Engineering Soil Classification

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 Introduction
 Soils are naturally occurring materials
which can be regarded as engineering
materials whose properties can be
determined by experiment/tests.
 However, soils and rocks do not behave
like other engineering materials such as steel
and concrete, in that the engineer has very
little control over their properties.
 It varies in composition and behaviour even
when samples are taken only a few meters
away from each other, hence we need to
consider in-situ property variability and
representative sampling.
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Uncertainty in Soil Property
Estimates

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Inherent Soil Variability by
Evolution

Diagenesis – physical and chemical

changes that transform a sediment into
a rock
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Consequently, Tests & Methods are established
to identify and classify soil properties derived
from theory and practical experience.

 One of the first tasks of any

geotechnical project must
therefore be to determine the
extent and properties of the
soil at the site.
 This is usually achieved by
recovering continuous samples
from bore holes drilled to some
pre-determined depth, which
will depend on the scale of the
project.
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 Simple classification tests are then
performed on the different soil strata
 The extent of the different
soil layers can be
determined by correlating
the results from different
bore holes, and this
information is used to build
a picture of the sub-
surface profile.
 The classification tests
are also used to provide a
rough guide to the sort of
engineering properties that
can be expected.
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 Geotechnical Engineering
 Deals with :
soil & rock mechanics Geotechnical Engineering
Interaction between
the geological
environment and man- Soil and Foundation
made constructions,
Rock Engineering
viz. foundations and
earth structures Mechanics
 Early books emphasized
the importance of both
Theory Practice
theoretical and applied
aspects of soil mechanics

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Some Foundation Engineering Problems . . .
 Bearing Capacity – How much load a footing can carry
without the structure collapsing?
 Settlement – How much deformation is induced by footing
loads? Deformation may be caused by pumping-out of
groundwater, cyclic loading (traffic, waves)
 Slope stability - How steep can man-made slope be built?
 Excavation stability – How to excavate with minimal cost
and disturbance, and how to keep them stable
(reinforcement)
 Lateral earth pressure – How to design retaining walls
 Soil improvement – How to improve the strength, ”sealing”
capacity of soil by mechanical (compaction), chemical
(grouting), or by reinforcement (geotextile)

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Solution of soil engineering problems
After Lambe & Whitman “Soil Mechanics”

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 Engineering Judgments
may be developed by having:
 A strong background in the basic theories of
mechanics;
 Studying previous case studies

 A good exposure in engineering geology; and

 Several years of experience in working on

geotechnical problems.

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 The Soil Phases
THEThe
SOIL
Soil SYSTEM
System “ 3-PHASE” DIAGRAM

AIR

WATER

SOIL
SOLIDS

Air pockets
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 Wa or Ma Air Va
Vv
Ww or Mw Water Vw
WT or
MT VT
Ws or Ms Solid Vs

volume occupied by air

solid particles

volume occupied by water

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New Terms
Density  “rho”
Unit weight  “gamma”
e.g. water = w = 1 t/m3 or 1 g/cc
  w = w x g
= 9.81 kN/m3

Unit weight of concrete  24 - 25 kN/m3

Soil varies between  15 - 21 kN/m3

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Weight or Mass - Volume Relationship

The total volume is designated by VT and it

consists of two parts, the volume of solid
matter, Vs and the volume of voids, Vv.
VT = Vs + Vw + Va

but Vv = Vw + Va

then, VT = Vs + Vv

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 The total weight (mass), WT (MT) of the
soil is taken as the sum of the weight (mass)
of solids, Ws (Ms) and the weight (mass) of
water, Ww (Mw).

WT = Ws + Ww

or MT = Ms + Mw

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Relationship of Weight or Mass and
Volume for Soil Mechanics Problems
Ws = Vss
but s = Gsw
then, Ws = VsGsw
or Ms = VsGsw
Ww = VwGww
but Gw = 1
then, Ww = Vww
or Mw = Vww
w = 9.81 kN/m3 w = 1 g/cc
= 62.4 pcf = 1000 kg/m3

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 Other densities
1) Soil dry density, d
Ms Mass of soil ÷
ρd 
V total volume

2) Particle density, s

Ms No air or
ρs  water!
Vs
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Introduction to soil terms, cont’d

• Particle densities range between

2.6 and 2.7 t/m3

• Moisture content, w

– based on mass of water

– “gravimetric” rather than volumetric

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 Mw
Moisture Content w 
Ms

Mw

Ms Mf = Ms
105 oC

Mo = [Mw + Ms] Mw = M o - Mf

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 Moisture and Density
Prove that

ρ
ρd 
(1  w)

where, w = water content (just a ratio, not %!)

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 More soil terms………….
4) Void Ratio, e Vv
e
Vs

5. Degree of saturation, SR
Vw
SR 
VV

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 VOID RATIO
V = Vs + Vw + Va

Ma, Va

Void volume,
Mw, Vw Vv = Vw + Va

Ms, Vs Solids

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 Soil “Consistency”
a) DENSITY of granular soils
“loose, medium dense, dense,
or very dense”

b) STRENGTH of fine-grained soils

“soft, firm, stiff or hard”

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 Major Forms of Iron
& Effect on Soil Color
Form Chemical Formula Color
Ferrous oxide FeO Grey
Ferric oxide
(Hematite) Fe2O3 Red
Hydrated ferric oxide
(Limonite) 2Fe2O3 3H2O Yellow

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II. Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS)
Based on………...

1) Particle size

- gravel, sand, silt, clay fractions

2) Particle size distribution

- grading

3) “Plasticity”
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Symbols of the USCS – coarse grained
Class Primary Description Secondary
symbol symbol
Gravel G Well-graded W

Poorly-graded P

Excess of fines C or M

Sand S Well-graded W

Poorly-graded P

Excess of fines C or M

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 Engineering classification is based on
 The cohesionless soils
particle size.
(Boulders, Cobbles, Particle Size Analysis
Gravels, & sands) are
separated by performing
a Sieve Analysis Test.
 Plots (called Particle
Size Distribution or
Grading Curves) are
made of particle size
versus the percentage
passing of the sample
by weight.
 Note the logarithmic scale of the abscissa (x-axis).
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Sieve Test

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 The shape and position of the grading
curve are used to identify the
characteristics of the soil.
 The particle size
distribution curve
enables gravel
and sands to be
classified into 3
main types:
(1) Uniform soil

(2) Well Graded soil

(3) Gap-Graded soil

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The particle size
distribution curve
enables gravel
and sands to be
classified into 3
main types.

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 Uniform soil - most of the soil particles have
approximately similar size; Bad news!
The grading curve is very steep
Characterised by the Uniformity Coefficient:

where D10 and D60 are obtained from the particle size distribution curve :
D10 = Particle size corresponding to 10% Passing
D60 = Particle size corresponding to 60% Passing

Cu represents the average slope of the particle size

distribution curve between 10% and 60%.
The smallest possible value of Cu is 1, corresponding to a perfectly
uniform particle size.

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 Well-Graded soil - a distribution of soil
particles over a relatively large range of sizes;
Good News!
• Produce a wide & even distribution of particle
sizes;
• Typically shaped concave upward
• Characterised by its Coefficient of curvature:

D10 = Particle size corresponding to 10% Passing

D30 = Particle size corresponding to 30% Passing
D60 = Particle size corresponding to 60% Passing

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Gap-Graded or Poorly-Graded soil
- absence of intermediate sizes.

• Applies to any soil (including uniform soils)

which does not comply with the description
of well-graded soils.

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 Defining Particle Sizes

Grain
size 0.002 0.2 2.36 20
(mm) 0.075 0.6 6.0 63 200

Basic
Soil F M C F M C
Type
CLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES BOULDERS

Fine-grained Coarse-grained
soil soil

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AS Sieve Size

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Sieve Analysis - coarse soils
Uniform soil (SP) Gravel (G)
100
Percent finer by wt.

Sand (S)
Silt (M)
50

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Well graded (W) SM
Grain diameter (mm)
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Sieve Analysis - coarse soils
Gap graded (P)
100
Percent finer by wt.

Sand (S)
Silt (M)
50
Gravel (G)

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Grain diameter (mm)

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Poorly Graded (P) or Gap-Graded
deficient here
– fine gravel,
100 coarse sand
Percent finer by wt.

50
GP-SP

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Grain diameter (mm)

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 Particle Size
Distribution Terms
P - Poorly graded
(uniform sizes)

W - Well graded
Good mix of sizes

P - Poorly graded
Missing range of sizes

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 Defining equations
The “Uniformity Coefficient”,

Cu = D60/D10 inverse of gradient of

PSD!

If Cu  5*  uniform soil, P

If Cu > 5* well-graded soil, W

* 4 for gravel and 6 for sand (AS1726)

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 Fine-grained Soils
• Too fine for sieving
• Sedimentation and/or laser equipment?

• Even then, sizes say nothing about clay

mineralogy and potential soil behaviour!

Fine-grained soils are defined by

how “plastic” they are

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Symbols for Fine Grained Soils
Class Primary Characteristic A-line Secondary
symbol position symbol

CLAY C Low plasticity above L

LL < 35%
Med. plasticity above I
35 < LL < 50%
High plasticity above H
LL > 50%
SILT M Low plasticity below L
LL < 50%
High plasticity below H
LL > 50%

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Consistency Limits of Fine Soils
Defining water contents

1. LIQUID PHASE

- fluid, low shear resistance

2. PLASTIC PHASE

- easily moulded

3. SOLID PHASE

- strong, resists deformation

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ATTERBERG LIMITS
Plastic Index or PI
solid liquid

The plastic
zone

PL LL

0 Moisture content Max.

%

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 CONSISTENCY LIMITS

Change in
Volume

Shrinkage
limit Soil
drying

PL LL
Moisture content (%)
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 Atterberg Limit Tests
 PLASTIC LIMIT, PL

- by rolling soil into threads

- moisture content at which soil breaks at a 3 mm

diam. thread = “ the plastic limit ”
LIQUID LIMIT, LL

- basically the moisture content at which the

soil can fairly readily be sheared

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Fall cone
apparatus

Casagrande
equipment

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 Casagrande Liquid Limit
1. 3.

2. 4. Gap closed

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 Casagrande LL Device
• Each blow must be consistent
– fall height = 10 mm
– hardened base

• 25 blows for closure over 10 mm length defines

the LL

• Usually 15-22, 22-30 and 30-38 blows

– need moisture contents for each state, dry to wet of LL

– interpolate moisture content for 25 blows

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Typical results of LL Tests

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 The Plasticity Chart

PLASTIC
INDEX
(%)

Example
LIQUID LIMIT (%)
LL = 75
PL = 32
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Linear Shrinkage Test
Change in length of half a cylinder
prepared to LL and oven-dried

Basically provides volume change of a

remoulded soil over
w = plastic index

e.g. Lo = 250 mm; L = 25 mm

LS = 10%

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Field Tests of the USCS
for fine-grained soils
1. Dry strength
– relative strength of a dry ball of soil
– prepared at PL

2. Toughness
– near PL when remoulded

3. Dilatancy
– volume change upon shearing
– prepared at LL

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 TOUGHNESS
– how tough is it to remould?

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 Dilatancy - (field test)
a) Discard coarse material & wet the
remainder
b) Form a pat in your cupped hand
c) Tap the back of your hand until water rises
to surface (surface sheen)
d) Stretch palm of hand
– Shears the pat of soil
e) Does water stay or disappear?

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Classification by Field Test
Soil Dry Strength Toughness Dilatancy

CL Medium to high Medium None to very

slow

CI As above As above As above

CH High to very High 0

high

ML 0 0 Quick to slow

MH Low to medium Low to medium Slow to none

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 Interpretation of Field Tests
• Dry strength is low for O & M soils of low plasticity

• Dry strength increases with plasticity

• Dry strength is greater for clay soils

• Toughness increases with plasticity

• Silts are dilatant but clays are not!

– dilation = increase in volume (with shearing)

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Classification of Mixed Soils
1. Wet sieve on 0.075 mm sieve

> 50% retained? = “coarse”

2. Sieve on 2.36 mm sieve

< 50% retained? = Sand

3. Sieve for fines

< 5% = SP or SW (fines insignificant)

>12% = SC or SM (how plastic?)

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 SUMMARY
• Soil classification for
engineering purposes is
based on:
1. Fundamental particle sizes, AND
2. Particle size distributions, OR
3. Soil plasticity
(LL, PI, LS and/or field tests)
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The End

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