a closed system.
It is the sum of the energy of the system plus the product of its pressure and volume:

H = E + PV

More specifically, the change in enthalpy is related to the change in gas volume by the
relationship:

∆H = E + P∆V

The Greek symbol ∆, or delta, means "change" or "difference" by convention in physics and
math. In addition, you can verify that pressure times volume gives units of work; pressure is
measured in newtons/m 2, while volume may be expressed in m 3.

Also, the pressure and volume of a gas are related by the equation:

P∆V = R∆T

where T is the temperature, and R is a constant that has a different value for each gas.

You don't need to commit these equations to memory, but they will be revisited in the
discussion later about Cp and Cv.
What Is Heat Capacity?

As noted, heat capacity and specific heat are related quantities. The first actually arises from
the second. Specific heat is a state variable, meaning that it relates only to the intrinsic
properties of a substance and not to how much of it is present. It is therefore expressed as heat
per unit mass. Heat capacity, on the other hand, depends on how much of the substance in
question is undergoing a heat transfer, and it is not a state variable.

Temperature is a measure of the motion of molecules. In solid materials, matter is arranged in

a lattice or grid, and molecules are not free to move about. In a liquid, molecules are more
free to move, but they are still constrained to a great extent. In a gas, molecules can move
about very freely. In any event, just remember that low temperature implies little molecular
movement.

https://sciencing.com/calculate-heat-absorption-6641786.html

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth103/node/1005

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/heat-capacity-d_338.html

The heat capacity of a substance is a measure of how well the substance stores heat. Whenever
we supply heat to a material, it will necessarily cause an increase in the material's temperature.
The heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required per unit increase in temperature, so
that

Thus, materials with large heat capacities, like water, hold heat well - their temperature won't rise
much for a given amount of heat - whereas materials with small heat capacities, like copper,
don't hold heat well - their temperature will rise significantly when heat is added.

The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to change its temperature
by one degree, and has units of energy per degree
Heat Capacity - C - is a characteristic of an object - the amount of heat required to change its
temperature by one degree.

 Heat Capacity has the units of energy per degree.

The amount of heat supplied to heat an object can be expressed as:

Q = C dt (1)
where

Q = amount of heat supplied (J, Btu)

C= heat capacity of the system or object (J/K, Btu/ oF)

dt = temperature rise (K, °C, oF)

The SI unit for heat capacity is J/K (joule per kelvin). In the English system, the units are British
thermal units per pound per degree Fahrenheit (Btu/oF). In some contexts kJ or cal and kcal are
used instead of J.

Never use tabulated values of heat capacity without checking the unites of the actual values!

Specific Heat Capacity (c) is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a mass
unit of a substance by one degree. Specific heat is a more common term for the same.

The heat supplied to a mass can be expressed as

dQ = m c dt (1)

where

dQ = heat supplied (J, kJ Btu)

m = unit mass (g, kg, lb)

c = specific heat (J/g K, kJ/kg oC, kJ/kg K, Btu/lb oF)

dt = temperature change (K, oC, oF)

(1) can be transferred to express Specific Heat as:

c = dQ / m dt (1b)

Example: The specific heat of iron is 0.45 J/(g K), which means that it takes 0.45 Joules of heat
to raise one gram of iron by one degree Kelvin.

Specific Heat Gases

There are two definitions of Specific Heat for vapors and gases:

cp = (δh / δT)p - Specific Heat at constant pressure (J/gK)

cv = ( δh / δT)v - Specific Heat at constant volume (J/gK)

For solids and liquids, cp = cv

Use the links to see tabulated values of specific heat of gases, common liquids and fluids, food
and foodstuff, metals and semimetals, common solids and other common substances.

Gas Constant

The individual individual gas constant, R, can be expressed as

R = cp - cv (2)

Ratio of Specific Heat

The Ratio of Specific Heat is expressed as

k = cp / cv (3)

Molar Heat Capacity (Cp) is the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of one
mol of a substance by one degree at constant pressure.
It is expressed in joules per moles per degrees Kelvin (or Celsius), J/(mol K).

Example: The molar heat capacity of iron is 25.10 J/(mol K), which means that it takes 25.10
Joules of heat to raise 1 mol of iron by 1 degree Kelvin.

Tabulated values of molar heat capacity, Cp, of a lot of organic and inorganic substances can be
found in Standard enthalpy of formation, Gibbs free energy of formation, entropy and molar heat
capacity of organic substances and Standard state and enthalpy of formation, Gibbs free energy
of formation, entropy and heat capacity, together with ΔH°f, ΔG°f and S° for the same
substances at 25°C.

Converting between Specific heat and Molar heat capacity

The specific heat capacity can be calculated from the molar heat capacity, and vise versa:

cp = Cp / M and

Cp = cp . M

where

cp = specific heat capacity

Cp = molar heat capacity

M = molar weight of the actual substance (g/mol).

Example: Methanol (with molecular formula CH3OH) has a molar heat capacity, Cp, of 81.1
J/(mol K). What is the specific heat capacity, cp?

First, we calculate (or find) the molar weight of methanol: 1*12.01g/mol C + 4*1.008g/mol H +
1*16.00g/mol O = 32.04 g/mol CH3OH

Then, the specific heat capacity of methanol is: cp = 81.8 J/(molK) / 32.04 g/mol = 2.53 J/(g K)

Converting between commonly used Units

 1 Btu/lbmoF = 4186.8 J/kg K = 1 kcal/kgoC

 Online Specific heat capacity unit converter

Example - Heating Aluminum

2 kg of aluminum is heated from 20 oC to 100 oC. Specific heat of aluminum is 0.91 kJ/kg0C and
the heat required can be calculated as

dQ = (2 kg) (0.91 kJ/kg0C) ((100 oC) - (20 oC))

= 145.6 (kJ)

Example - Heating Water

One liter of water is heated from 0 oC to boiling 100 oC. Specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg0C
and the heat required can be calculated as

dQ = (1 litre) (1 kg/litre) (4.19 kJ/kg0C) ((100 oC) - (0 oC))

= 419 (kJ)

Heat Capacity and Energy Storage

Print

When our planet absorbs and emits energy, the temperature changes, and the relationship
between energy change and temperature change of a material is wrapped up in the concept of
heat capacity, sometimes called specific heat. Simply put, the heat capacity expresses how much
energy you need to change the temperature of a given mass. Let’s say we have a chunk of rock
that weighs one kilogram, and the rock has a heat capacity of 2000 Joules per kilogram per °C —
this means that we would have to add 2000 Joules of energy to increase the temperature of the
rock by 1 °C. If our rock had a mass of 10 kg, we’d need 20,000 Joules to get the same
temperature increase. In contrast, water has a heat capacity of 4184 Joules per kg per °K, so
you’d need twice as much energy to change its temperature by the same amount as the rock.
The heat capacity of a material, along with its total mass and its temperature, tell us how much
thermal energy is stored in a material. For instance, if we have a square tub full of water one
meter deep and one meter on the sides, then we have one cubic meter of water. Since the density
of water is 1000 kg/m3, this tub has a mass of 1000 kg. If the temperature of the water is 20 °C
(293 °K), then we multiply the mass (1000) times the heat capacity (4184) times the temperature
(293) in °K to find that our cubic meter of water has 1.22e9 (1.2 billion) Joules of energy.
Consider for a moment two side-by-side cubic meters of material — one cube is water, the other
air. Air has a heat capacity of about 700 Joules per kg per °K and a density of just 1.2 kg/m3, so
its initial energy would be 700 x 1 x 1.2 x 293 = 246,120 Joules — a tiny fraction of the thermal
energy stored in the water. If the two cubes are at the same temperature, they will radiate the
same amount of energy from their surfaces, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law described
above. If the energy lost in an interval of time is the same, the temperature of the cube of air will
decrease much more than the water, and so in the next interval of time, the water will radiate
more energy than the air, yet the air will have cooled even more, so it will radiate less energy.
The result is that the temperature of the water cube is much more stable than the air — the water
changes much more slowly; it holds onto its temperature longer. The figure above shows the
results of a computer model that tracks the temperature of these two cubes.
One way to summarize this is to say that the higher the heat capacity, the greater the thermal
inertia, which means that it is harder to get the temperature to change. This concept is an
important one since Earth is composed of materials with very different heat capacities — water,
air, and rock; they respond to heating and cooling quite differently.

The heat capacities for some common materials are given in the table below.

Heat Capacity of Earth Materials

Substance Heat Capacity (Jkg-1K-1)

Water 4184

Ice 2008

Average Rock 2000

Wet Sand (20% water) 1500

Snow 878

Dry Sand 840

Vegetated Land 830

Heat Capacity of Earth Materials

Substance Heat Capacity (Jkg-1K-1)

Air 700

Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a substance.
This example problem demonstrates how to calculate heat capacity.

Problem: Heat Capacity of Water from Freezing to Boiling Point

What is the heat in joules required to raise the temperature of 25 grams of water from 0 C to 100
C? What is the heat in calories?

Useful information: specific heat of water = 4.18 J/g·°C

Solution:

Part I

Use the formula

q = mcΔT
where
q= heat energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
ΔT = change in temperature
q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)[(100 C - 0 C)]
q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)x(100 C)
q = 10450 J
Part II
4.18 J = 1 calorie
x calories = 10450 J x (1 cal/4.18 J)
x calories = 10450/4.18 calories
x calories = 2500 calories
Answer:
10450 J or 2500 calories of heat energy are required to raise the temperature of 25 grams of
water from 0 C to 100 C.

is the amount of energy (heat) needed to increase temperature of a substance by one degree. It
reflects the capacity of the substance to retain heat. As defined, heat capacity has only a limited
application since it is extensive property i.e. depends on mass of the substance. In Physics,
specific heat capacity, which is the heat capacity normalized to the unit of mass, is commonly
used. Consider a specific example. Calculate both heat capacity and specific heat capacity, if
energy, required to increase temperature of an aluminum bar (500g) from 298 to 320 K, is
9900 J.

Subtract temperature of the initial state from temperature of the final state to calculate
temperature difference dT: dT=T2-T1. dT= 320-298=22 K

Divide the heat energy amount Q by temperature difference dT to calculate heat capacity Ct.
Ct=Q / dT Ct=9900 J / 22 K=450 J/K.

Divide heat energy amount Q by temperature difference dT and the mass m. Or divide
heat capacity Ct(Step 2) by the mass m to calculate specific heat capacity C. C = Q /
(dT_m) = Ct/m C=9900 J / (22 K_ 500 g) = 450 J/K / 500g=0.9 J/Kg. Heat Capacity
Formula

Heat Capacity Formula

The heat capacity, or 'thermal mass' of an object, is defined as the Energy in Joules required to
raise the temperature of a given object by 1º C. This is the 'specific heat' of the object (a defined
physical/chemical property) multiplied by its mass and the change in temperature.
Heat capacity = mass x specific heat x change in temperature
Q = mc Δ T
Q = heat capacity, J
m = mass, g
c = specific heat of object, J/(g-ºC)
ΔT = change in temperature, ºC
Heat Capacity Formula Questions:
1) A 125-g piece of iron (specific heat = 0.45 J/gºC) is heated from 100 º C to 450º C. How much
heat energy was required?
Answer: The mass, m = 125 g; the specific heat of iron, c = 0.45 J/gº C, and the change in
temperature, ΔT, = 450 - 100 = 350 º C.
Q = mc Δ T
Q = (125 g) (0.45 J/gº C)(350 º C)
Q = 19687.5 J
2) If 15, 245 J of heat are applied to a copper ball with a mass of 45 g, how much will the
temperature change? Specific heat of copper, c = 0.39 J/gº C.
Answer: The mass, m = 45 g; the specific heat, c = 0.39 J/gº C; and Q = 15245 J.
Q = mc Δ T
Q/mc = Δ T
 (15245 J) / (45 g)(0.39 J/gº C) = Δ T
ΔT = 868.66 º C
Method1
Calculating an Object's Heat Capacity
1
Know the heat capacity formula. Heat Capacity of an object can be calculated by dividing the
amount of heat energy supplied (E) by the corresponding change in temperature (T). Our
equation is: Heat Capacity = E / T.[1]
 Example: It takes 2000 Joules of energy to heat a block up 5 degrees Celsius -- what is the heat
capacity of the block?
 Heat Capacity = E / T
 Heat Capacity = 2000 Joules / 5 C
 Heat Capacity = 400 Joules per degree Celsius (J/C)
2
Find the difference in temperature for changes of multiple degrees. For example, if I want to
know the heat capacity of a block, and I know it takes 60 Joules to raise the temperature of the
block from 8 degrees to 20 degrees, I need to know the difference between the two temperatures
to get my heat capacity. Since 20 - 8 = 12, the temperature of the block changed by 12
degrees.[2] Therefore:
 Heat Capacity = E / T
 Heat Capacity of the block = 60 Joules / (20C - 8C)
 60 Joules / 12 C
 Heat Capacity of the Block = 5 J/C
3
Add the appropriate units to your answer to give it meaning. A heat capacity of 300 means
nothing if you don't know how it was measured. Heat Capacity is measured by energy needed
per degree. So if we measure the energy in joules, and the change of temperature in Celsius, our
final answer will represent how many Joules we needed per degree Celsius. Thus we would
represent our answer as 300 J/C, or 300 Joules per degree celsius.
 If you measure heat energy in calories and temperature in Kelvin, your final answer would be
300 C/K.
4
Know that this equation works for cooling objects as well. When something becomes two
degrees colder, it loses the exact same amount of heat as it would gain to become 2 degrees
warmers. Thus, if you are asked, "What is the heat capacity of an object if it loses 50 Joules of
energy and drops 5 degrees Celsius," you can still use our equation:
 Heat Capacity: 50J / 5C
 Heat Capacity = 10 J/C
 Method2
Using a Material's Specific Heat
1. 1

Know that specific heat refers to the energy needed to raise one gram by one degree. When
you find the heat capacity of one unit of something (1 gram, 1 ounce, 1 kilogram, etc), you've
found this object's specific heat. Specific heat tells you the amount of energy needed to raise
each unit one degree. For example, it takes .417 Joules to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius.
So, water's specific heat is .417 J/C per gram.[3]
 The specific heat of a material is constant. That means that all pure water has the same specific
heat-- .417 J/C.
2.

2
Use the heat capacity formula to find a material's specific heat. Finding it is easy, simply
divide your final answer by the mass of the object. This tells you how much energy was need for
each bit of the object, like how many joules changes the temperature in just one gram of ice.
 Example: "I have 100 grams of ice. It takes 406 Joules to raise the temperature of ice 2 degree
Celsius-- what is the specific heat of ice?"'
 Heat Capacity for 100g Ice = 406J / 2C
 Heat Capacity for 100g Ice = 203 J/C
 Heat Capacity for 1g Ice = 2.03 J/C per gram
 If you are confused, think of it this way -- it takes 2.03 Joules to raise every single gram of ice
one degree. So, if we have 100 grams of ice we need 100 times as many Joules to heat it all.
3.

3
Use specific heat to find the energy needed to raise any material to any temperature. A
material's specific heat is tells you how much energy is needed to raise one unit (usually 1 gram)
a single degree. To find the heat needed to raise any object to any temperature, we simply
multiply all of the parts together. Energy Needed = Mass x Specific Heat x Temperature
Change. The answer is always in your unit of energy such as Joules.[4]
  Example:" If the specific heat of aluminum is .902 Joules per gram, how many Joules does it take
to raise 5 grams of aluminum 2 degrees Celsius?
 Energy Needed = 5g x .902J/C x 2C
 Energy Needed = 9.2 J
4.

4
Know the specific heat of common materials. To help practice, learn the common specific
heats that you might see on a test or encounter in real life. What can you learn from them?
Notice, for example, that the specific heat of metals is much lower than wood -- this is why a
metal spoon heats up quicker than wood if left in a hot cup of chocolate. Lower specific heats
mean an object gets hot faster.[5]
 Water: 4.179 J/C
 Air: 1.01 J/C
 Wood: 1.76
 Aluminum: .902 J/C
 Gold: .129 J/C
 Iron: .450[6]
How do I convert watts into J/KgK?
Watts and J/KgK measure different things and cannot be "converted" to one another. J/KgK
is the heat capacity, which is a property intrinsic to a particular material, while Watt is a unit
of power.
Heat is a familiar manifestation of transferring energy. When we touch a hot object, energy flows
from the hot object into our fingers, and we perceive that incoming energy as the object being
“hot.” Conversely, when we hold an ice cube in our palms, energy flows from our hand into the
ice cube, and we perceive that loss of energy as “cold.” In both cases, the temperature of the
object is different from the temperature of our hand, so we can conclude that differences in
temperatures are the ultimate cause of heat transfer.
The specific heat of a substance can be used to calculate the temperature change that a given
substance will undergo when it is either heated or cooled. The equation that relates heat (q)(q) to
specific heat (cp)(cp), mass (m)(m), and temperature change (ΔT)(ΔT) is shown below.
q=cp×m×ΔT(3.12.1)(3.12.1)q=cp×m×ΔT
The heat that is either absorbed or released is measured in joules. The mass is measured in
grams. The change in temperature is given by ΔT=Tf−TiΔT=Tf−Ti, where TfTf is the final
temperature and TiTi is the initial temperature.
Every substance has a characteristic specific heat, which is reported in units of cal/g•°C or
cal/g•K, depending on the units used to express ΔT. The specific heat of a substance is the
amount of energy that must be transferred to or from 1 g of that substance to change its
temperature by 1°. Table 3.12.13.12.1 lists the specific heats for various materials.

Substance Specific Heat

Water (l) 4.18

Water (s) 2.06

Water (g) 1.87

Ammonia (g) 2.09

Ethanol (l) 2.44

Aluminum (s) 0.897

Carbon, graphite (s) 0.709

Copper (s) 0.385

Gold (s) 0.129

Iron (s) 0.449

Lead (s) 0.129

Mercury (l) 0.140

Silver (s) 0.233

The direction of heat flow is not shown in heat = mcΔT. If energy goes into an object, the total
energy of the object increases, and the values of heat ΔT are positive. If energy is coming out of
an object, the total energy of the object decreases, and the values of heat and ΔT are negative.

Example 3.12.13.12.1
A 15.0g15.0g piece of cadmium metal absorbs 134J134J of heat while rising
from 24.0oC24.0oC to 62.7oC62.7oC. Calculate the specific heat of cadmium.
Solution:
Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.
Known
 Heat =q=134J=q=134J
 Mass =m=15.0g=m=15.0g
 ΔT=62.7oC−24.0oC=38.7oCΔT=62.7oC−24.0oC=38.7oC
Unknown
 cpcp of cadmium =?J/goC=?J/goC
The specific heat equation can be rearranged to solve for the specific heat.
Step 2: Solve.
cp=qm×ΔT=134J15.0g×38.7oC=0.231J/goC(3.12.2)(3.12.2)cp=qm×ΔT=134J15.0g×38.7oC=0.2
31J/goC
Step 3: Think about your result.
The specific heat of cadmium, a metal, is fairly close to the specific heats of other metals. The
result has three significant figures.
Since most specific heats are known (Table 3.12.13.12.1), they can be used to determine the final
temperature attained by a substance when it is either heated or cooled. Suppose that
a 60.0g60.0g of water at 23.52oC23.52oC was cooled by the removal of 813J813J of heat. The
change in temperature can be calculated using the specific heat equation.
ΔT=qcp×m=813J4.18J/goC×60.0g=3.24oC(3.12.3)(3.12.3)ΔT=qcp×m=813J4.18J/goC×60.0g=3
.24oC
Since the water was being cooled, the temperature decreases. The final temperature is:
Tf=23.52oC−3.24oC=20.28oC(3.12.4)(3.12.4)Tf=23.52oC−3.24oC=20.28oC

Example 3.12.23.12.2

What quantity of heat is transferred when a 150.0 g block of iron metal is heated from 25.0°C to
73.3°C? What is the direction of heat flow?
SOLUTION
We can use heat = mcΔT to determine the amount of heat, but first we need to determine ΔT.
Because the final temperature of the iron is 73.3°C and the initial temperature is 25.0°C, ΔT is as
follows:
ΔT = Tfinal − Tinitial = 73.3°C − 25.0°C = 48.3°C
The mass is given as 150.0 g, and Table 7.3 gives the specific heat of iron as 0.108 cal/g•°C.
Substitute the known values into heat = mcΔT and solve for amount of heat:
heat=(150.0g)(0.108calg⋅∘C)(48.3∘C)=782cal(3.12.5)(3.12.5)heat=(150.0g)(0.108calg⋅∘C)(48.3∘
C)=782cal
Note how the gram and °C units cancel algebraically, leaving only the calorie unit, which is a
unit of heat. Because the temperature of the iron increases, energy (as heat) must be
flowing into the metal.

Exercise 3.12.13.12.1

What quantity of heat is transferred when a 295.5 g block of aluminum metal is cooled from
128.0°C to 22.5°C? What is the direction of heat flow?
Answer

Example 3.12.23.12.2

A 10.3 g sample of a reddish-brown metal gave off 71.7 cal of heat as its temperature decreased
from 97.5°C to 22.0°C. What is the specific heat of the metal? Can you identify the metal from
the data in Table 3.12.13.12.1?
SOLUTION
The question gives us the heat, the final and initial temperatures, and the mass of the sample. The
value of ΔT is as follows:
ΔT = Tfinal − Tinitial = 22.0°C − 97.5°C = −75.5°C
If the sample gives off 71.7 cal, it loses energy (as heat), so the value of heat is written as a
negative number, −71.7 cal. Substitute the known values into heat = mcΔT and solve for c:
−71.7 cal = (10.3 g)(c)(−75.5°C)
c=−71.7cal(10.3g)(−75.5∘C)c=−71.7cal(10.3g)(−75.5∘C)
c = 0.0923 cal/g•°C
This value for specific heat is very close to that given for copper in Table 7.3.
Originally Answered: What is the difference between heat capacity and specific heat of the
material?
Heat capacity ia heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.

Specific heat is heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree
Celsius.

Let's assume substance 'A' has specific heat of 1 KJ/kgK. The specific heat remains the same if I
take 5kg of 'A' or 10kg, because it is defined as per Kg of that substance.

On the other hand heat capacity depends on mass of the substance. If I have 5kg of that
substance then heat capacity will be 5KJ/Kg, if I have 10kg then heat capacity becomes 10KJ/kg
. Because more the mass, more it will take to raise the temperature by 1 degree Celsius.

Thermal capacity, also referred to as heat capacity, is the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of an object by a certain degree. On the other hand, specific heat capacity, also
referred to as the specific heat of a material, is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of an object per unit mass of that object.
From these definitions, we can see that thermal capacity is an extensive property. This means
that it varies per amount of the substance. For example, 50 grams of iron will have a different
thermal capacity as 100 grams of the same substance. Meanwhile, specific heat capacity is an
intensive property. Using the same example, 50 grams of iron will have the same specific heat as
100 grams of iron.

The unit for thermal capacity is J/K (joule per Kelvin) while that of specific heat is J/Kg (joule
per Kelvin per gram).

Because of this, thermal capacity is a measurable physical quantity. It is the parameter that can
be measured experimentally. Specific heat, on the other hand, is a derived quantity by getting the
ratio of the heat/thermal capacity to the mass of the object of interest. Another commonly used
parameter is the molar specific heat which is the ratio of heat/thermal capacity with the number
of moles (instead of the mass of the object),
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-specific-heat-and-heat-capacity/

Specific Heat vs Heat Capacity

It is not surprising why many are confused between “specific heat” and “heat capacity.” It is

because once you search for “specific heat” at online resources such as Wikipedia, you’ll

automatically be redirected to the page for “heat capacity.” Well, “heat capacity” or “thermal

capacity” is completely known as “specific heat capacity” which just adds to the confusion. By

definition, the two are very similar. However, there’s just an additional variable included in

specific heat that makes it differ a little as compared to heat capacity.

When you talk about “heat capacity” (having a symbol “C”), it is actually the heat needed for a

substance’s temperature to change by one degree. This, therefore, shows that it is applicable to

any type of matter. “Heat capacity” is the ratio of heat transfer “Q” to change in temperature

“∆T.” In formulaic expression, it is C = Q / ∆T. In its SI unit notation, it uses units of energy /

degree (energy per degree). It is expressed as the ratio of Joules (symbol “J” which stands for the

value for energy) to Kelvin (symbol “K” which stands for the value of absolute temperature) C =

J / K. In chemistry, however, they make use of molar heat capacity Cmol, which just adds the

mol variable in the equation Cmol = J / mol . K.

On the other hand, “specific heat” sounds similar to heat capacity in terms of definition, but the

former refers to the needed heat to adjust the temperature of a single unit of a substance’s mass

by one degree. It makes use of energy / mass / degree units. C = J / kg . K. In here, the kg

(kilogram) is the unit of mass included in the equation.

In terms of physical properties, “heat capacity” is the extensive variable because the quantity of a

particular matter is directly proportional to its heat capacity. This means that the bigger the

matter, the bigger is its resulting heat capacity (i.e. 2x matter gives you 2x heat capacity). By

contrast, “specific heat” is an intensive variable, which means an attribute belonging to a specific

substance and not to any matter in general. This makes it more convenient for scientists and

other professionals to do experiments using the intensive variable.

Summary:

1.“Heat capacity” is an extensive variable while “specific heat” is an intensive variable.

2.“Specific heat” has a unit of mass in its equation as recommended by the International

Standards of measurement.

3.“Specific heat” is more suitable for use in theoretical and experimental functions.

4.According to SI units, the formula for heat capacity is C = Q / ∆T while for specific heat it is C

= J / kg . K.

Specific Heat Capacity definition

Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required as raise the temperature of 1 kg mass
of that substance through 1 K.

Specific heat formula

Generally, when a body is heated, its temperature increases. Increase in the temperature of a
body is found to be proportional to the amount of heat absorbed by it. It has also been observed
that the quantity of heat ΔQ required to raise the temperature Δ T of a body is proportional to the
mass m of the body. Thus
ΔQ∝mΔT

or Δ Q = c m Δ T ………….(1)

Here Δ Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the body and c is the constant of proportionality
called the heat capacity of simple specific heat.

Specific heat capacity formula

In SI units, mass m is measured in kilogram (kg), heat Δ Q is measured in Joule (J) and
temperature increase Δ T is taken in kelvin (K). Hence, SI unit of specific heat bis Jkg-1 K-1.
Specific heats of some common substances are given in table:

specific heat capacity of water

Specific heat of water is 4200 J Kg-1K-1 and that of dry soil is about 810 J Kg-1K-1. As a result the
temperature of soil would increase five times more than the same mass of water by the same
amount of heat. Thus, the temperature of land rises and falls more rapidly than that of the sea.
Hence, the temperature variations from summer to winter are much smaller at places near the sea
than land far away from the sea.
Water has a large specific heat capacity. For this reason, it is very useful in storing and carrying
thermal energy due to its high specific heat capacity. The cooling system of automobiles uses
water to carry away unwanted thermal energy. In an automobile, large amount of heat is
produced by its engine due to which its temperature goes on increasing. The engine would cease
unless it is not cooled down. Water circulating around the engine by arrows maintains its
temperature. Water absorbs unwanted thermal energy of the engine and dissipates heat through
its radiator.

In central heating systems such as hot water is used to carry thermal energy through pipes from
boiler to radiators. These radiators are fixed inside the house at suitable places.

Heat Capacity definition

Heat capacity of a body is the quantity of thermal energy absorbed by it for one kelvin (1 K)
increase in its temperature.

Thus, if the temperature of a body increase through Δ T on adding Q amount of heat, then its
heat capacity will be ΔQ/ Δ T. Putting the value of Δ Q, we get:
Heat capacity = Δ Q/ Δ T = m c Δ T/ Δ T

heat capacity = m c ………..(3)

Equation (3) show that heat capacity of a body is equal to the product of its mass of the body and
its specific heat capacity. For example, heat capacity of 5 kg of water is ( 5 kg × 4200 J kg -1 k -1)
21000 JK -1. That is; 5 kg of water needs 21000 Joules of heat for every 1 K rise in its
temperature. Thus, larger is the quantity of a substance, large will be its heat capacity.
Change of State:

Matter can be changed from one state to another. Foe such a change to occur, thermal energy is
added to or removed from a substance.
Monohybrid Cross Problem Set

Problem 1: The Monohybrid Cross

Tutorial to help answer the question

In pea plants, spherical seeds (S) are dominant to

dented seeds (s). In a genetic cross of two plants
that are heterozygous for the seed shape trait, what
fraction of the offspring should have spherical
seeds?

Tutorial

The figure above represents a monohybrid cross of F1-hybrid plants.

Both parent plants are heterozygous (Ss) for an allele that determines
seed shape. Presence of the dominant allele (S) in homozygous (SS) or
heterozygous (Ss) plants results in spherical seeds. Homozygous
recessive (ss) plants have dented seeds.

To solve problem 1, you'll need to set up a Punnett square. This tutorial

will walk you through that process.

Setting up a Punnett square

1. Set up a 2 by 2 Punnett square.

2. Write the alleles for parent 1 on the left side of the
Punnett square.

Each gamete will have one of the two alleles of the

parent. In this particular cross, half of the gametes will
have the dominant (S) allele, and half will have the
recessive (s) allele. We will use blue and brown to keep
track of the alleles of each parent.
3. Write the alleles from parent 2 above the Punnett
square.

For this heterozygous parent (Ss), half of the gametes

will have the dominant (S) allele, and half will have the
recessive (s) allele.
4. Fill the squares for parent 1.

Fill each square with the allele from Parent 1 that lines
up with the row.

5. Fill the squares for parent 2.

Fill each square with the allele from Parent 2 that lines
up with the column.

Interpreting the results of a Punnett square

We now have the information for predicting the outcome of the cross.
The genotypes in the four boxes of the Punnett square are each equally
likely to occur among the offspring of this cross. We may now tabulate
the results.

Genotypes that resulted from this monohybrid cross (Ss x Ss)

25% 25%
50%
homozygous homozygous
heterozygous
dominant recessive
Phenotypes that resulted from this monohybrid cross (Ss x Ss)

In pea plants, spherical seeds (S) are dominant to

dented seeds (s). In a genetic cross of two plants
that are heterozygous for the seed shape trait, what
fraction of the offspring should have spherical
seeds?
A. None

B. 1/4

C. 1/2

D. 3/4

3/4 of the offspring will have the dominant phenotype: one fourth will be homozygous dominant
(SS) and one half will be heterozygous (Ss.)
One fourth will be homozygous recessive (ss) and will have the recessive phenotype.

E. All

Monohybrid Cross Problem Set

Problem 2: Mendel's First Law

Tutorial to help answer the question

A phenotypic ratio of 3:1 in the offspring of a

mating of two organisms heterozygous for a single
trait is expected when:

Tutorial
A. the alleles segregate during meiosis

Mendel first proposed that alleles segregate from one another during the formation of gametes.
B. each allele contains two mutations.

This choice is not relevant to the problem, because the relationship between the mutation and
phenotype is not given.

C. the alleles are identical.

If the alleles were identical (SS x SS), all offspring would be the same. There would be a 4:0
segregation ratio.

D. the alleles are incompletely dominant.

If the alleles were incompletely dominant, the heterozygotes would have an intermediate
phenotype different from both the homozygous dominant (SS) and the homozygous recessive
(ss). There would be three different phenotypes among the offspring, and the ratio would be 1
(SS) : 2 (Ss) : 1 (ss).

E. only recessive traits are scored.

If only one phenotype were scored, there would not be a phenotypic ratio.

A monohybrid cross is a breeding experiment between P generation (parental generation)

organisms that differ in a single given trait. The P generation organisms are homozygous for the
given trait. However, each parent possesses different allelesfor that particular trait. A Punnett
square may be used to predict the possible genetic outcomes of a monohybrid cross based on
probability. This type of genetic analysis can also be performed in a dihybrid cross, a genetic
cross between parental generations that differ in two traits.

Traits are characteristics that are determined by discrete segments of DNA called genes.
Individuals typically inherit two alleles for each gene. An allele is an alternate version of a gene
that is inherited (one from each parent) during sexual reproduction. Male and female gametes,
produced by meiosis, have a single allele for each trait. These alleles are randomly united
at fertilization.

A monohybrid cross is a genetic mix between two individuals who have homozygous genotypes,
or genotypes that have completely dominant or completely recessive alleles, which result in
opposite phenotypes for a certain genetic trait.
Monohybrid crosses are used by geneticists to observe how the offspring
of homozygousindividuals express the heterozygous genotypes they inherit from their parents.
Typically, this mix determines the dominant genotype.

A monohybrid cross can also signify a genetic mix between two individuals who have
heterozygous genotypes. These crosses confirm the dominance of an allele

Gregor Mendel’s Peas

Although he did not know it at the time, Gregor Mendel used monohybrid crosses to identify
dominant and recessive traits in his landmark experiments with peas.

Gregor Mendel focused on several different genetic traits, but we will focus on one: stem length.
Imagine that two types of pea plants grow in a garden. One type of pea plant has long stems,
while the other has short stems. For the sake of this example, assume that both types of pea plant
have a homozygous genotype (LL and ll), and that long stems (LL) are dominant over short
stems (ll).

A monohybrid cross, or breeding a long-stemmed pea plant with a short-stemmed pea plant,
allows scientists, like Gregor Mendel, to determine the dominance of long stems or short stems.
A monohybrid cross also permits scientists to evaluate how heterozygous offspring express the
genes they inherit.

As mentioned before, breeding a long-stemmed pea plant with a short-stemmed pea plant creates
offspring that all have a heterozygous genotype (Ll). As long stems are dominant, all offspring
will have the long-stemmed phenotype. In different terms, and as modeled by Gregor Mendel’s
classic pea example observing the offspring of a monohybrid cross allows for determination of
dominant genotypes and, by extension, dominant phenotypes.
our genotype is your complete heritable genetic identity; it is your unique genome that would be
revealed by personal genome sequencing. However, the word genotype can also refer just to a
particular gene or set of genes carried by an individual. For example, if you carry a mutation that
is linked to diabetes, you may refer to your genotype just with respect to this mutation without
consideration of all the other gene variants that your may carry.
In contrast, your phenotype is a description of your actual physical characteristics. This includes
straightforward visible characteristics like your height and eye color, but also your overall health,
your disease history, and even your behavior and general disposition.

 Genotype – The genetic code one inherits for a

specific trait.
 Phenotype – The physical manifestation of a specific genetic trait that signals the
inheritance of certain genetic codes.
 Homozygous – A genotype carrying two dominant or two recessive alleles. One allele
is inherited from the father, and the other, from the mother.
 Heterozygous – A genotype carrying one dominant and one recessive allele.
 1. A monohybrid cross breeds one parent with a __________ ___________ genotype
with another parent with a _________ __________ genotype to determine the
________ ______.
A. Homozygous dominant, homozygous retrograde, dominant alley
B. Heterozygous dominatrix, homozygous dominant, dominant allele
C. Homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive, dominant allele
D. Homoromantic dominant, homosexual recessive, dominant allele
 Answer to Question #1
 C is correct. A monohybrid cross breeds a parent that has a homozygous dominant
genotype for a specific trait, with a parent that has a homozygous recessive genotype for
a specific trait. In this way, it predicts the dominant allele.
 2. A monohybrid cross between two parents that have heterozygous genotypes for a
specific trait confirms the dominance of a specific allele because …
A. It produces offspring in which the dominant allele occurs more often.
B. It produces offspring that only have the dominant allele.
C. Both parents die if the hypothesis is true.
D. It produces offspring that know if they have the recessive allele.
 Answer to Question #2
 A is correct. In ideal conditions, a second monohybrid cross, in which both parents have
heterozygous genotypes, will yield offspring of which the majority have the dominant
trait.
 3. A monohybrid cross CANNOT predict:
A. Your hair color
B. Whether you will inherit a genetic condition
C. Whether you will have a shellfish allergy
D. Whether the sun will come out tomorrow
 Answer to Question #3
 D is correct. A monohybrid cross can predict things as benign as hair color, or it can alert
parents to potentially life-threatening conditions in their own children. However, it
cannot predict traits, events, or patterns outside of the organism on which it is conducted.