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Attalus I
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Attalus I Soter ("Savior")
AtaloPergamo.jpg
A Hellenistic portrait bust of Attalus I king of Pergamon
King of Pergamon
Reign 241�197 BC
Predecessor Eumenes I
Successor Eumenes II
Born 269 BC
Died 197 BC (aged 72)
Spouse Apollonis
Issue
Eumenes II
Attalus II
Philetaerus
Athenaeus
Greek ?tta??? ?? S?t??
Dynasty Attalid dynasty
Father Attalus
Mother Antiochis
Attalus I (Ancient Greek: ?tta??? ??), surnamed Soter (Greek: S?t??, "Savior";
269�197 BC)[1] ruled Pergamon, an Ionian Greek polis (what is now Bergama, Turkey),
first as dynast, later as king, from 241 BC to 197 BC. He was the first cousin once
removed and the adoptive son of Eumenes I,[2] whom he succeeded, and was the first
of the Attalid dynasty to assume the title of king in 238 BC.[3] He was the son of
Attalus and his wife Antiochis.

Attalus won an important victory over the Galatians, newly arrived Celtic tribes
from Thrace, who had been, for more than a generation, plundering and exacting
tribute throughout most of Asia Minor without any serious check. This victory,
celebrated by the triumphal monument at Pergamon (famous for its Dying Gaul) and
the liberation from the Gallic "terror" which it represented, earned for Attalus
the name of "Soter", and the title of "king". A courageous and capable general and
loyal ally of Rome, he played a significant role in the first and second Macedonian
Wars, waged against Philip V of Macedon. He conducted numerous naval operations,
harassing Macedonian interests throughout the Aegean, winning honors, collecting
spoils, and gaining for Pergamon possession of the Greek islands of Aegina during
the first war, and Andros during the second, twice narrowly escaping capture at the
hands of Philip.

Attalus was a protector of the Greek cities of Anatolia[4] and viewed himself as
the champion of Greeks against barbarians.[5] During his reign he established
Pergamon as a considerable power in the Greek East.[6] He died in 197 BC, shortly
before the end of the second war, at the age of 72, having suffered an apparent
stroke while addressing a Boeotian war council some months before. He and his wife
were admired for their rearing of their four sons. He was succeeded as king by his
son Eumenes II.

Contents
1 Early life
2 Defeat of the Galatians
3 Conquests in Seleucid Asia Minor
4 First Macedonian War
5 Introduction of the cult of the Magna Mater to Rome
6 Macedonian hostilities of 201 BC
7 Second Macedonian War
8 Family
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Primary sources
10.2 Secondary sources
Early life

Coin struck during the reign of Attalus I, depicting Attalus' great uncle,
Philetaerus. Reverse shows Greek inscription F?????????, "(coin) of Philetaerus",
and Athena.[7]
Little is known about Attalus' early life. He was born a Greek,[8] the son of
Attalus, and Antiochis.[9] The elder Attalus was the son of a brother (also called
Attalus) of both Philetaerus, the founder of the Attalid dynasty, and Eumenes, the
father of Eumenes I, Philetaerus' successor; he is mentioned, along with his
uncles, as a benefactor of Delphi,[10] won fame as a charioteer, winning at
Olympia, and was honored with a monument at Pergamon.[11]

Attalus was a young child when his father died, sometime before 241 BC, after which
he was adopted by Eumenes I, the incumbent dynast. Attalus' mother, Antiochis, was
related to the Seleucid royal family (being a granddaughter of Seleucus I Nicator)
with her marriage to Attalus' father likely arranged by Philetaerus to solidify his
power. This would be consistent with the conjecture that Attalus' father had been
Philetaerus' heir designate, but was succeeded by Eumenes, since Attalus I was too
young when his father died.[12]

Defeat of the Galatians

The Dying Gaul representing the defeat of the Galatians by Attalus

According to the 2nd century AD Greek writer Pausanias, "the greatest of his
achievements" was the defeat of the "Gauls" (Ga??ta?).[13] Pausanias was referring
to the Galatians, immigrant Celts from Thrace, who had recently settled in Galatia
in central Asia Minor, and whom the Romans and Greeks called Gauls, associating
them with the Celts of what is now France, Switzerland, and northern Italy. Since
the time of Philetaerus, the first Attalid ruler, the Galatians had posed a problem
for Pergamon, indeed for all of Asia Minor, by exacting tributes to avoid war or
other repercussions. Eumenes I had (probably), along with other rulers, dealt with
the Galatians by paying these tributes. Attalus however refused to pay them, being
the first such ruler to do so.[14] As a consequence, the Galatians set out to
attack Pergamon. Attalus met them near the sources of the river Ca�cus[15] and won
a decisive victory, after which, following the example of Antiochus I, Attalus took
the name of Soter, which means "savior", and claimed the title of king.[16] The
victory brought Attalus legendary fame. A story arose, related by Pausanias, of an
oracle who had foretold these events a generation earlier:[17]

Then verily, having crossed the narrow strait of the Hellespont,

The devastating host of the Gauls shall pipe; and lawlessly
They shall ravage Asia; and much worse shall God do
To those who dwell by the shores of the sea
For a short while. For right soon the son of Cronos
Shall raise a helper, the dear son of a bull reared by Zeus
Who on all the Gauls shall bring a day of destruction.
Pausanias adds that by "son of a bull" the oracle "meant Attalus, king of Pergamon,
who was styled bull-horned". On the acropolis of Pergamon was erected a triumphal
monument, which included the famous sculpture the Dying Gaul, commemorating this
battle.[18]

Conquests in Seleucid Asia Minor

Several years after the first victory over the Gauls, Pergamon was again attacked
by the Gauls together with their ally Antiochus Hierax, the younger brother of
Seleucus II Callinicus, and ruler of Seleucid Asia Minor from his capital at
Sardis. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Antiochus at the battle of Aphrodisium and
again at a second battle in the east. Subsequent battles were fought and won
against Antiochus alone: in Hellespontine Phrygia, where Antiochus was perhaps
seeking refuge with his father-in law, Ziaelas the king of Bithynia; near Sardis in
the spring of 228 BC; and, in the final battle of the campaign, further south in
Caria on the banks of the Harpasus, a tributary of the Maeander.[19]

As a result of these victories, Attalus gained control over all of Seleucid Asia
Minor north of the Taurus Mountains.[20] He was able to hold on to these gains in
the face of repeated attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus, eldest son and successor of
Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory, culminating in Seleucus III himself
crossing the Taurus, only to be assassinated by members of his army in 223 BC.[21]
Achaeus, who had accompanied Seleucus III, assumed control of the army. He was
offered and refused the kingship in favor of Seleucus III's younger brother
Antiochus III the Great, who then made Achaeus governor of Seleucid Asia Minor
north of the Taurus. Within two years Achaeus had recovered all the lost Seleucid
territories, "shut up Attalus within the walls of Pergamon",[22] and assumed the
title of king.[23]

After a period of peace, in 218 BC, while Achaeus was involved in an expedition to
Selge south of the Taurus, Attalus, with some Thracian Gauls, recaptured his former
territories.[24] However Achaeus returned from victory in Selge in 217 BC and
resumed hostilities with Attalus.[25]

Under a treaty of alliance with Attalus, Antiochus crossed the Taurus in 216 BC,
attacked Achaeus and besieged Sardis, and in 214 BC, the second year of the siege,
was able to take the city. However the citadel remained under Achaeus' control.
Under the pretense of a rescue, Achaeus was finally captured and put to death, and
the citadel surrendered. By 213 BC, Antiochus had regained control of all of his
Asiatic provinces.[26]

First Macedonian War

Mediterranean at 218 BC
Thwarted in the east, Attalus now turned his attention westward. Perhaps because of
concern for the ambitions of Philip V of Macedon, Attalus had sometime before 219
BC become allied with Philip's enemies the Aetolian League, a union of Greek states
in Aetolia in central Greece, having funded the fortification of Elaeus, an
Aetolian stronghold in Calydonia, near the mouth of the river Acheloos.[27]

Philip's alliance with Hannibal of Carthage in 215 BC also caused concern in Rome,
then involved in the Second Punic War.[28] In 211 BC, a treaty was signed between
Rome and the Aetolian League, a provision of which allowed for the inclusion of
certain allies of the League, Attalus being one of these.[29] Attalus was elected
one of the two strategoi (generals) of the Aetolian League,[30] and in 210 BC his
troops probably participated in capturing the island of Aegina, acquired by Attalus
as his base of operations in Greece.[31]

In the following spring (209 BC), Philip marched south into Greece. Under command
of Pyrrhias, Attalus' colleague as strategos, the allies lost two battles at Lamia.
[32] Attalus himself went to Greece in July and was joined on Aegina by the Roman
proconsul P. Sulpicius Galba who wintered there.[33] The following summer (208 BC)
the combined fleet of thirty-five Pergamene and twenty-five Roman ships failed to
take Lemnos, but occupied and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos
(Skopelos), both Macedonian possessions. Attalus and Sulpicius then attended a
meeting in Heraclea Trachinia of the Council of the Aetolians, at which the Roman
argued against making peace with Philip.[34]

When hostilities resumed, they sacked both Oreus, on the northern coast of Euboea
and Opus, the chief city of eastern Locris. The spoils from Oreus had been reserved
for Sulpicius, who returned there, while Attalus stayed to collect the spoils from
Opus. With their forces divided, Philip attacked Opus. Attalus, caught by surprise,
was barely able to escape to his ships.[35]

Attalus was now forced to return to Asia, for he had learned at Opus that, at the
instigation of Philip, Prusias I king of Bithynia, related to Philip by marriage,
was moving against Pergamon. Soon after, the Romans also abandoned Greece to
concentrate their forces against Hannibal, their objective of preventing Philip
from aiding Hannibal having been achieved. In 206 BC the Aetolians sued for peace
on conditions imposed by Philip. A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC,
formally ending the First Macedonian War. Attalus was included as an adscriptus on
the side of Rome. He retained Aegina, but had accomplished little else. Since
Prusias was also included in the treaty, the war between Attalus and Prusias must
also have ended by that time.[36]

Introduction of the cult of the Magna Mater to Rome

In 205 BC, following the "Peace of Phoenice", Rome turned to Attalus, as its only
friend in Asia, for help concerning a religious matter. An unusual number of meteor
showers caused concern in Rome, and an inspection was made of the Sibylline Books,
which discovered verses saying that if a foreigner were to make war on Italy, he
could be defeated if the Magna Idaea, the Mother Goddess, associated with Mount Ida
in Phrygia, were brought to Rome. Hoping to bring about a speedy conclusion to the
war with Hannibal, a distinguished delegation, led by M. Valerius Laevinus, was
dispatched to Pergamon, to seek Attalus' aid. According to Livy, Attalus received
the delegation warmly, and "handed over to them the sacred stone which the natives
declared to be 'the Mother of the Gods', and bade them carry it to Rome."[37] In
Rome the goddess became known as the Magna Mater.[38]

Macedonian hostilities of 201 BC

Prevented by the treaty of Phoenice from expansion in the west, Philip set out to
extend his power in the Aegean and in Asia Minor.[39] In the spring of 201 BC he
took Samos and the Egyptian fleet stationed there. He then besieged Chios to the
north. These events caused Attalus, allied with Rhodes, Byzantium and Cyzicus, to
enter the war.[40] A large naval battle occurred in the strait between Chios and
the mainland, just southwest of Erythrae. According to Polybius, fifty-three decked
warships and over one hundred and fifty smaller warships, took part on the
Macedonian side, with sixty-five decked warships and a number of smaller warships
on the allied side.[41] During the battle Attalus, having become isolated from his
fleet and pursued by Philip, was forced to run his three ships ashore, narrowly
escaping by spreading various royal treasures on the decks of the grounded ships,
causing his pursuers to abandon the pursuit in favor of plunder.[42]

The same year, Philip invaded Pergamon; although unable to take the easily defended
city, in part due to precautions taken by Attalus to provide for additional
fortifications, he demolished the surrounding temples and altars. Meanwhile,
Attalus and Rhodes sent envoys to Rome, to register their complaints against
Philip.[43]

Second Macedonian War

In 200 BC, Attalus became involved in the Second Macedonian War. Acarnanians with
Macedonian support invaded Attica, causing Athens, which had previously maintained
its neutrality, to seek help from the enemies of Philip. Attalus, with his fleet at
Aegina, received an embassy from Athens, to come to the city for consultations.[44]
A few days later, he learned that Roman ambassadors were also at Athens, and
decided to go there at once. His reception at Athens was extraordinary.[45]
Polybius writes:

� in company with the Romans and the Athenian magistrates, he began his progress to
the city in great state. For he was met, not only by all the magistrates and the
knights, but by all the citizens with their children and wives. And when the two
processions met, the warmth of the welcome given by the populace to the Romans, and
still more to Attalus, could not have been exceeded. At his entrance into the city
by the gate Dipylum the priests and priestesses lined the street on both sides: all
the temples were then thrown open; victims were placed ready at all the altars; and
the king was requested to offer sacrifice. Finally they voted him such high honors
as they had never without great hesitation voted to any of their former
benefactors: for, in addition to other compliments, they named a tribe after
Attalus, and classed him among their eponymous heroes.[46]

Sulpicius Galba, now consul, convinced Rome to declare war on Philip[47] and asked
Attalus to meet up with the Roman fleet and again conduct a naval campaign,
harassing Macedonian possessions in the Aegean.[48] In the spring of 199 BC, the
combined Pergamon and Roman fleets took Andros in the Cyclades, the spoils going to
the Romans and the island to Attalus. From Andros they sailed south, made a
fruitless attack on another Cycladic island, Kithnos, turned back north, scavenged
the fields of Skiathos off the coast of Magnesia, for food, and continued north to
Mende, where the fleets were wracked by storm. On land they were repulsed at
Cassandrea, suffering heavy loss. They continued northeast along the Macedonian
coast to Acanthus, which they sacked, after which they returned to Euboea, their
vessels laden with spoils.[49] On their return, the two leaders went to Heraclea to
meet with the Aetolians, who under the terms of their treaty, had asked Attalus for
a thousand soldiers. He refused, citing the Aetolians' own refusal to honor
Attalus' request to attack Macedonia during Philip's attack on Pergamon two years
earlier. Resuming operations, Attalus and the Romans attacked but failed to take
Oreus and, deciding to leave a small force to invest it, attacked across the strait
in Thessaly. When they returned to Oreus, they again attacked, this time
successfully, the Romans taking the captives, Attalus the city. The campaigning
season now over, Attalus attended the Eleusinian Mysteries and then returned to
Pergamon having been away for over two years.[50]

In the spring of 198 BC, Attalus returned to Greece with twenty-three quinqueremes
joining a fleet of twenty Rhodian decked warships at Andros, to complete the
conquest of Euboea begun the previous year. Soon joined by the Romans, the combined
fleets took Eretria and later Carystus. Thus, the allies controlled all of Euboea
except for Chalcis.[51] The allied fleet then sailed for Cenchreae in preparation
for an attack on Corinth. Meanwhile, the new Roman consul for that year, Titus
Quinctius Flamininus, had learned that the Achaean League, allies of Macedon, had
had a change in leadership which favored Rome. With the hope of inducing the
Achaeans to abandon Philip and join the allies, envoys were sent, including Attalus
himself, to Sicyon, where they offered the incorporation of Corinth into the
Achaean League. Attalus apparently so impressed the Sicyonians, that they erected a
colossal statue of him in their market place and instituted sacrifices in his
honor. A meeting of the League was convened and after a heated debate and the
withdrawal of some of delegates the rest agreed to join the alliance. Attalus led
his army from Cenchreae (now controlled by the allies) through the Isthmus and
attacked Corinth from the north, controlling the access to Lechaeum, the Corinthian
port on the Gulf of Corinth, the Romans attacked from the east controlling the
approaches to Cenchreae, with the Achaeans attacking from the west controlling the
access to the city via the Sicyonian gate. However the city held, and when
Macedonian reinforcements arrived, the siege was abandoned. The Achaeans were
dismissed, the Romans left for Corcyra, while Attalus sailed for Piraeus.[52]
Early in 197 BC, Flamininus summoned Attalus to join him at Elateia (now in Roman
hands) and from there they traveled together to attend a Boeotian council in Thebes
to discuss which side Boeotia would take in the war.[53] At the council Attalus
spoke first, reminding the Boeotians of the many things he and his ancestors had
done for them, but during his address he stopped talking and collapsed, with one
side of his body paralyzed.[54] Attalus was taken back to Pergamon, where he died
around the time of the Battle of Cynoscephalae, which brought about the end of the
Second Macedonian War.[55]

Family
Attalus married Apollonis, from Cyzicus. They had four sons, Eumenes, Attalus,
Philetaerus and Athenaeus (after Apollonis' father).[56] Apollonis was thought to
be a model of motherly love.[57] Polybius describes Apollonis as "a woman who for
many reasons deserves to be remembered, and with honor. Her claims upon a
favourable recollection are that, though born of a private family, she became a
queen, and retained that exalted rank to the end of her life, not by the use of
meretricious fascinations, but by the virtue and integrity of her conduct in
private and public life alike. Above all, she was the mother of four sons with whom
she kept on terms of the most perfect affection and motherly love to the last day
of her life."[58]

The filial affection of the brothers as well as their upbringing is remarked on by

several ancient sources. A decree of Antiochus IV praises "king Attalus and queen
Apollonis � because of their virtue and goodness, which they preserved for their
sons, managing their education in this way wisely and well."[59] An inscription at
Pergamon represents Apollonis as saying that "she always considered herself blessed
and gave thanks to the gods, not for wealth or empire, but because she saw her
three sons guarding the eldest and him reigning without fear among those who were
armed."[60] When Attalus died in 197 BC at the age of 72, he was succeeded by his
eldest son Eumenes II. Polybius, describing Attalus' life, says "and what is more
remarkable than all, though he left four grown-up sons, he so well settled the
question of succession, that the crown was handed down to his children's children
without a single dispute."[61]

Apollonis died in the mid-second-century BC. In her honor, Attalus' sons built a
temple in Cyzicus decorated with bas-reliefs representing several scenes of sons
displaying love for their mothers, with one scene also showing love for a father.
[62]

Notes
Hansen, p. 26. Livy, 33.21�22, says that Attalus died in the consulship of
Cornelius and Minucius (197 BC) at the age of 72, having reigned 44 years.
Polybius, 18.41, also says that he died at 72 and reigned 44 years. Strabo, 13.4.2,
says that he reigned 43 years.
Strabo, 13.4.2, says that he was the cousin of Eumenes. Pausanias, 1.8.1, probably
following Strabo, says the same. But modern writers have concluded that Strabo had
skipped a generation; see Hansen, p. 26.
Strabo, 13.4.2; Polybius, 18.41; Hansen, p. 28; Austin, p. 396; Kosmetatou, p.
161.
Grolier, p. 314: "Attalus was both a strong protector of the Greek cities of
Anatolia and an opportunist in trying to expand Pergamum's territory and power."
Bradford, p. 121: "Attalus... commissioned a series of sculptures that depicted
the defeat of the Gauls and glorified himself as the champion of Greeks against
barbarians"; Wilson, p. 593: "By means of lavish sculpted dedications, Attalus
depicted his victories as important achievements, and himself as the champion of
Greek freedom against a renewed barbarian threat."
Bradford, p. 121: "Attalus established Pergamum as a power in the Greek East, but
it was to reach its greatest power and prosperity by its alliance with Rome"
 Ren�e; Schraudolph, p. 107.
Richardson, p. 254: "... he was a Greek and devoted to the Greek culture,...".
Strabo, 13.4.2; Hansen, p. 26.
Hansen, p. 19; Austin, p. 400,
Hansen, p. 27.
Hansen, pp. 27�28.
Pausanias, 1.8.1.
Livy, 38.16; Hansen, pp. 28�31.
Hansen, p. 31. An Inscription from the Gaul Monument located in the Athena
Sanctuary on the acropolis at Pergamon reads: "King Attalos having conquered in
battle the Tolistoagii Gauls around the springs of the river Kaikos [set up this]
thank-offering to Athena", Pollitt, p. 85, see also Austin, p. 405). Such
inscriptions are the main source of information on Attalus' war with the Galatians,
see Mitchell, p. 21.
Hansen, p. 31; Mitchell, p. 21.
Pausanias, 10.15.3.
Pollitt, p. 85.
Hansen, pp. 34�35; Green, p. 264�265.
Polybius, 4.48; Hansen, p. 36; Kosmetatou, p. 162; Green, p. 264.
Hansen, p. 36; Green, p. 265.
Polybius, 4.48.
Hansen, p. 39; Green, p. 265.
Polybius, 5.77; Hansen, pp. 41�43. According to Heinen, p. 432, after the
expedition of 218, Attalus' kingdom was again the most powerful state in Asia
Minor.
Hansen, pp. 42�43.
Polybius, 5.107, 7.15�18, 8.17�23; Hansen, p. 43; Heinen, p. 440.
Polybius, 4.65; Hansen, p. 46; Gruen (1990), p. 29.
Livy, 23.33�34, 38; Hansen, p. 46.
Livy, 26.24; Hansen, p. 47.
Livy, 27.29; Hansen, p. 47.
Polybius, 9.42 and 22.11; Hansen, p. 47; Gruen (1990), p. 29.
Livy, 27.30; Hansen, p. 47.
Livy, 27.33; Hansen, p. 48.
Livy, 28.5; Polybius, 10.42; Hansen, pp. 48�49.
Livy, 28.5�7; Polybius, 11.7; Hansen, p. 49.
Livy, 29.12; Hansen, p. 49�50; Gruen (1990), p. 29�30.
Livy, 29.10, 11. The poet Ovid (Fasti, IV 326) portrays Attalus as initially
refusing to give up the goddess, only to relent after "the earth shook" and the
goddess herself spoke, see Erskine, p. 210.
Hansen, pp. 50�52; Gruen (1990), pp. 5�33; Erskine, pp. 205�224; Kosmetatou, p.
163.
Hansen, p. 52.
Hansen, p. 53; Errington p. 252.
Polybius, 16.2; Hansen; p. 53.
Polybius, 16.6; Hansen, p. 54.
Livy, 31.2; Polybius, 16.1; Hansen, pp. 55�57; Errington, p. 253�257.
Pausanias, 1.36.5�6; Livy, 31.9, 14; Hansen; p. 57.
Livy, 31.14; Hansen, pp. 58�59; Errington, p. 258; Hurwit, pp. 269�271.
Polybius, 16.25.
Livy, 31.5�8; Hansen, pp. 58, 60; Errington, pp. 255, 261.
Livy, 31.28; Hansen, p. 61; Grainger, p. 33.
Livy, 31.45; Hansen, pp. 61�62; Grainger, pp. 33�36.
Livy, 31.46�47; Hansen, p. 62; Warrior, p. 87.
Livy, 32.16,17; Hansen, pp. 63�64.
Livy, 32.19�23; Polybius, 18.16; Hansen, p. 64. Gruen (1986), pp. 179, 181.
Livy, 33.1, Hansen, p. 66.
Livy, 33.2; Hansen, p. 67; Kosmetatou, p. 163. Inscriptions document Pergamene
benefactions to the Greeks in general and the Boeotians in particular, see Hansen,
p. 19.
Hansen, p. 67, says he did not die "until the beginning of autumn" citing
manumission records dated to August or September 197 BC, and speculates that "he
may have heard of the great Roman victory at Cynoscephalae". However Kosmetatou, p.
163, asserts that he died "probably shortly before" the battle.
Strabo, 13.4.2; Hansen, pp. 44�45; Hurwit, p. 271.
Paton, p. 149.
Polybius, 22.20.
Hansen, p. 45.
Hansen, p. 45; Austin, pp. 370�371.
Polybius, 18.41.
Paton, p. 149.
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Regnal titles
Preceded by
Eumenes I King of Pergamon
241�197 BC Succeeded by
Eumenes II
vte
Hellenistic rulers
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
GND: 12089260X VIAF: 18064950 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 18064950
Categories: 3rd-century BC Greek peopleKings of PergamonPeople from Pergamon2nd-
century BC rulers3rd-century BC rulersCybeleAncient Olympic competitorsAncient
Greek chariot racersFirst Macedonian WarSecond Macedonian War269 BC births197 BC
deaths
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