TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Electromagnetic forces in transformers
under short circuit conditions
Short circuit events generate high current conditions in transformer windings. These currents in turn induce excessive forces in a transformer.
Electromagnetic forces are important considerations in the design, manufacturing and operation of transformers. These forces can be
subdivided into axial and radial forces each with unique considerations and mitigating measures.
Transformers in general consist of primary
and secondar y windings, across which
a voltage and current transformation
is induced at constant power. During
normal operation the transformer will be
supplied on the primary at rated voltage
and current. Current flowing in the primary
windings will induce a magnetic field that
will link the windings of the secondar y,
inducing current flow. Current flow in the
secondary will be inversely proportional
to the turn ratio between the primary and
secondary windings.
The generation of an electromagnetic
field inside the transformer is therefore
intrinsic to transformer operation. This
electromagnetic field will however lead
to the generation of forces inside the
transformer windings stipulated by the laws
of magnetism viz. Faradays law of induction
and Lenz's law of electromagnetic force[1].
During normal operation, these forces are
relatively low and for this condition the
transformer design is based primarily on the
dielectric and thermal considerations – loss
reduction and insulation integrity. Under
short-circuit fault conditions the current
excitation increases significantly, possibly
8 – 10 times nominal current, resulting in
extreme forces in the transformer windings.
The short circuit withstand capability of
a transformer, is mainly a function of its
thermal and mechanical performance.
However, due to the speed at which
these faults occur and are cleared, the
primar y concern is of a mechanical
nature, and design considerations shift to
control the electromagnetic forces and
prevent mechanical failure. The basics
Fig. 1: Short circuit current [2].
by Nadim Mahomed, Powertech Transformers
of electromagnetic forces are presented
here to guide toward an appreciation of
the significance of short circuit events in
transformer design. The discussion begins
with a description of the short circuit
current, the induced electromagnetic
forces and finally methods of preventing
transformer failure.
Short circuit current
The most commonly occurring short circuit
event is a single-line to earth fault in which
one phase is short circuited to ground. This
type of fault may occur due to lightning
strikes, debris, pollution effects, animals
and vegetation. Other types of faults
such as three-phase to ground, double
earth fault are also considered in short
circuit current calculations. In general the
short circuit current is calculated using
symmetrical components for various
situations taking into account:
 Tapping arrangement
 Fault position (e.g. low voltage or high
voltage winding)
 Short circuit power combination
(network and transformer)
 Short circuit type (e.g. single phase to
earth, three phase symmetrical, etc.)
The short circuit current given in
Eqn 1.consists of two components: a steady
state component at power frequency, and
an exponentially decreasing unidirectional
component as shown in Fig. 1 [2].
(1)
where:
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i(t) = instantaneous short circuit current
Ip = peak short circuit current
 = angular frequency in rad/s
 = voltage angle at which short circuit
occurs
 = impedance phase angle
Fig. 1 shows that the first current peak is the
maximum peak, becoming progressively
smaller as the unidirectional (green line in
Fig. 1) component decays. For this reason
the first peak is usually used to calculate
maximum occurring forces.
To aid the understanding of short circuit
current and its relationship to the power
transformer, the simplest fault scenario,
viz. three-phase symmetrical short circuit
fault, is discussed. This allows the use of an
equivalent single phase circuit model, as
all phases remain balanced and nominal
or rated values of the transformer current
can be used. The steady state component
of short circuit current for this simple case
can be expressed as a multiple of nominal
current by the overcurrent factor "r" shown
in Eqn. 2. The steady state current under
short circuit condition is then r times the
nominal current.
(2)
where:
Zt = transformer impedance in percentage
Z s = system impedance in percentage
To account for the initial direct current
(DC) offset and therefore the first peak,
a further factor called the asymmetr y
factor "k" is used [2]. This results in a
more accurate representation of the
current to precisely calculate the peak
electromagnetic force. Values of k are
specified in the applicable standards such
as the IEC 60076-5 [3]. The asymmetry
factor is dependent on the ratio of the
transformer reactance (X) and resistance
(R). Values of k increase for increasing X/R
ratios. Values of 1,8 for transformers up to
100 MVA and 1,9 for transformers in excess
of 100 MVA are indicated when the X/R
ratio is unavailable [3].
Electromagnetic forces
The current carr ying conductors of the
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 2: Current and induced force waveforms.
Fig. 3: Directional relationship between fields.
transformer windings are situated in the
magnetic leakage field. By the fundamental
postulates of electromagnetics these
conductors will experience a force
due to the interaction between the
electric (current) and magnetic fields.
This electromagnetic force is calculated
as the vector product of current density
and magnetic field intensity as given in
Eqn. 3 [1].
(3)
where:
F = force in N
J = current density in A/m 2
B = magnetic flux density in T
Short circuit current will influence both flux
density B and current density J in Eqn. 3
implying that force is proportional to the
square of the current. Fig. 2 shows the
relationship between current and force
and the nature of electromagnetic forces.
The electromagnetic force pulsates at
approximately twice the power frequency
and is unidirectional. Considering that the
overcurrent factor is typically between 8
and 10, the force generated can easily
be in the region of a hundred times the
nominal force magnitude and may reach
several thousand kN [2].
The direction of the forces are stipulated
by the vector product in Eqn. 3 indicating
that the force will act perpendicular to
the plane formed by the magnetic field
intensity and current direction. The force
direction can be determined using the
left hand rule, as indicated in Fig. 3 which
describes the field relationships for the
cross-section of a single conductor.
Electromagnetic force tends to minimise
the magnetic energy density in the
volume. In this way the forces tend to :
 Reduce the radius of inner windings
 Increase the radius of outer windings
 Reduce the height of windings –
windings are compressed toward the
median horizontal
Viewing the transformer from a cross
sectional view (Fig. 4), and taking into
account the direction of the current
as being constant, it is noted that the
force is perpendicular to, and follows the
bending of the flux lines. In the middle of
the windings this results in a radial force
pushing outward, and toward the ends of
the windings this results in an axial force
pushing onto the windings.
The explanation of the transformer cross
section is shown in Fig. 5. The 3D figure of
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Fig. 4: Magnetic field and associated
force directions.
the full 3-phase transformer on the left is
a 360° rotation of the 2D diagrams on the
right about the axis (dashed line). This is a
single phase axi-symmetric simplification
of the transformer geometry that may be
analysed in two dimensions as is the case
in Fig. 4.
Electromagnetic forces in transformer
windings can be sub-divided into axial and
radial force by means of associated axial
and radial modes of failure. Axial forces
occur in a direction parallel to the winding
height. Radial forces occur perpendicular
to the winding height. Axial and radial
forces, although sharing a common
origin, can for the most part, be treated
as mutually exclusive modes [2].
Radial forces
The flux at mid winding height is for the
most part parallel to the winding height.
According to the left hand rule, the resulting
force therefore acts perpendicular to the
winding height. For windings on the inside
of the main flux field (situated between
primary and secondary windings) the force
acts inward, and for outside windings,
outward as depicted in Fig. 5.
Forces acting on the inside windings result
in a compressive stress whereas on the
outer winding this force leads to a tensile
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 5: Transformer 2D diagrammatic representation explained. Fig. 6: Conductor force directions and associated stresses.

stress acting to elongate the winding turn work to increase the displacement i.e. primarily of a mechanical nature, involving
– as shown in Fig. 6 [2]. This is as a result windings are pushed further apart, resulting structural countermeasures whereas
of the cylindrical profile of the windings in iteratively worse displacements and reducing the origin of these forces is
where forces, perpendicular to the winding therefore higher forces [2]. primarily a magnetic field problem and
circumference, create tangential stresses. therefore electrical in nature.
Mitigating the effects of short circuit
As stated earlier, radial and axial short
Axial forces In essence there are two approaches to circuit forces and their associated modes
Axial forces are generated parallel with reducing the destructive effects of short of failure may be considered mutually
the winding height. Due to the pattern of circuit forces. At the outset transformer exclusive for the most part. Preventative
the magnetic leakage field, the windings Designers aim to decrease the occurring measures will involve manipulating the
experience opposing forces at the winding electromagnetic forces by sound design magnetic field, and making choices in the
ends, leading to compressive forces. Axial choices. Electromagnetic forces however design that will lead to a more acceptable
force is generated when the transformer's will always be of significant levels, and field distribution inside the transformer.
magnetic field lines are radially orientated. measures to mitigate the effect of these One way to reduce the magnitude of
Fig. 4. shows that the highest ‘bending' of induced forces must be taken. Measures the magnetic field would be to decrease
the magnetic field occurs at the winding against electromagnetic forces are the short circuit current by increasing the
ends, consequently maximum axial force is
generated here. The local force generation
accumulates toward the middle of the
windings resulting in a maximum occurring
force at mid-winding height. This force is
compressive towards the winding centre as
the circulation direction of the magnetic
field leads to opposing forces at each end
of the winding. A schematic representation
of the axial force distribution, in a typical
transformer winding, is shown in Fig. 7.
In addition to the compressive force
occurring in the winding the effect of
recoil is also considered as transformer
windings are essentially springs from a
mechanical point of view. This spring
action can be explained by noting the
nature of the electromagnetic wave in
Fig. 2. The force magnitude follows
a sinusoidal pattern and therefore
compressive tension stored in the winding
is released as the force approaches zero.
This force will be exerted against the core
yokes and end insulation structures, and
will have a magnitude of less than the
compressive force generating it.
Winding displacement from the centre
line result in excessive axial forces, and
provision for this possibility is necessary –
shown in Fig. 8. This is due to the difference
in the ampere-turns (i.e. mmf) distribution
along the winding heights resulting in more
pronounced bending of the field lines at
the point of missing ampere-turns or where
the displacement occurs. The forces then

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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 7: Cumulative and local force distribution along winding height.
impedance values of the system and/
or transformer thereby decreasing the
overcurrent factor. However this is not
always practicable since these parameters
are usually dependent on a host of other
requirements such as network topology
and customer specifications.
Manipulating the field-winding relation can
be achieved by changing the geometries
of the transformer active part i.e. core and
windings. The goal of any field manipulation
would be, primarily, to reduce axial forces
by straightening the field lines in the
region of the winding ends. Less bending
of the field lines equals less axial forces.
Adjusting winding height, winding duct
width (space between windings), winding
inner diameter, distances from winding to
core are some of the considerations that
can have a significant impact on the field
pattern with limited effect to other design
considerations.
In addition to field considerations the
transformer must be built to mechanically
withstand all forces generated under a
short circuit event. The structural rigidity of
the transformer active part is paramount
Fig. 8: Winding displacement
and induced forces.
as high short circuit forces are inevitable.
The short circuit withstand capability of a
transformer is dependent on the occurring
stress vs. mechanical withstand ability of
the various structural parts.
Axial allowable stress limits are divided
into two categories namely limits relating
to the compressive forces in the windings
themselves and those related to axial thrust
forces toward the clamping structure. Axial
thrust forces are a consequence of winding
displacement (Fig. 8) and the spring
action of the windings (after compressive
forces). Compressive force is a concern
in the windings themselves whereas thrust
forces affect the end structures (between
the yoke and windings). End thrust forces
can lead to failure of the end insulation
structures, which include those structures
common to all windings. Since all windings
in a multiple winding transformer may
experience simultaneous end thrust forces
(all currents in a winding block being in
phase), the cumulative effect must be
taken into account. Compressive forces
on the other hand can lead to failure of
the windings themselves. Various modes
of failure are taken into account viz.
conductors bending between spacers,
conductor tilting, conductor telescoping,
and spacers disintegrating [2]. Also worth
noting is the pulsating nature of the forces,
which can lead to deterioration of the
insulation structure and demonstrate the
importance of quick fault clearing times.
The risk of failure from any of these forces
is directly related to the processing and
assembly of the windings. Reducing the risk
of failure due to axial stresses, is concerned
with minimising winding displacements,
c o r r e c t w i n d i n g c l a m p i n g, r e d u c e d
moisture content due to proper processing
and the use of quality materials.
Radial forces lead to tensile and
compressive stresses which display distinct
modes of failure. Tensile stresses are due
to forces acting to increase the diameter
of the windings. These forces result in
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stretching of the conductors and may lead
to rupture, if the conductor yield strength
is exceeded. Compressive stresses lead
to buckling of the conductors, in which
the conductors are forced inward and
could potentially bulge outwards at the
elastic limit of the conductor material.
Mitigating radial forces primarily involves
choosing the correct hardness of the
conductor while taking into account
cost and manufacturability. In addition,
a sound winding design methodology
such as self-supporting windings, correct
dr ying and processing, and the use of
appropriate conductors minimises the risk
of radial failure.
Both axial and radial forces often lead
to secondary failure which is dielectric in
nature. Failure of the insulation structures
due to the aforementioned failure modes
is common, leading to arc formation, and
dielectric breakdown.
Conclusion
Short circuit events that occur in a
network induce high mechanical forces in
transformer windings. The electromagnetic
force is induced in the transformer windings
and is due to the interaction of the
magnetic field of the transformer and
the current density in the transformer
windings. As such the force is exponentially
proportional to the current resulting
in excessive force generation for any
increase in current. The radial and axial
force may be treated independently and
could result in radial and axial modes
of failure if the withstand capability is
e x c e e d e d. T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s e
forces may be reduced by manipulating
the magnetic field by changes in the
transformer geometry. However provision
for these forces must be made, consisting
mainly of the mechanical withstand
capabilities and positioning of the various
transformer materials. Initially a transformer
design is driven by thermal and dielectric
properties; however short circuit provisions
often supersede these design choices
leading to significant cost increase.
Short circuit withstand is a complicated
interaction of electrical- and mechanical
engineering and its significance in any
electromagnetic machine should not
be underestimated, least of all in power
transformers.
References
[1] D K C h e n : F i e l d a n d W a v e
Electromagnetics,Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Inc., USA, second edition, November
1992.
[2] G Bertagnolli: Short-circuit Duty of Power
Transformers, ABB Ltd., Zurich, third edition, June
2006.
[3] IEC standard 60076-5: Power Transformers – Part
5: “Ability to withstand short circuit”, 2006.
Contact Nico Gunter,
Powertech Transformers,
Tel 012 318-9911,
nico.gunter@pttransformers.co.za 