56 Introduction to Vibration and the Free Response Chap.

the top of Figure 1.32(b). Next, the series arrangement of k3 and k4 is replaced with a
single spring of stiffness
1
1>k3 + 1>k4

as indicated in the bottom left side of Figure 1.32(b). These two parallel springs on the
bottom of Figure 1.32(b) are next combined using the parallel spring formula to yield
a single spring of stiffness
1 k3k4
k5 + = k5 +
1>k3 + 1>k4 k3 + k4

as indicated in Figure 1.32(c). The final step is to realize that both the spring acting at
the top of Figure 1.32(c) and the spring at the bottom attach the mass to ground and
hence act in parallel. These two springs then combine to yield the single stiffness
k3k4
k = k1 + k2 + k5 +
k3 + k4
k3k4 (k1 + k2 + k5)(k3 + k4) + k3k4
= k1 + k2 + k5 + =
k3 + k4 (k3 + k4)

as indicated symbolically in Figure 1.32(d). Hence the natural frequency of this system is

k1k3 + k2k3 + k5k3 + k1k4 + k2k4 + k5k4 + k3k4

ωn =
B m(k3 + k4)

Note that even though the system of Figure 1.32 contains five springs, it consists of
only one mass moving in only one (rectilinear) direction and hence is a single-degree-
of- freedom system.
n

Springs are usually manufactured in only certain increments of stiffness val-

ues depending on such things as the number of turns, material, and so on (recall
Figure 1.25). Because mass production (and large sales) brings down the price
of a product, the designer is often faced with a limited choice of spring constants
when designing a system. It may thus be cheaper to use several “off-the-shelf”
springs to create the stiffness value necessary than to order a special spring with
specific stiffness. The rules of combining parallel and series springs given in
Figure 1.31 can then be used to obtain the desired, or acceptable, stiffness and
natural frequency.

Example 1.5.6
Consider the system of Figure 1.32(a) with k5 = 0. Compare the stiffness and fre-

k1 = 1000 N >m, and k2 = 3000 N >m), then by two series springs (k1 = k2 = 0,
quency of a 10-kg mass connected to ground, first by two parallel springs (k3 = k4 = 0,

k3 = 1000 N >m, and k4 = 3000 N >m).

Sec. 1.5 Stiffness 57

Solution First, consider the case of two parallel springs so that k3 = k4 = 0, k1 =

1000 N>m, and k2 = 3000 N>m. Then the equivalent stiffness is given by Figure 1.31
to be the simple sum given by
keq = 1000 N>m + 3000 N>m = 4000 N>m
and the corresponding frequency is

= 20 rad >s
4000 N>m
ωparallel =

In the case of a series connection (k1 = k2 = 0), the two springs (k3 = 1000 N >m,
B 10 kg

k4 = 3000 N>m) combine according to Figure 1.31 to yield

= 750 N >m
1 3000 3000
keq = = =
1>1000 + 1>3000 3 + 1 4
The corresponding natural frequency becomes

750 N>m
ωseries = = 8.66 rad>s
B 10 kg

Note that using two identical sets of springs connected to the same mass in the two dif-
ferent ways produces drastically different equivalent stiffness and resulting frequency. A
series connection decreases the equivalent stiffness, while a parallel connection increases
the equivalent stiffness. This is useful in designing systems.
n

Example 1.5.6 illustrates that fixed values of spring constants can be used in vari-
ous combinations to produce a desired value of stiffness and corresponding frequency.
It is interesting to note that an identical set of physical devices can be used to create a
system with drastically different frequencies simply by changing the physical arrange-
ment of the components. This is similar to the choice of resistors in an electric circuit.
The formulas of this section are intended to be aids in designing vibration systems.
In addition to understanding the effect of stiffness on the dynamics—that is,
on the natural frequency—it is important not to forget static analysis when using
springs. In particular, the static deflection of each spring system needs to be checked
to make sure that the dynamic analysis is correctly interpreted. Recall from the dis-
cussion of Figure 1.14 that the static deflection has the value
mg
∆ =
k
where m is the mass supported by a spring of stiffness k in a gravitational field
providing acceleration of gravity g. Static deflection is often ignored in introduc-
tory treatments but is used extensively in spring design and is essential in nonlinear
analysis. Static deflection is denoted by a variety of symbols. The symbols δ, ∆, δs,
and x0 are all used in vibration publications to denote the deflection of a spring
caused by the weight of the mass attached to it.
58 Introduction to Vibration and the Free Response Chap. 1

1.6 MEASUREMENT

Measurements associated with vibration are used for several purposes. First, the
quantities required to analyze the vibrating motion of a system all require measure-
ment. The mathematical models proposed in previous sections all require knowledge
of the mass, damping, and stiffness coefficients of the device under study. These coef-
ficients can be measured in a variety of ways, as discussed in this section. Vibration
measurements are also used to verify and improve analytical models. Other uses for
vibration testing techniques include reliability and durability studies, searching for
damage, and testing for acceptability of the response in terms of vibration param-
eters. This chapter introduces some basic ideas on measurement. Further discussion
of measurement can be found throughout the book, culminating with all the various
concepts on measurement summarized in Chapter 7.
In many cases, the mass of an object or device is simply determined by using
a scale. Mass is a relatively easy quantity to measure. However, the mass moment
of inertia may require a dynamic measurement. A method of measuring the mass
moment of inertia of an irregularly shaped object is to place the object on the plat-
form of the apparatus of Figure 1.33 and measure the period of oscillation of the
system, T. By using the methods of Section 1.4, it can be shown that the moment of
inertia of an object, J (about a vertical axis), placed on the disk of Figure 1.33 with
its mass center aligned vertically with that of the disk, is given by
gT 2r 20 (m0 + m)
J = - J0 (1.78)
4π2l
Here m is the mass of the part being measured, m0 is the mass of the disk, r0 the
radius of the disk, l the length of the wires, J0 the moment of inertia of the disk, and
g the acceleration due to gravity.
The stiffness of a simple spring system can be measured as suggested in
Section 1.1. The elastic modulus, E, of an object can be measured in a similar

Suspension wires
l of length l

Disk of known moment J0, Figure 1.33 A Trifilar suspension

mass m0, and radius r0 system for measuring the moment
of inertia of irregularly shaped
objects.