Professional Documents
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Management
Abstract:
planning. A discussion of the origins of management science leads into one
on modeling, the five-step process of management science, and the process
We treat several important issues for effective knowledge management and
of engineering problem solving.
development of corresponding support systems and tools where the target
group is comprised mainly of engineers. The analysis presented here is a
synthesis of results of activities engaged in by the author for Infineon over a
number of years. These activities included extensive development of
databases and workflow tools for engineering purposes, primarily using
Lotus Notes as a platform.
1 INTRODUCTION
4.1 Information collection • Politically powerful people most often make decisions intuitively and
might be embarrassed to have the real influences on their decision-making
Informal interviews were held with six prominent decision-makers. These exposed. They arethus wary of structured descriptions of problems. Many
included peoplefrom government, from a parastatal as well as from private also have short attentionspans and are not willing to endure the grind of
companies. The decisionmakers were at levels of seniority ranging from creating the Compatibility Matrixin Think Tools, for example.
Director to Chief Executive Officer (CEO).Of the six people, five were
male and one female. All were graduates (including 3 PhDs) with • Politicians make decisions to favour their own position, rather than aiming
qualifications mostly in the pure or applied sciences. Each decision-maker to makegood decisions.
discussedsome cases of decision-making that they were involved in, using
these cases to illustratetheir own views on decision-making. The context of
each decision-maker and extracts fromthe discussion are provided in 4.3 The second decision-maker, DM2
sequence. DM2 has qualifications in the natural sciences and currently holds a senior
position ata government department. One of DM2’s roles is to shape the
development process ofnational government strategies in order to achieve
4.2 The first decision-maker, DM1 acceptance thereof. DM2 is adept atsensing and analysing the organisational
and political environment, and is also able toapply appropriate decision-
DM1 has studied in the natural sciences and is perceived to be a structured, making theories and strategies to the context at hand.
analyticalthinker. The discussion with DM1 revolved around DM1’s
experiences as a businessunit manager, where decision-making was at an following comments were made by DM2
executive level, impacting a businessunit. Also discussed was the
• Being effective is not the same as being “right.” Rather, one needs to
implementation of strategic decision support processes andtools in DM1’s
understandthe pond in which one is swimming. A strategic decision-maker
previous work environments, namely in a parastatal and in
should be aware ofhis/her environment rather than focusing on the use of
government.Here, DM1 was involved in processes where stakeholders had
tools. A senior bureaucratis a sensing organism.
to be influenced and insome instances trained in structured decision-
making. The following comments reflect thedifficulties experienced with • The function of information is in making the case. Information is a
implementing structured decision-making in a context where senior weapon thatshould be packaged convincingly.
decision-makers were involved:
• One needs to look at and respond to what is in a manager’s head, and not
• Although there is a need for improved decision-making in government, just focuson the facts.
there is no
stated demand for a more rational approach.
• The usefulness of Think Tools
is to develop understanding of how issues influence
4.4 The third decision-maker, DM3 4.6 The fifth decision-maker, DM5
DM3 holds qualifications in the applied mathematical sciences. DM3 is a DM5’s current role is to influence stakeholders who make
process-orientedperson who uses a structured mental approach, and is also strategicdecisions about the incubator and to support and guide the
guided by intuition and values. companies in the incubator.
As CEO of a company, DM3’s decision-making roles include the DM5 is also involved in the development and marketing of a decision
structuring of the companyand its relationships with other companies. DM3 support tool throughone of the incubator companies. Key characteristics of
often facilitates meetings within oroutside the work context. Comments DM5’s decision-making style arean intuitive approach and being
from DM3 include the following: comfortable with taking and managing risks. DM5 sharedthe following
insights:
• There are two issues that bedevil the decision process. The one is
uncertainty andthe other is the difference in value systems among the • DM5’s decision-making style is intuitive. A situation is explored and
people who have to makedecisions jointly. decisions takenat the last possible moment, remaining open to new
information as long as possible.
• When facilitating grou2p decision-making, sensitivity to people’s value
systems ismore helpful than the use of tools. • Operational decisions are based on an educated gut feel and experience.
Strategic decisions require a more creative process and are shaped while
being thoughtthrough.
4.5 The fourth decision-maker, DM4 • If a decision has a 60% chance of success, one needs to manage the 40%
DM4 performed mainly a marketing and businessdevelopment role, and is that mightmake it fail. One needs to distinguish real risks from perceived
currently involved with competence development in a ones.
knowledgeorganisation. DM4 likes to assimilate various theories, and has • The value of a decision support tool is that it can free up one’s mind by
had exposure to a numberof decision-making theories. Reflections by DM4 taking careof the issues that can be automated or that are well defined
include the following: already.
• Large organisations tend to feed upon themselves. They do things, because • DM5 is an advocate of self-help decision support tools.
they dothings, because they do things. . .
• The decision-making context needs to be taken into account when
supporting decision-making. For example, a marketing situation requires 4.7 The sixth decision-maker, DM6
use of the client’s frame ofreference as a basis. When facilitating group
DM6 is the CEO of a parastatal and has studied mathematics, physics and
decision-making, one should encourage appropriate.
statistics. DM6has a background in R&D management in commercial as
• In DM4’s current organisation, staff have often proven themselves to be well as academic environments.
scientificallyclever, but culturally and socially inept when dealing with
DM6 is a rational decision-maker whose decisions and arguments are based
clients from other regions or backgrounds.
on the rules oflogic, and believes that an argument must be defensible in a
logical manner. DM6 sharedthe following:
• DM6’s arguments are the result of personal analysis as well as those of
other people.Arguments are written out in prose, to see that they are
plausible. Stories andanecdotes are used if it is believed that the targeted
audience will be able to relateto the story.
• Most people are rational and want to engage with issues that transcend the 5 Insights into the process of decision-making
day-today operational concerns.
The decision-making process of several of the decision-makers may be
• Messiness in the decision environment is reduced by asking: What creates described broadly ashaving two phases: a divergent, exploratory phase and
noise?One of the origins of noise is irrational opinion. One needs to define a convergent phase where the focusis to reduce the number of alternatives
the boundariesof a problem situation: if there are too many dependencies and then make the decision. This is similar to thedecision process described
you have to choose asubset of them, and either ignore the rest or assume in Russo and Schoemake consisting of expansive andconvergent phases:
you cannot change it. The divergent phase is described as a creative phase where
• One should distinguish between decisions that are made on scientific alternativesolutions are generated. One of the decision-makers referred to
ground. the strategy of taskingfour different people to analyse the same problem.
Another approach is to ask differentbusiness units to scope a solution in
isolation or to use multi-disciplinary teams that havedifferent perspectives
to interact with each other. Personal style and background alsoplays a role.
Some decision-makers acknowledge the role of the subconscious in order
todevelop new solutions; others refer to this process as being intuitive.
(Figure 2)
6 TOOLS FOR DECISION MAKING
6.1 Categories of Decision Making 6.2 Decision Making under Certainty
Decision making can be discussed conveniently in three categories: decision Decision making under certaintyimplies that we are certain of the future
making under certainty, under risk, and under uncertainty. The payoff table, state of nature (or weassume that we are). (In our model, this means that the
or decision matrix, shown in Table probability of future is 1.0, and allother futures have zero probability.) The
solution, naturally, is to choose the alternative that gives
will help in this discussion. Our decision will be made among some number
m of alternatives, identified as There may be more than one future state of us the most favorable outcome Although this may seem like a trivial
nature.The model allowsfor ndifferent futures These future states of nature exercise, there are manyproblems that are so complex that sophisticated
may not be equally likely but each state willhave some known or unknown mathematical techniques are needed to find the best solution.
probability of occurrence Since the future must take on one ofthe nvalues
of the sum of the nvalues of must be 1.0.The outcomeor payoff, or benefit
6.3 Decision Making under Risk
gained will depend on both the alternative chosen and thefuture state of Nature of Risk. In decision making under riskone assumes that there exist a
nature that occurs. For example, if you choose alternative and state of number of possible future states of nature. Each has a known (or assumed)
nature takes place as it will with probability the payoff will be outcome A probability of occurring, and there may not be one future state that results in
full payoff table willcontain m times n possible outcomes. the best outcome for all alternatives Examples of future states and their
probabilities are as follows:
• Alternative weather ( weather) will affect the profitability of alternative
construction schedules; here, the probabilities of rain and of good weather
can beestimated from historical data.
• Alternative economic futures (boom or bust) determine the relative
profitability of conservative versus high-risk investment strategy; here, the
assumed probabilities of different economic futures might be based on the
judgment of a panel of economists.
(Figure 3)
(Figure 4)
Conclusion Online Sources
This study attempted to provide the decision support consultant with some
insight into thedecision-making style of individual decision-makers as well
as that of organisations. Onlywhen such decision-making is understood can [1] Think Tools, [Online], [Cited 27 May 2011], Available from
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problems in a complex and industrialised environment, the same tools or
methods cannot necessarily be applied to Human decision making. [3] coe,[online],[Cited 17 December 2000],Available from
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