Debris flow in China

RECENT SLOPE FAILURES

and
SIMPLE TECHNOLOGY FOR
EARLY WARNING

Ikuo TOWHATA (University of Tokyo )

Appointed Board Member of
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering
 Contents

• Recent earthquakes and slope failures

• Effects of slope stabilization measures
• Compound effects of earthquake shaking
and rainfall
• Deterioration of soft rock material by water
• Early warning technology
• Conclusions
Wenchuan earthquake in China
May 12th 2008
Moment magnitude = 7.9

Li Jia Village was lost

 Site of natural dam
(Donghekou slope failure in Qingchuan
County)
 Continued debris flow in 2010,

Threat to road transportation

Weathered granite slopes near Yingxiu
 Types of damage

• Gigantic slope failure : many victims and

natural dams
• Smaller failure at slope surface : many in
number and blockage of emergency
transportation
 Contents

• Recent earthquakes and slope failures

• Effects of slope stabilization measures
• Compound effects of earthquake shaking
and rainfall
• Deterioration of soft rock material by water
• Early warning technology
• Conclusions
 On a relatively good slope
Fence and shotcrete

Good performance :
some deformation but avoiding fatal collapse
 People’s knowledge about safe place?
(after 2004 Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake, Japan)
 People’s knowledge about safe place?
(landscape in Bhutan)
New houses are
located in the center of
alluvial fan: prone to
debris flow?

Old houses are behind

forest protection; more
wisdom?
 Contents

• Recent earthquakes and slope failures

• Effects of slope stabilization measures
• Compound effects of earthquake shaking
and rainfall
• Deterioration of soft rock material by water
• Early warning technology
• Conclusions
 Ohya, Japan
after 1707 Gigantic earthquake (M=8 or more)
Ohya; debris flow upon heavy rainfall almost
every year
 Kashimir, Pakistan, after 2005 earthquake

Cracks introduce water into subsoil, and make the

slope unstable during rainfall.
 Muzzafarabad, Pakistan
Slope material was deteriorated by the
earthquake and started continuous failure.
Rainfall-induced debris flow in July 2008
at Yinchanggou, China, after Wenchuan
earthquake
 Also, Beichuan township

Before the Wenchuan earthquake

 Also, Beichuan township

Immediately after the earthquake on May 12, 2008

 Also, Beichuan township

After heavy rain and debris flow on Sept. 24, 2008

 Taiwan after 1999 Chi Chi earthquake

In 2008

Probably, there are lots of debris deposits in valleys.

 舟曲県 Zhouqu County 2010.8.8

A huge amount of debris had

deposited since an earthquake in
19th Century.
Zhouqu County of Gansu Prov. China
Aug 8 2010 China 甘粛省舟曲県
http://www.afpbb.com/article/disaster-accidents-
crime/disaster/2747077/6058916?ref=ytopics
 Debris flow in 2010 in Qingping of Sichuan
Province, China, where the second largest slope
failure occurred during the Wenchuan earthquake

Wenjiagou
Successful evacuation in town at the exit of
the valley
 Classification of compound effects of
earthquake and rainfall
Mechanism Effects on Lasting time of
material instability
properties?
Crack opening and Generally no, but, Ending when slope
precipitation of water if clay mineral with cracks falls
into soil absorbs water, down, but swelling
swells, and effect may continue
deteriorates, yes. long.
Washing out of No. Ending upon
debris deposits washing out
Seismic disturbance Yes, Quick recovery of
and deterioration of Cementation and deterioration is
material properties bonding are unlikely.
destroyed.
 Contents

• Recent earthquakes and slope failures

• Effects of slope stabilization measures
• Compound effects of earthquake shaking
and rainfall
• Deterioration of soft rock material by water
• Early warning technology
• Conclusions
Deterioration of geomaterials,
hydration and weathering,
proceeds with time and finally
cause problems.
Failure of wet mudstone embankment
for road during the 2004 Niigata-
Chuetsu earthquake
Restoration of cut slope and road
damage in mudstone geology,
Myanmar (courtesy of Myanmar Engineering Society)
Comparison of crushed mudstone grains
before and after saturated tests
 Initially, crushed mudstone is
classified as gravel in soil
mechanic textbook, but after some
time it becomes mud.
 Drained shear tests on dry and wet soils

Silicate TOYOURA sand: not affected by water

 Drained shear tests on dry and wet soils

Crushed mud stone: affected by water

Grain size distribution before and after water
submergence
To identify degradation-prone (weak) material,
measure increment of fines content after water
submergence and compare with degradation
index (loss of strength)
Mechanical weathering:

Rock becomes sand

Reproduced laboratory weathering (RLW):
Freezing and thawing are repeated and then…
 3 RLW cycles 5 RLW cycles

Cement
treated Microscopic
soil observation

2 RLW cycles 3 RLW cycles 4 RLW cycles 5 RLW cycles

Deterioration of cement-treated artificial rock by
mechanical weathering

Fresh samples 3 weathering

cycles

5 weathering
cycles
 A practical solution

• Financial limitation makes it impossible to

reinforce all the unstable slopes.
• Simple field investigation is conducted
periodically to identify (judge) potentially
unstable slopes.
• Monitoring and early warning in potentially
unstable slopes.
• What to be monitored and where?
Seismic survey for P and S wave velocities
(Vs) in the field (collaboration with Taxila
University)
 Dynamic
cone
penetration
tests for
shear
strength in
the field
Field shear test for strength

Shear
box
 Correlation between S wave velocity
Unconfined
and shear strength
compression on
cylindrical sample

G
Vs 


In-situ
tests on Strength and slope
gravelly angle  factor of
surface safety
 Shear strength is known

Friction angle

Calculate factor of safety of slope
during rainfall

If factor of safety is small,
EARLY WARNING
 Contents

• Recent earthquakes and slope failures

• Effects of slope stabilization measures
• Compound effects of earthquake shaking
and rainfall
• Deterioration of soft rock material by water
• Early warning technology
• Conclusions
 Early warning, if a slope is judged
unstable.
• Current practice of early warning
relies on rainfall threshold: if rainfall
exceeds a certain limit, warning is
issued.
• This is good for a regional warning
but not useful for a specified slope
BEHIND YOUR HOME or for a
particular road.
 Early Warning on the basis of
monitoring deformation
• Eyewitnesses mentioned: falling stones, strange
sound under ground, smell of organic material
(coming out of ground), water spring, etc.
• Slope failure during heavy rainfall
starts after minor deformation /
displacement.
Minor displacement before
large failure.
Field test by Prof. Sassa, et.
al.
(Annuals of Disas. Prev. Res. Inst.,
Kyoto Univ, No. 48C, 2005)

Artificial rainfall was given

on natural slope to make Slope surface started to move
landslide.
Location of monitoring for early warning

Number of
monitoring
sensors is
more
important
than
accuracy of
individual
sensor
--> need for
inexpensive
sensors
Wireless sensor unit with tilt and water content
sensors on a slope

Tilting of
instrument

Accuracy of measured tilting angle is 0.0025 degree.

 MOST RECENT PROTOTYPE (Japanese version)
(1) Sensor unit : ready. (3) Gateway is running with battery.
(Radio signal reach 300m or more, (4) Cell phone transmitter runs with commercial power supply.
with Alkaline batteries, for 4 years.) ( They will be modified based on solar panels)
Wireless Modem
MU-2 Cell phone (5)
(Certified with network Data is available on inernet.
Japanese radio (by KDDI Corp.) Warning criteria is still
reguration) under development.
Database for regional
disaster mitigation
programs
Data can be accessed
through internet

Sensor units

傾斜
法尻部の

土壌水分
土壌水分

時間
Data link by Cell Phone
Network (KDDI)
Warning to
adjacent
residents
Low-cost, easy instllation
Data link by wireless chip MU-2
(< 600m for each node)

(2) Data relay function is not ready yet.

Measure tilting angle of instruments
 Gateway & Cell phone unit

Monitoring of minor
tilting angle
Installation takes
less than 30 min per unit
 Important aim
• There are people who are suffering from
slope instability problems
• Financially they cannot construct such
conventional protective measures as
retaining walls and ground anchors.
• Geotechnical engineering should assist
their self protection;
• Geotechnical Engineering of the people,
by the people, for the people.
Target of study

Early warning of slope failure

caused by heavy rainfall

Current practice of early warning

relies on rainfall threshold and
aerial (regional) warning is aimed.
 My target:
smaller and specified unstable slope

or
transportation
routes in
mountain
areas
Hokoin in Tochio, 2004

Engineers should assist people’s effort to protect

themselves. Note their limited financial capacity.
If the increasing rate of tilting angle
exceeds a threshold,
caution/warning is issued via
internet and mobile phone.
Validation tests in many natural
slopes in Japan and China

THREE GORGE DAM LAKE

Monitoring case in Three Gorges Dam Landslide
Area, China
Submergence and slope instability at Sai-Wan-Ba
Three Gorges Dam

Monitoring site of
landslide in Sai-Wan-Ba area
Monitoring displacement along
Three-Gorge Dam reservoir in
China
May 2009
 Along Three Gorge Dam reservoir,
China, many landslides are going on.
Monitoring in Three Gorges Dam Landslide Area
 Sensor was
installed at the
top of an electric
pole and results
are being waited.
Volumetric water content and rainfall
intensity
 Around the sensor-2, a new
landslide occurred on June 7, 2009.
 Monitored tilting angle in Three Gorges Dam Landslide Area

Current proposal: Caution if rate of angle > 0.005degree / hour &

Alert / Evacuation if > 0.1 deg/hour.
Validation tests in many natural
slopes in Japan and China

Hiyamizu Pass
First slope failure caused by heavy rainfall.
During restoration, monitoring was made to avoid secondary
disaster.
Monitoring was able to detect the SECOND minor slope failure.

Cutting area

The point of sensor-2

h=54m

The slope after 1st failure

（highly weathered granite）
Erosion failure by another
rainfall
After the first
failure in July:

3
sensors
were
installed.
 Tilting angle is X Direction

Tilting angle is Y Direction

Secondary failure on Oct 2.

Moisture content

CPU temperature
 Hiyamizu Pass

Tilting angle just before the second failure

103㎜/day
rainfall

0.15°/h
our 0.15 deg /
(3.77°/ hour
day)

Caution if > 0.005 degree / hour & Alert / Evacuation if > 0.1 deg/hour.
Validation tests in many natural
slopes in Japan and China

Shinjo site,Yamagata
Slope was stabilized by counter weight berm.
Monitoring of tilting angle before and after installation of
counterweight

Crack
Sensor
Direction of
movement Cut
slope

Counterweight fill

Embankment
Neogene sandstone
 Motion stopped after installation of counterweight.
Caution if > 0.005degree / hour & Alert / Evacuation if > 0.1 deg/hour.

At Shinjo, Yamagata
Crack
detection
Normal to slope
Parallel to slope 0.142°/
0.006 deg/h
Tilting angle (degree)

day
Cutting
slope period 0.034°/day
0.0014 deg/h

0.004°
0.00017 deg/h
/day
 Validation tests in many natural
slopes in Japan and China

Taziping: artificial rain

on former slope failure
 Rainfall record

2011/6/29-11:00
50
Rain gage
Rainfall (mm/10min)

40 Rainfall (mm/10min)

30
Rainfall intensity
20 mm/10 min.
10
0
Failure
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Elapsed time (hour)

1200
Total rainfall (mm)

1000 Total rainfall (mm)

800
Cumulative rainfall mm
600
400
200
0
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Elapsed time (hour)
Range of
progressive failure
2011/6/30-08:00 Tilting rate between 3 and
K50-upper T50-1
10 deg/day in failure zone
Tilt sensor T50-1
10 Tilt sensor T50-2

= 0.12 and 0.4 deg / hour

Mini-inclinometer K50-upper
Tilting angle (deg)

Mini-inclinometer K150-upper
T50-2
5 Tilt sensor T200
K150-upper
Tilt sensor T300
T200
0 Caution if > 0.005degree / hour &
Alert / Evacuation if >T300
0.1 deg/hour.
-5
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
Elapsed time (hour)
Tilting angle (deg)
2011/6/30-08:00
T50-2 T50-1 K150-upper
2
K50-upper
Tilting angle (deg)

/d ay
y re e
re e / da
1 3 . 7 de g d eg
9 .6 T200
da y
eg re e /
5 .7 d
0
0.5 degree/day T300
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
Elapsed time (hour)
 Conclusions on early warning
• Early warning answers a question when
transportation can start again after heavy
rainfall: IF MOTION IS STABLE, TRAFFIC CAN
START AGAIN.
• Titling-angle sensor was developed for early
warning of rainfall-induced slope failure.
• Number of sensors is more important than their
accuracy.
• Low cost: MEM Tech. and battery & >one-year
life.
• Less than 1000 US $ / piece for small-scale
production
• Further discount after mass production.
• Caution if > 0.005 degree / hour and
Alert / Evacuation if > 0.1 deg/hour
Thank you very much for your
attention
Volumetric water content at Three
Gorge site
30

28
Volumetric water content (%)

26

24

22

20

18

16
2009/10/2 7:58
14

12

10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (hour)
Validation tests in many natural
slopes in Japan and China

Tagawa
Sensor units deployed on monitoring of a possible slope
failure site
along national road in Kyushu (Tagawa) recently

10分間隔で更新
Sensor units deployed on monitoring of a possible
slope failure site
along national road in Kyushu recently, 2011/8/30
Sensor units deployed on monitoring of a possible slope failure
site
along national road in Kyushu recently, 2011/9/29
Arrangement of Sensors(Section view)

500
More details of time history: every 10 minutes
Data sampling interval = 10 min
0.4
Tilting angle (degree)

0.2

0.0

-0.2

Tiltine downward the slope 2009/10/2 7:58

-0.4 Tilting in lateral direction

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Time (hour)
Erosion beside the sensor caused lateral tilting.
I do not think moisture content has to be
monitored. We need to skip unnecessary
monitoring in order to save cost and energy
consumption.

Although soil mechanics state that moisture

is a key issue in shear failure of soil, we
cannot install moisture sensor exactly in the
slip plane whose location is not know before
failure.
 Conclusion

• Earthquake causes slope failures and

disasters but that is not the end of tragedy.
• Long-term instability may start.
• Material deterioration damages stability
with time.
• Simple assessment of slope stability and
monitoring make early warning possible.