Course 3 – Clinker Production

3.7 Fuels
Imprint

German Cement Works Association

Research Institute of the Cement Industry
P.O. box 30 10 63, 40410 Duesseldorf, Germany
Tannenstrasse 2, 40476 Duesseldorf, Germany
Phone: +49 211 45 78–1
Fax: +49 211 45 78–296
info@vdz-online.de
www.vdz-online.de

info@elearning-vdz.de
www.elearning-vdz.de

Issued: 3rd January 2013

Contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1
2 Usage and Classification of Fuels .................................................................... 1

3 Fuels and their Properties................................................................................ 3

4 Storage of Fuels................................................................................................. 7

5 Conveying Fuels ................................................................................................ 10

6 Metering of Fuels .............................................................................................. 11

7 Influence of the Fuels on Plant Production .................................................... 14
8 Influence of the Fuels on Clinker Quality....................................................... 15
9 Environmental Protection ................................................................................ 16
10 Questions on Course LB 3.7 – Fuels................................................................ 17
i
Solutions............................................................................................................................... 19
Glossary ............................................................................................................................... 21

Index..................................................................................................................................... 22

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1 Introduction
Energy derived from fuels is manly used for the clinker burning process. This energy is
also used for drying purposes of raw materials or slag, but in lesser extend.
Traditionally in the cement industry fossil fuels are used. Since the 70´s manly coal, lignite
Regular fuels
and in small amounts heavy fuel oil is used. For starting and drying procedures light fuel
oil and natural gas are used. Since the 90´s a considerable amount of coal is substituted by
petrol coke.
Nowadays the usage of alternative fuels in the clinker burning process is constantly in- Alternativefuels
creasing. The quota in the German cement industry during the year 2010 was up to ca.
61 %. The major fractions are consisting of old tyres, refuse derived fuels of different
industries and also in small amounts waste oil, scrap wood, bleaching earth, plastic waste
and processed municipal waste.
To avoid production- and environmental problems caused by fluctuations of both the prod-
uct quality and contents of environmentally relevant trace elements, solely alternative ma-
terials of defined origins are in use. Therefore only materials are used which cause no 1
negative impact on emissions of the production process or the cement quality. On this
account the materials are subjected to a strict quality and reception control at the cement
plant.
Every used fuel during the clinker production process is experiencing a full utilization con- Energetic and material
cerning the released thermal energy and introduced material. By this means all ashes re- reutilization

sulting of the burning process are completely incorporated. Especially by using alternative
fuels with high contents of not burnable components, high economical and environmental
synergies can be accomplished. At this point as an example old tires should be mentioned.
The metal carcasses substitute a certain amount of the necessary iron oxide needed and by
that valuable raw materials and natural resources are saved.
During this course you will learn the vast amount of different usable fuels and their han-
dling. Also you will get to know which effects the usage of different fuels has concerning
the whole process of the cement production, clinker quality and also on environmental
Course content
important emissions.

2 Usage and Classification of Fuels

Usage

Fuels provide the necessary energy for the clinker production.

The energy is needed for:

 Heating and drying of the kiln feed
 Drying of other main components necessary for the cement production (e.g. Slag)
 calcination of the kiln feed
 Chemical reactions and new mineral formation
 Formation of the clinker phases (» sintering «)
 Covering the heat losses of the plant.

Feeding
Fuels can be fed into the system at different positions:
 at the main burner
 at secondary firing positions in the preheater

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 2 Usage and Classification of Fuels

 at the calciner
 at the kiln inlet
 in other or separate parts of the kiln system

Selection
Following aspects are important for the right fuel selection:
 economical costs
 availability (annual amount, deliver regularity )
 heat value
 chemical composition and quality (moisture, burning behavior, etc.)
 other properties which are important for transportation, handling, dosing, etc.

Figure 2.0-1: Scraps of Plastic and Carpet as Fuels .

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Overview of fossil and alternative fuels

solid fuels liquid fuels gaseous fuels

fossil fuels  coal, lignite  light/heavy fuel  natural gas, other

 petrol coke oil gases

alternative fuels (AF)  old tires / tire  waste oil  dump gas
chips / rubber  solvents /  furnace gas
chips glycerin
 plastic and carpet  lack / paint
chips  organic oils,
 sewage sludge lubricants
 bleaching earth
 paper (originated
of the paper
industry) / bank
notes 3
 waste wood
 animal meal
 industry wastes
 various plastics
 tar paper, tar
waste
 electrode coke /
soot / graphite
waste / pellets of
oil gasifactaion
 seeds / nut shale /
waste of the food
industry

Table 2.0-1: Fossil and Alternative Fuels.

3 Fuels and their Properties

The cement industry uses both, fossil and alternative fuels. In the following a short
overview of the properties of fuels are put together.

Heat value
In Tab. 3.0-1 the heat values of different fossil fuels are shown.

Fuel Heat Value

coal 25.000 – 27.000 kJ/kg fuel

lignite 20.000 – 23.000 kJ/kg fuel

petrol coke 28.000 – 34.000 kJ/kg fuel

heavy / light fuel oil 38.000 – 42.000 kJ/kg fuel

natural gas 25.000 – 40.000 kJ/m3 fuel

(unit conversion: 1 kcal = 4,18 kJ)

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 3 Fuels and their Properties

Table 3.0-1: Heat Value of Fossil Fuels.

The heat values of alternative fuels are very various. Looking at (Tab. 3.0-2) it is clear that
waste woods, sewage sludge and some gases have in general low heat values. On the other
side the heat values of plastics, oils and solvents are similar to fossil fuels.

Fuel Heat Value

old tires / rubber chips 25.000 – 34.000 kJ/kg fuel

plastics 36.000 – 42.000 kJ/kg fuel

various substitute materials 13.000 – 15.000 kJ/kg fuel

sewage sludge 11.000 – 28.000 kJ/kg fuel

waste wood 14.000 – 18.000 kJ/kg fuel

waste oil 36.000 – 40.000 kJ/kg fuel

4 solvents 25.000 – 44.000 kJ/kg fuel

dump gas 10.000 – 20.000 kJ/m3 fuel

(unit conversion: 1 kcal = 4,18 kJ)

Table 3.0-2: Heat Value of Alternative Fuels.

Tab. 3.0-3 shows an overview of the calorific values of standard fuels. It can clearly be
seen that lignite has the lowest calorific value (kJ/kg) of the materials used.

Fuel Calorific Value

coal 25,000 – 27,000 kJ/kg fuel

lignite 20,000 – 23,000 kJ/kg fuel

petroleum coke 28,000 – 34,000 kJ/kg fuel

heavy / light fuel oil 38,000 – 42,000 kJ/kg fuel

natural gas 25,000 – 40,000 kJ/m3 fuel

(unit conversion: 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ)

Table 3.0-3: Calorific Values of Standard Fuels.

In the case of secondary fuels it can clearly be seen that waste wood, sewage sludges and
some gases generally only have very low calorific values, while the values for plastics, as
well as for oils and solvents, correspond to those of primary fuels.

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 fuel Calorific Value

used tyres / rubber scraps 25,000 – 34,000 kJ/kg fuel

plastics 36,000 – 42,000 kJ/kg fuel

substitution materials 13,000 – 15,000 kJ/kg fuel

sewage sludges 11,000 – 28,000 kJ/kg fuel

waste wood 14,000 – 18,000 kJ/kg fuel

waste oil / heavy oil 36,000 – 40,000 kJ/kg fuel

solvents 25,000 – 44,000 kJ/kg fuel

landfill gas 10,000 – 20,000 kJ/m3 fuel

(unit conversion: 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ)

Table 3.0-4: Calorific Values of SecondaryFuels.

5
components coal lignite petroleum coke heavy / light fuel
oil

C 57.3 – 71.7 56.1 – 61.4 86.6 – 95 80.0 – 85.0

H 2.6 – 4.4 3.9 – 4.5 0 – 3.3 10.0 – 11.0

O 4.5 – 8.7 16.1 -23.7 - -

N 0.7 – 2.0 0.4 – 0.6 0.0 – 1.6 -

S 0.6 – 2.1 0.2 – 0.7 2.5 – 5.5 0.1 – 2.5

CI - - - < 0.1

Ash 11.9 – 29.3 3.4 – 8.3 1.5 – 3.0 < 0.1

Moisture 0.8 – 2.9 8.7 – 14.0 0 -

Volatiles 18.0 – 26.0 40.0 – 48.0 -

Table 3.0-5: Compositionof StandardFuels (in mass %).

Some secondary fuels have a substantially higher Cl content than standard fuels. This may
lead to accumulation of Cl in the kiln plant and necessitate appropriate countermeasures
(for example a bypass ). Secondary fuels also tend to exhibit higher levels of moisture.

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 3 Fuels and their Properties

Components Used Tyres Plastics Sewage Sludges Waste Wood

C 70.0 – 85.0 38.7 – 73.8 51.0 – 65.0 40.5 – 51.9

H 6.0 – 10.0 5.2 – 10.9 7.0 – 8.0 4.5 – 5.5

O 3.0 – 8.0 1.4 – 15.6 30.0 – 34.0 31.4 – 37.5

N 0.3 – 0.4 0.3 – 0.8 7.0 – 8.0 0.2 – 9.7

S 1.0 – 1.7 0.1 – 0.2 < 1.5 0.0 – 0.2

Cl 0.1 – 0.2 0.9 – 1.8 < 0.6 0.0 – 0.5

Ash - 1.6 – 22.3 44.0 – 48.0 0.1 – 0.3

Moisture < 0.5 10.0 – 16.0 6.0 – 8.0 10.0 – 15.0

Volatiles - - -

Table 3.0-6: Compositionof SecondaryFuels (in mass %).

6
Ash Composition of Raw Materials and Fuels
The composition of fuels with regard to the main elements of CaO, SiO2 and Al2O3 +
Fe2O3 is best illustrated using a ternary diagram (Fig. 3.0-1).
TernaryDiagram

0
100

20 1 80
%]

40
O[

60
Ca

2
SiO

60 3
2
[%

40
]

5
80
4 20

6
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Al2O3 + Fe2O3 [%]

Figure 3.0-1: Ternary Diagram of Fuels .

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 1 used foundry sand

2 plastic / rubber

3 coal

4 used tyres

5 clinker

6 lignite

4 Storage of Fuels
Requirements
Fuels are stored to maintain reserves. The timing of the actual burning process may
therefore be separated from the supply and processing (for example grinding) of the fuel.
Disruptions to kiln operation caused by a lack of fuel can thus be avoided. Varous require-
ments on fuel storage must be satisfied: 7
 Maintaining reserves
The capacity of the storage unit must be adapted to operational requirements and sup-
ply timings. The fuel may therefore be stored either as delivered (for example as raw
lignite) and/or in a kiln-ready state (for example as pulverized lignite).
 Emissions
The fuel must be stored in such a way as to avoid any environmental damage caused
by emissions (smell, noise).
 Homogenization
Through the type of storage it may be possible to homogenize any fluctuations in the
composition of the fuel or at least to reduce them. This may be achieved using mixing
equipment within a storage unit (e.g. a silo). A number of storage units are often
operated parallelly. The fuel is being withdrawn from the units simultaneously and
then blended or mixed.
 Safety
Suitable measures should be taken to avoid the occurrence of fires or explosions. The
necessary safety equipment must be available in case of fire or explosion.

Storage of Solid Fuels

Solid fuels may be transferred to silos (Fig. 4.0-1) mechanically using bucket elevators, Silos
screw conveyors, belt conveyors or the like. For air-entrainable fuels, pneumatic transport
is also possible.
The fuel is normally removed from silos using screw conveyors or rotary-vane feeders.
Aeration aids or discharge aids may be provided to assist the outflow of the fuel. The flow
properties of the fuels can be improved and any bridging over the outlet opening can be
prevented by using vibrators, beaters or compressed air purging at the silo outlet.
Solid fuels are often stored in closed buildings (Fig. 4.0-2). If different fuels are to be Storage Halls
stored, the individual storage areas are normally separated from one another by dividing
walls.
The fuels may be stored mechanically using bucket elevators, screw conveyors, belt con-
veyors or a crane system. If the store building has vehicle access, the fuel may be stored
directly using lorries or wheel loaders.
Fuel may, for example, be removed from store buildings using cranes or wheel loaders.

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 4 Storage of Fuels

Figure 4.0-1: Pulverized Coal Silo .

Side scrapers are often provided on the outer walls and discharge the fuel onto belt convey-
ors. Underfloor extraction is also possible, the materials being removed from the building
by, for example, chain conveyors.
Stockpiles (Outdoor Outdoor storage is only advantageous if the fuel is very lumpy (e.g. used tyres, coal). How-
Storage) ever, in this case the fuel will absorb varying amounts of water or dirt depending on atmo-
spheric conditions, and this is detrimental to the energy demand of the kiln plant.
The fuel may be stored/stacked using a crane system or directly using lorries or wheel
loaders. The fuel may be removed using cranes, wheel loaders or the like. If the stockpile
is close to the transport system (e.g. belt conveyors), it is also possible to load the transport
system manually (when firing used tyres).

Storage of Liquid Fuels

Tanks The storage tanks may be fitted with stirring equipment for homogenization. Depending
on the fuel, it may be necessary to heat the tank to ensure the fluidity of the fuel (e.g. heavy
oil).
The fuel is pumped into the storage tanks via delivery pipes and is removed by pumps.

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 9

Figure 4.0-2: Storage Hall for Coal .

Figure 4.0-3: Storage of Fluff in a Storage Hall with a Crane .

Storage of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are stored in tanks. The fuel is supplied to the storage tanks via delivery Tanks
pipes and is removed by pumps or compressors.

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 5 Conveying Fuels

10 Figure 4.0-4: Storage of Secondary Fuels in a "Walking Floor" Semi-Trailer .

Figure 4.0-5: Open Air Storage of Coal.

5 Conveying Fuels
Requirements
Fuel is transported by the fuel conveying system. It may be transported from the point of
supply to the storage location, from the storage location to the processing location or from
the storage location to the burning location.
There are various requirements for the fuel conveying system:
 Capacity
The capacity of the conveying equipment must be matched to the operating conditions.
Transport of the fuel must be ensured even if only a small portion of the normal amount
of fuel (partial load operation) has to be transported. The conveying equipment should
therefore function reliably without disruption over a wide operating range.
 Emissions
The conveying system must be designed so as to avoid any environmental damage
caused by emissions (smell, noise, escaping fuel).

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 Uniform Conveying
Fuel should be conveyed as uniformly as possible. The kiln operation will be nega-
tively affected by any disruptions to the conveying process (e.g. fluctuations in pres-
sure in the pulverized coal supply pipe), particularly if the conveying system is linked
to a metering device.
 Safety
Suitable measures should be taken to avoid the occurrence of fires or explosions. The
necessary safety equipment must be available in case of fire or explosion.

Conveying Solid Fuels

Solid fuels may be conveyed mechanically or pneumatically. The following criteria should SelectionCriteria
be taken into account when selecting the conveying system:
 the required delivery rate
 the material properties of the fuel (e.g. moisture)
 spatial and constructional conditions (e.g. conveying distance/height)
 energy expenditure required per tonne of fuel supplied 11
 capital costs of the conveying system
 maintenance and repair costs
Bulk fuels can be transported using the following conveying systems: Bulk Material
 belt conveyors
 bucket elevators
 screw conveyors
 apron conveyors
 vibrating conveyors
Fuels in lump form can be transported using the following conveying systems: Lumpy Material
 chutes
 roller conveyors
 lifting and crane systems
 ground-level conveying equipment (e.g. wheel loaders, fork-lift trucks)

Conveying Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels are transported through pipelines. The lines are insulated, or even heated,
depending on the flow behaviour of the fuels. In addition to the pipelines the conveying
system also includes an appropriate pump, which must be selected to suit the properties of
the material (e.g. temperature, acid content of the fuel).

Conveying Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are transported through pipelines. In addition to the pipelines the conveying
system also includes an appropriate pump or compressor for transporting the gas.

6 Metering of Fuels
Requirements
Fuels are metered to create a defined supply of fuel for the burning process. The following
properties are important for kiln operation:
 Accurate adjustment Requirements

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 6 Metering of Fuels

It must be possible to set a specific mass flow as precisely as possible (specified, for
example, in tonnes per hour).
 Constant Material Flow
It must be ensured that the amount of fuel is substantially constant over time.
 Wide Adjustment Range
The metering equipment must have the widest possible range of adjustment so that it
can still operate reliably even during partial load operation of the kiln plant.
The metering must also be carried out in such a way as to avoid any damage to the envi-
ronment caused by emissions (smell, noise) and the occurrence of fires or explosions. The
necessary safety equipment must be available in case of fire or explosion.

Metering of Solid Fuels

Impact Weighers Solid fuels can be metered using an impact weigher (Fig. 6.0-1). In this case, the fuel
mass flow is guided over an impact plate connected to a measuring cell. If the plate is
deflected from its neutral position to a varying degree as a function of the mass flow, this
12 can be recorded by the cell and processed. It is therefore possible to determine the mass
flow using a force-path measurement. The fuel is measured out using a screw or a rotary-
vane feeder, which is used to adjust the mass flow.

conveying equipment

guide chute

measuring chute

measuring cell actual value of conveying rate

quantity being conveyed

controller

setpoint for conveying rate

Figure 6.0-1: Metering with an Impact Weigher .

Advantages and The structure of the measuring equipment is relatively simple.

Disadvantages Any dirt on the impact plate will simulate a greater mass flow . When the coating
becomes detached there will be a relatively strong control intervention, which may
lead to increased fuel mass flow in the short term. Carbon monoxide (CO) peaks
may occur if there is little excess air in the kiln.
Hopper Weighers Solid fuels may be metered using a hopper weigher. In this case, the entire contents of
the weigh container are weighed using load cells. The decrease in weight over a period of
measuring time is used to determine the mass flow of the fuel. The container is emptied

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using a screw or a rotary-vane feeder. The discharge equipment is operated at a constant
setting (speed) during the refilling from the storage silo.
The weighing container isolates the metering process from the storage silo. It is there- Advantages and
fore possible to use the weighing container to offset any discharge problems from the Disadvantages

silo (fluctuations in the mass flow).

The discharge equipment is operated at a constant value during the filling process so it
is not possible to control the mass flow during this period. This may therefore lead to
short-term fluctuations in the mass flow.
Solid fuels may be metered using a rotor weighfeeder. In this case, the fuel passes from Rotor Weighfeeders
the storage silo to chamber-like openings located in the rotor of the weighfeeder. The
chambers are pivoted into the delivery pipe by the rotation of the rotor and are blown clear
by the flow of conveying air. The mass flow is regulated by the speed of the rotor.
There are no disruptions caused by a filling process as the metering unit is connected Advantages and
directly to the silo. Disadvantages

The metering is directly affected by the discharge properties of the silo.

Coating in the chambers of the rotor may also lead to falsification of the conveying 13
mass flow.
Belt weighfeeders combine the functions of a conveying system with those of an ex- BeltWeighfeeders
tremely precise, dynamic weighing machine. In addition to detecting the current through-
put, the generally speed-controlled drives also permit accurate control and metering of the
fuels. Fuels with normal to good flow properties can be used, even at very low conveying
rates and bulk densities.

Figure 6.0-2: Belt Weighfeeder .

simultaneous conveying Advantages and

permits precise metering Disadvantages

Metering of Used Tyres

Used tyres must be separated before the actual metering process in order to achieve a
constant feed to the kiln. The tyres may be supplied to the metering equipment via roller
conveyors or lift systems. The mass flow can be detected using belt weighers or, in the

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 7 Influence of the Fuels on Plant Production

case of uniform tyre size, by counting the tyres. The tyres are fed to the kiln (inlet) through
a double flap feeder to minimize the ingress of false air into the preheater.
At this point in the online course you will see a video on the use of used tyres and metering
via a roller conveyor.
Disadvantage Combustion of tyres involves a discontinuous supply of fuel. Different amounts of fuel
are available for combustion in quick succession. This means that the excess air in the kiln
must always be set in such a way that little or no carbon monoxide (CO) can form. This
ultimately leads to an increased energy demand.

Further Information
Further information on the metering of fuels can be found in course »6.4 Metering
Equipment«.

7 Influence of the Fuels on Plant Production

14
Nowadays with the vast amount of different fossil and alternative fuels it’s important to
know their impact on the production process and clinker quality. Depending on the origin
and preprocessing, the fuels show very different burning properties. The main character-
istics and the direct impacts are put together in the following:

Volatile components

The portion of volatile components are determine the ignition behaviour of the regarded
fuel.
The volatiles are leaving the individual particles as gas and are igniting immediately. The
more or less volatile components fuels have the faster or slower they ignite respectively.
This association has e.g. a major impact on the flame formation at the main burner. The
flame gets longer or shorter depending on the fuel mix and as consequence of this matter
a shifting of the sinter zone can be caused.

Particle size

The size of the fuel particles have a significant impact on the burn-out behavior. The
smaller the particles are the higher is the contact surface of burnable material which
leads to a faster complete combustion. Also it is possible to achive a more intensive
mixture of fuel and burning gas.

Due to the above mentioned aspects a rapid and complete combustion is facilitated. During
operation, this becomes apparent by a short powerful flame and by a very low concen-
tration of carbon monoxide noticeable.

With larger particles, the burnout becomes slower and worse.

This sometimes leads to high CO emissions and drastically altered heat distribution through-
out the kiln system.

Variations in composition / mass flow

Fluctuations in the composition of fuels should be avoided as much as possible.

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 High varying ash, carbon and hydrogen content directly affect the heating value of the
fuel and have a significant impact on the silica and alumina moduli in the material bed
of the rotary kiln. By this means the local heat inputs and thus the formations of the
sintering zone and the amount of clinker melt can be influenced.

Furthermore these effects can have serious consequences on the clinker quality and
stability of the kiln operation. In addition, the unstable heat input leads to temperature
fluctuations in the clinker bed of the cooler inlet. As a result the value of the secondary
air temperature and thus the formation of the main burner flame is directly affected.

If there is no counteraction to this causal chain, the whole process becomes not longer
manageable due to fluctuations, which may cause the stop of the kiln. A highly fluctu-
ating fuel entry leads to the aforementioned effects and results. Furthermore, excessive
short-term fuel amounts can not be burned out completely and substantially increased CO
emissions should be expected.

15
Content of circuit forming substances (chlorine, sulfur and alkalis)

By employing fuels with high concentrations of chlorine and sulfur, the formation of
internal circuits in the rotary kiln and the heat exchanger is intensified .

The consequence of this is the formation of build ups in the preheater tower and the for-
mation of rings in the rotary kiln. The associated cross-sectional narrowing and thereby
caused problems in the furnace system complicate a stable production process. To im-
prove the process procedure the build ups must be cleaned off manually or automatically
using »air guns« in regular intervals. However, the risk of ball formation in a rotary kiln
is increased because of the falling of big build ups. Another measure is the installation
of a bypass in the kiln inlet in order to reduce the chlorine and sulfur content in the kiln
atmosphere.

8 Influence of the Fuels on Clinker Quality

Nowadays with the vast amount of different fossil and alternative fuels it’s important to
know their impact on the production process and clinker quality. Depending on the origin
and preprocessing, the fuels show very different burning properties. The main character-
istics and the direct impacts are put together in the following:

Particle size of the fuel

Large unburned fuel particles can fall onto the material bed in the rotary kiln and cause
local reducing conditions. This results in the changes in the clinker composition and
properties, which have negative effects on the solidification behavior in cement.

Fluctuations of the heating value

Fuel heating value fluctuations instantly change the flame temperature and also the ma-
terial temperature in the kiln and calciner. As a result the calcination and burning of the
material are either to weak or too strong, so that the clinker quality varies greatly. Weakly
burned clinker contains to high amounts of free lime and too low amounts of alite (C3S),
which are very important quality characteristics in the cement production. The hardness

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 9 Environmental Protection

of overburned clinker leads to higher energy consumption during cement grinding. Fur-
thermore, mostly because of the high flame temperature the degree of sulphation of the
clinker is too low.
Ash content in fuels The ashes of the fuel get fully integrated in the mineral phases of the
clinker. To obtain the desired levels of strength-forming minerals, the composition of the
raw material in the kiln has to be adjusted to the according ash entry by the fuel mix used.
If excessive fluctuations occur in the ash entries, then they affect the different moduli and
the desired composition target of clinker phases can not be longer achieved.

Entry of clinker foreign elements

Phosphorus
A phosphorus concentration in clinker up to 1.5% M facilitates clinker formation during
the firing process. If concentrations of 2% M are reached or exceeded, the lime integration
in clinker is increasingly prevented. At too high phosphorus contents the formation of
belite in the clinker phases is increased compared to the formation of alite, which has a
16 negative effect on the early strength of the cement.
Non-ferrous metals
Heavy metals usually occur in very low concentrations and are mainly incorporated in the
clinker minerals and thus rendered harmless. The subsequent effects on clinker properties
apply to only low concentrations of mentioned elements.
 Tin, copper, cobalt, manganese and titanium increase the strength of the cement.
 Molybdenum and vanadium facilitate the formation of alite during the firing pro-
cess, so that a higher alite content is expected in the clinker.
 Higher concentrations of cesium, lead and tin can slow down the solidification
process and reduce the final strength of cement in concrete.
Fluorine
At high temperatures fluorides support the alite formation, at low temperatures and slow
cooling rates they support the alite decomposition into belite and free lime. This fact has
a certain influence on the strength development of the cement in the concrete.

9 Environmental Protection
Factors Affecting
Emissions

Content of Nitrogen Compounds

In addition to the nitrogen contained in the air (78 % of the air consists of nitrogen) the
nitrogen content of the fuels does play a role, if only a minor one, in the formation of NOx.
Nitrogen is oxidized with oxygen at high temperatures to form »nitrogen oxides«. Excess
oxygen promotes this reaction, while a reducing atmosphere counteracts this effect.
 NOx formation may increase if the nitrogen content of the fuel increases (secondary
firing system)
 A change in NOx emissions is possible

Content of Sulfur Compounds

Sulfur compounds form the »internal sulfur circulating system« between the rotary kiln
and the kiln inlet region. The sulfur compounds that have been introduced are driven

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 out of the rotary kiln as SO2 and are almost completely combined in the hot meal again
in the preheater. Some less volatile sulfur compounds are formed in the kiln feed in this
circulating system and are discharged with the clinker.

 An increased sulfur input (for example via the fuels) may disrupt the input/output
balance so that SO2 is present in the emissions.

Fineness of the Fuel

The finer the fuel particles, the greater the surface area available for oxidation of the fuel
(combustion). The blending of fuel and combustion air is better with fine fuel particles,
and incomplete oxidation (CO formation) is prevented.

 Incomplete combustion of coarser fuel particles (primary and secondary firing sys-
tems) may result in increased CO formation overall. A change in CO emissions is
possible.
 Coarser particles are sometimes carried into zones where there is a lack of oxygen. 17
This promotes CO formation.
It is possible, however, to avoid changes in emissions by taking process engineering and Countermeasures
operational measures:
 Increasing the excess air ratio in the kiln
An excess air ratio promotes complete oxidation and can therefore contribute to lower
emissions. However, the efficiency of the plant will decrease and increased formation
of NOx is possible.
 Improving the mixing of combustion air and fuel
The better the mixing between the combustion air and the fuel, the faster the fuel will
burn and the fewer pollutants will be produced.
 Selection of the input location for the fuel
The input location decides, among other things, the important parameters of »com-
bustion temperature« and »supply of available oxygen«. Varying these can have a
considerable effect on the emissions of the plant.

10 Questions on Course LB 3.7 – Fuels

You can test your knowledge by answering the following questions.

Question 10.0 A:
1. How is the energy used that is supplied to the kiln system with the fuel?
2. At what points may the fuel(s) be introduced into the clinker burning process?
3. What are the key criteria when selecting a fuel?
4. What types of fuels are there?
5. How might the fuel affect clinker production? Name some of the disruptions to
operation that are caused by the fuel.
6. How might the fineness of the fuel that is used in the primary firing system affect
clinker quality?
7. Can fuel selection influence the emissions of a rotary kiln plant? Which emissions
can be influenced in this manner and which cannot?
8. How can fuel be transported?

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
 10 Questions on Course LB 3.7 – Fuels

9. What demands must be satisfied by the fuel metering process? Why is this impor-
tant for kiln operation?
Solutions see p. 19

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
Solutions
Solution for 10.0 A:
1. The energy supplied is used for:
 heating and drying the kiln meal
 precalcination and material conversion
 formation of clinker phases (sintering)
 covering the heat losses from the plant
2. Fuel feed points:
 in the primary firing system in the rotary kiln
 in the secondary firing system in the preheater
 in the kiln inlet
 in other/separate sections of plant (e.g., fluidized bed)
3. Selection criteria for a fuel:
 costs
 availability 19
 calorific value
 composition
 other properties that are important for transport, storage and metering (e.g. bulk
density)
4. standard fuels: solid fuels:
 coal, lignite
 petroleum coke
secondary fuels: solid fuels:
 used tyres/tyre scraps/rubber scraps
 scraps of plastic and carpet
 sewage sludges/rejects (from paper manufacture)
 scraps of waste wood
liquid fuels:
 waste oil/heavy oil
gaseous fuels:
 landfill gases
5. The levels of certain secondary components (for example S, Cl) could lead to coat-
ing formation and cyclone blockages. Fluctuations in the fuel composition can lead
to CO peaks and CO shutdown.
6. The fineness of the fuel affects the flame characteristics and therefore also the tem-
perature profile in the kiln. Altered precooling conditions may affect the clinker
quality. If the fuel particles are too coarse then localized reducing conditions may
occur that have a negative effect on clinker quality.
7. The levels of some secondary and trace components in a fuel (e.g. S, N, Hg) may
affect emissions. The contents of many other fuel constituents have no effect on
emissions.
8. Internal transport of fuels within the works:
 solid fuels may be conveyed mechanically or pneumatically.
 liquid and gaseous fuels are pumped through pipelines.
9. The following demands must be satisifed by the fuel metering process:
 precise adjustment of the mass flow
 constant feed should be possible
 larger adjustment range of the metering equipment
 avoidance of emissions, fires and explosions

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
 10 Questions on Course LB 3.7 – Fuels

Questions see p. 17

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
Glossary
calcination
Calcination is a process in which limestone is decomposed into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Calcination
is one of the most important processes of clinker burning. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is broken down into
calcium oxide (CaO, also known as free lime) and carbon dioxide (CO2). This reaction starts at about 650 ◦ C,
but most of the limestone is only completely calcined at temperatures between 800 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C.
carbon monoxide
CO; carbon monoxide; colourless, odourless and tasteless poisonous gas
excess air ratio
Ratio of the theoretical amount of combustion air required to the actual amount of air
gas bypass
Partial gas off-take by which some of the kiln exhaust gases are drawn off in the lowest region of the gas riser
pipe – directly above the kiln inlet housing
sintering
Fusion of a material, generally without melting it

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
 Index

C
calcination 1
carbon monoxide 12, 14

E
excess air ratio 17

G
gas bypass 5

S
sintering 1

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Research Institute of the Cement Industry