GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 56, NO. 12 (DECEMBER 1991); P. 193(}"'1939, 15 FIGS., I TABLE.
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The effects of porosity-permeability-clay content on the velocity of
compressional waves
Theodoros Klimentos*
ABSTRACT
Compressional velocities V p were measured in labo-
ratory samples at ultrasonic frequencies (0.5--1.5 MHz)
and under varying confiningand pore fluidpressures (up
to 40 MPa). Forty-two water saturated sandstones hav-
ing a range of porosities <I> (2 to 36 percent), permeabil-
ities K (0.001 to 306 mD) and clay contents C (negligible
to 30 percent) were studied. I found that at 40 MPa the
compressional velocity is inversely proportional to clay
content. P-wave velocity decreases with increasing po-
rosity, but the scatter is large even at very high pres-
sures. The velocity-porosity scatter is reduced when the
clay content is included. The dependence of Vp on
permeability for a wide range of porosities (6 to 36
percent) is indeterminable due to a large scatter. When
the rocks are grouped into identical porosities the scatter
is reduced and V p increases with decreasing clay content
INTRODUCTION
Compressional-wave velocity is an important parameter
for the analysis of rock properties. Lithology and porosity
can be related empirically to velocity in either the Wyllie
equation (Wyllie et aI., 1956) or the Raymer et al. (1980)
statistical equation. Both equations give reasonable results
for clean sandstones for a wide range of porosities, i.e., 10to
25 percent, under high pressure conditions (Han et aI., 1986).
Neither of these two equations, however, can be applied
reliably to shaly sandstones containing clay minerals. Lab-
oratory experimental data from several investigators (De
Martini et aI., 1976;Tosaya and Nur, 1982; Kowallis et aI.,
1984, and Han et al., 1986), show that in shaly sandstones
both equations overestimate the compressional wave veloc-
ities. Each of these studies concluded that as the clay
content in sandstones increased, the P-wave velocity de-
Manuscript received by the Editor December 5, 1989;revised manuscript received April 18, 1991.
*Formerly Department of Geoscience and Postgraduate Research Institute for Sedimentology, University of Reading; presently Southern Oil
Exploration Corp., SOEKOR (PTY) Ltd., P. O. Box 307,7500 Parow, Cape Town, South Africa.
© 1991 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
1930
and increasing permeability. However, the effect of
permeability alone on Vp was found to be negligible in
rocks with identical porosity, lithology, and negligible or
similar clay content. Hence, the velocity-permeability
relationship is controlled by the velocity-clay content
and permeability-claycontent interrelations.
For all samples, the compressional-wave velocity
V p in km/s at ultrasonic frequencies and 40 MPa is
related to porosity <I> (fractional), clay content C
(fractional) and permeability K (millidarcy) by V p =
5.66 - 6.11<1> - 3.53C + 0.0007K, r = 0.96 where
r is the correlation coefficient. The relationship shows
empirically that the permeability effect is very small
compared to that of porosity and clay content.
By calculating the elastic moduli, I extrapolated
from ultrasonic to seismic frequencies and obtained
VP(seismic) = 5.27 - 5.4<1> - 2.54C + O.OOIK, r =
0.93 for porosities 6-36 percent.
creased systematically in both well and poorly consolidated
sediments.
Field results from sonic-log data (Castagna et aI., 1985)
suggest that both compressional- and shear wave-velocities
have a linear dependence on porosity and clay content.
These works on liquid-saturated sandstones suggest that
the framework clays reduce the bulk and shear moduli in a
systematic manner. The effects of intrapore clay minerals on
the seismic velocities in porous rocks are still poorly under-
stood. Furthermore, Jorden and Campbell (1986) mention
that no laboratory data or field experience have been re-
ported on the effect, if any, of permeability on P-wave
velocities.
This paper discusses the relationships among P-wave
velocity, porosity, clay content, and permeability of sand-
stones. Laboratory data are presented to demonstrate that
clays reduce the velocity of P-waves and control the perme-
 P-wave Velocity in Sandstones
ability of sandstones. The data also show that in sandstones
with similar porosity and clay content, the effect of perme-
ability alone on P-wave velocity is negligible. In the theo-
retical development I have followed a similar approach to
that of Biot (1956a, 1956b) and Geerstma and Smit (1961). I
start by introducing a "clay surface area" correction factor
(Klimentos 1988b, 1989). Then I proceed to describe two
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models of porous rocks with clays; the single and multiple
pore-size distribution model, respectively. A method of
estimating the elastic moduli from P-wave data for porous
rocks under high-pressure conditions is also developed. The
derived equations are then tested with my experimental
data. Finally, I extrapolate the P-wave velocities from
ultrasonic (i.e., laboratory measurements) to seismic (i.e.,
field measurements) frequencies.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
By controlling porosities and having identical saturation
and pressure conditions, one can reduce the number of
parameters affecting the velocity of seismic waves.
Forty-two sandstone samples were studied; all samples
were chosen to have reasonably consistent grain-size, grain-
shape, and other petrophysical characteristics, but with a
wide range of porosity (i.e., 2 to 36 percent), permeability
(i.e., 0.001 md to 306 md) and clay content (i.e.; 0 to 30
percent). A detailed description of all rock samples is given
by Klimentos and McCann, 1990.
Velocities were measured on water saturated rocks at
ultrasonic frequencies by the pulse-echo technique (Greg-
ory, 1977; Winkler & Plona, 1982; Klimentos, 1988a, 1988b,
1990). The ultrasonic transducer used was a "Sonatest
Schlumberger SP263" highly damped broad-band compres-
sional wave transducer; peak frequency about 1 MHz and
effective frequency window 0.5-1.5 MHz. The estimated
velocities are precise to ± 1 percent. The rock samples were
cored to a diameter of 5.08 ern with lengths between 1.8 and
3.5 cm. The end faces of the samples were ground flat and
parallel to within 0.03 mm. The rock samples were then oven
dried for several days at 55°Cto prevent collapse of the clay
minerals. The rock samples were then evacuated to 10- 4 Pa
and fully water saturated at a pressure of 10.3 MPa.
The compressional wave velocities were measured at full
water saturation and at different confining pressures, up to a
maximum of 40 MPa, simulating burial conditions of approx-
imately 2000 m, clearly of interest in hydrocarbon explora-
tion. The pore fluid pressure was adjusted to be half of the
confining pressure, so that the effective pressure was also
half of the confining pressure (Klimentos 1988a, 1988b,
1990). This adjustment is in approximate agreement with the
normal crustal pore-fluid pressure gradient of about 0.465 of
the overburden or confining pressure gradient (Gregory,
1977).
Following the velocity measurements, I studied the geo-
logical and petrophysical properties of the rock samples. The
samples were initially chemically cleaned and vacuum-oven
dried to determine the dry density. Subsequently, porosity
was determined to a precision of ± 1 percent using a helium
porosimeter. Permeability was measured using a nitrogen
permeameter and corrected for the Klinkenberg effect
(Klinkenberg, 1941). Furthermore, whole rock and then clay
1931
mineralogy were determined by XRD. Clay content was also
obtained by point counting on thin sections, so that a
crosscorrelation with the semiquantitative results of the
whole-rock XRD would be possible. It should be noted with
point counting, that the clay microporosity and occasional
dissolved feldspars are counted as clays, as they cannot be
resolved by the ordinary light microscope. Finally, scanning
electron microscopy was also used, for the analysis of pores,
pore-size distribution, and to determine the distribution of
the clay minerals within the pores.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The P-wave velocity profile with increasing confining
pressure presented in Figure 1 shows that, beyond a pres-
sure of 30 MPa, velocity is stabilized and becomes virtually
independent of pressure (i.e., terminal velocity). At these
high-pressure conditions the remaining open microfractures
should not play an important role in the velocity determina-
tion. Hence, in this study the velocity data measured at the
highest confining pressure (40 MPa) are presented.
Effects of porosity-clay content on P·wave velocities
It is apparent from Figure 2, that the P-wave velocity
decreases with increasing porosity, though, the data are
scattered. For example, for porosities around 28 percent the
compressional velocity at 40 MPa varies from approximately
2900 mls to 3650 m/s, a 25-percent difference. A similar
29-percent difference in P-wave velocity is seen for the
15-percent porosity samples. However, if the clay content is
taken into account one can see a linear velocity-porosity
relationship within each zone of clay-content with subse-
quent scatter reduced. Nevertheless, there are two data
points with 12 percent clay content which are not in agree-
ment with Figure 2, since they are plotted within the 15-30
5000
x
x x
4950 x
x
'""" 4900
<,
III
x
E 4850
........,
x
~ 4800
u x
g 4750
w
>
w 4700
>
~ 4650
I
0... 4600
4550
4500 +----,--,---r---r-..,----,r--,---r---r--.
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
CONFINING PRESSURE (MPa)
FIG. 1. P-wave velocity as a function of confining pressure
P ef = P conf/2.
 1932
percent clay zone. This apparent discrepancy may be caused
by the type of clay in these two samples, as their clay
consists of only authegenic pore-bridging illite (10 percent),
and chlorite (2 percent), with the 10 percent illitic content
being the highest observed from all samples.
Figure 3 shows the compressional velocity data, at 40 MPa
confining pressure, as a function of clay content for porosi-
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Klimentos
Figure 4 presents the P-wave velocity variation as a
function of clay content at 40 MPa confining pressure for all
rocks with porosities of 15 and 28 percent. This figure
demonstrates that for both cases there is a clear linear trend
of decreasing compressional velocity with increasing clay
content.
A multivariable linear regression was performed on the

ties ranging from 6 to 36 percent. It is evident from this figure data set of the 42 water-saturated sandstone samples used in
that despite the significant scatter, a clear trend prevails, Figures 2 and 3. Thus, the relationship between P-wave
which indicates that compressional velocity V p decreases velocity V p (kmls), porosity <I> (fractional) and clay-content
with increasing clay content. This is in agreement with the C (fractional) from the regression is
results of Tosaya and Nul' (1982), Kowallis et al. (1984) and
Han et al. (1986). Vp(km/s) = 5.87 - 6.99<1> - 3.33C, r = 0.96 (1)

Comparing equation (1) with that derived by Han et al.

(1986)
Clay content (%)
zones Vp(kmls) = 5.59 - 6.93<1> - 2.18C, (2)
6000..,..--;;;-.:::--------,----------,
[!]o
5800 [!]o
one can see that the clay coefficient in equation (1) is greater,
5600 whereas the porosity coefficients are almost identical. This
5400 discrepancy in the clay coefficient can be explained by the
r--. 5200 fact that Han et al. (1986) have estimated their clay contents
'~7
~5000 05[J1l[!], by thin-section point-counting only. Their clay overestima-
9 o.
54800 tion may be attributed to the point-counting of clay micro-
7[!] tfJ [!]7
~ 4600 14[!] [!)s So
porosity and minerals with flaky textures, such as hematite
U 4400 SQbt5 ~ and other ion oxides.
d 4200 15
15
,£!liZ IS'!>:.
15 As stated previously, for a constant porosity the P-wave
velocity decrease is caused primarily by the clay content.
> 4000 £!I 12 0

~ 3800 This decrease in P-wave velocity associated with increasing

~ 3600 \5 5 e" clay-content may be attributed either to the increase of
d. 3400 noncompressible clay microporosity or to the elastic moduli
3200 of the clay content itself.
3000
2800 Effects of permeability on P-wave velocities
2600
Figure 5 is a log-linear plot of P-wave velocity V p at 40
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Mpa versus permeability for sandstone samples with a
POROSITY (%) porosity range of 6 to 36 percent. The scatter is large,
especially at low permeabilities, with only a minor increasing
FIG. 2. P-wave velocity at 1 MHz and 40 MPa confining trend of V p with increasing permeability. Once again, the
pressure as a function of porosity and clay content for all
samples.
6000

6000
5500

5500 m
'" 5000
['J <,
E
'" 5000 ['J
['J
<, ';:' 4500
E I'l ,...
l!J U
';:' 4500 m
,...
U
m
8
s 4000
!.oJ

g 4000 >
!.oJ ~ 3500
> m I!I «
l!J n 3=
~ 3500 m
«
3=
d. 3000
d. 3000
2500
Slope = -89
2500 Sid dey = 4599
2000
Yinler = 51 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2000 Sid dey = 26507 CLAY CONTENT (%)
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
CLAY CONTENT (%)
FIG. 4. P-wave velocity at 1 MHz and 40 MPa confining
FIG. 3. P-wave velocity at 1 MHz and 40 MPa confining pressure, as a function of clay content for samples with
pressure, as a function of clay content and porosity for average porosity 15 ± 1 percent (squares) and 28 ± 1 percent
samples with porosities 6-36 percent. (circles).
 P-wave Velocity in Sandstones 1933

data was regressed with permeability entering as a new Additionally, lithology and other petrophysical effects (e.g.,
variable. The new relationships obtained are grain size and shape, pore size and shape, etc.) on the data
used in Figure 7 have been minimized. The five samples with
V p = 5.59 - 8.36<1> + 0.002K, r = 0.93 (3) negligibleclay content (squares) come from the same forma-
V p = 5.66 - 6.11<1> - 3.53C + 0.0007K, r = 0.96 (4) tion with a lithology of approximately 90-percent quartz and
10-percent feldspar.
where K is permeability in md. Equations (3) and (4) show
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that the effect of permeability on P-wave velocity is very

INTERPRETATION-THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION
small compared to that of porosity and clay content. The
scatter of Figure 5 is considerably reduced when the data are
plotted for a constant porosity, as shown in Figure 6 for The data presented in the previous sections show that the
samples with 15- and 28-percent porosity. However, if the clay content in sandstones has a dominant effect on the
data of IS-percent porosity from Figure 6 is further grouped velocity of compressional waves, at very high pressures,
in terms of clay content, as shown in Figure 7 for negligible where microcracks are closed and terminal velocities (i.e.,
(squares) and 15 percent clay content (circles), respectively, independent of pressure) are reached. This phenomenon has
the effect of permeability on P-wave velocity becomes been reported previously by Tosaya and Nur (1982), Kow-
negligible. Hence, this misleading velocity-permeability de- allis et al. (1984) and Han et al. (1986). However, the
pendence in Figures 5 and 6, arises mainly from the velocity- mechanisms of the clay effect on seismic velocities are still
clay content and clay content-permeability interrelations. under investigation.
Figures 8-11 show that clays can cause the following
changes to the petrophysical properties:
10000 1) Reduce the diameter of pores and pore-throats.
9000
8000 2) Create microporosity with pores <1 microns.
7000 3) Increase the specific surface area.
6000
Klimentos and McCann (1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1990) have
i 5000 m
m "'' ' m '" shown that intra-pore clay minerals increase the attenuation
>-
>-
4000
o m
of seismic waves mainly due to their high specific surface
u
0
...J o area. The following section is an attempt to investigate the
w 3000
> mechanisms of the clay effect on P-wave velocities by using
w
>
« a modification of Bioi's theory (Biot 1956a, 1956b).
~ 2000
I
0..

Slope = 2
SId dey = 111 1
Yin!er = 399S
1000 +----,--,--.----,-----,----r--, SId dey =
26507
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
PERMEABILITY (mD)
5800
FIG. 5. Measured P-wave velocity at 1 MHz and 40 MPa, as
a function of permeability for samples with porosities 6-36 5600
percent.
.--... 5400
fIl
<,
10000
9000
-S 5200
8000
7000
6000
§o 5000
i 5000
...J
~ 4800
w
m
~ 4000
>
U ~ 4600
s
w 3000 I
> 0...
w 4400
>
~I 2000
0..
4200

4000 -j------,--,------,--,------,--,------,
1000+-------,----,----r----,
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 PERMEABILITY (mD)
PERMEABILITY (mD)
FIG. 7. P-wave velocity at 1 MHz and 40 MPa, as a function
FIG. 6. Log-log plot of P-wave velocity at 1MHz and 40 MPa of permeability for rock samples with average porosity 15 ±
confining pressure, as a function of permeability for samples 1 percent, identical lithology, grain-size and sorting, pore-
with average porosities 15 ± 1 percent (squares) and 28 ± 1 size and shape, and negligible (i.e., <1 percent, squares) or
percent (circles), with linear best fits. identical (i.e., 15 percent, circles) clay content.
 1934 Klimentos
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FIG. 8. Well-crystallized, authegenic Kaolinite precipitated FIG. 10. Pore-lining and bridging illitic ribbons in rock
on the pore-walls and filling a pore of rock sample A4BP. sample A6BP. Note the increase of the overall surface area.
Scale bar = 165 microns, magnification: 350x. Scale bar = 10 microns, magnification: 5550 x.

FIG. 11. Abundant pore-lining and grain coating glauconitic

FIG. 9. Enlargement of central area of Figure 8. Note the clay particles of rock sample 4HM1. Note (a) reduction of
increase of the overall surface area and the presence of the pore-throat size, (b) intra-clay microporosity and (c)
intra-clay microporosity. Scale bar = 46 microns, magnifi- increase of the surface area. Scale bar = 26 microns,
cation: 1220 x. magnification: 2135 x.
 P-wave Velocity in Sandstones
THE EFFECT OF CLAYS ON THE VELOCITIES OF
SEISMIC WAVES
Geerstma and Smit (1961) modified Biot's theory (Biot,
1956a, 1956b) and obtained approximate solutions more
practical to applications in geophysics. They found that
2 V~ + VciUe/f)2
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V -----,------.,.--- (5)
p - V; + V~Ue/f)2
where V p is the P-wave velocity at frequency f, Vo is the
"zero-frequency" velocity (i.e., forfrequencies much lower
than the Biot characteristic frequency fe)' and V is the 00
"infinite frequency" velocity (i.e., for very high frequen-
cies). Equation (5) shows that P-wave velocity decreases
with increasing Uc!f), approaching asymptotically the value
of Yo. If I; is constant, P-wave velocity increases with
increasing frequency approaching asymptotically the value
of V which is the velocity of purely elastic waves (i.e.,
00'
nonattenuative and nondispersive waves).
In Biot's theory it was convenient to introduce the char-
acteristic frequency as
(6)
where b is the ratio of the total friction force to the average
fluid velocity, Pj is the fluid density and <I> is the fractional
porosity. Klimentos (1988b, 1989) has shown that for an
intrapore clay rough surface area of the pore-walls the Biot
ratio b becomes
b* = ob = (Sc/So)b (7)
where 0 is the "surface area" correction factor, Sc is the
specific surface area of the intra-pore clay rough area and So
is the specific surface area of smooth pore-walls. Corre-
spondingly, for a rough surface area
f~ =(b*/2'ITp j <l» =ofe =(Sc/So )fe =(Sc/So )(b/2'ITp jetJ) (8)
Thus, for an intrapore clay rough surface area, equation (5)
becomes
(9)
Single pore-size model
Consider two porous media with the following properties:
1) A single pore-size,
2) Equal effective porosity and permeability,
3) Different surface areas,
4) The first has smooth pore walls or skeletal frame as in
Biot's theory (1956), and
5) The second has pore walls with a uniformly distributed
intrapore clay rough surface area as described in the
theory presented by Klimentos (1988a, 1989).
It can be easily proved (Klimentos 1988a, 1989) that for
the above conditions the surface correction factor 0 is
related to clay content, porosity, and permeability by the
following expressions
1935
or
0= Sc/So = \f2CDsetJ-3/2Kl/2, (11)
where C is the fractional clay content, D is the density of wet
clay in g/cm ', s is the specific surface area of the clay
content in cm 2 /g, <I> is the fractional porosity, T is the
tortuosity, R is the radius of single pore-size in em and K is
the permeability in em -2. By combining equations (9), (10),
and (11),
2 V~ + Vci[(fcJf)\f2CDsetJ-3/2KI/2]2
V
p
= V~ + V~[Ue/f)\f2CDs<l>-3/2Kll2]2 . (12)
Knowing that fe = (4IJ.J'ITpjR2)TII2 for smooth tortuous
pore-walls (Biot 1956b) and T = etJ -I (Johnson, 1985) one
obtains
V~ + Vci(0.56fLCDsetJ 1/2K-1I2/'ITpj) 2
vp2 = V; + V~(0.56fLCDsetJ 1I2K-1I2/'ITpj) 2 .
(13)
Equations (12) and (13) suggest that:
1) P-wave velocity V p in saturated porous rocks is mainly
dependent on V 0 and V 00 ,
2) Vo ~ V p ~ V oo , and
3) If Vo and V are defined, then porosity <1>, clay content
00
C, specific surface area s , wet-clay density D, perme-
ability K, pore-fluid viscosity fL and density Pj' have an
indirect slight effect on V p by shifting it along the
velocity window V 0 - V 00 •
Gassmann (1951) and Geerstma and Smit (1961) showed
that the "zero" and "infinite" frequency velocities Vo and
V are strongly dependent on the elastic moduli of the dry
00
rock. Although no experimental proof has yet been reported,
I believe that clay minerals situated at the grain contacts
lower the bulk and shear moduli in dry consolidated rocks.
Consequently, V 0 and V are decreased which leads to
00
lower P-wave velocity. In addition, equations (12) and (13)
show that there is a slight clay effect on V p via the effect of
clay-content C, wet-clay density D and specific surface
area s.
Multiple pore-size distribution model
Consider a porous medium with a multiple pore-size
distribution as described by McCann and McCann (1985).
This model is a porous rock with porosity consisting of a
distribution of cylindrical pores of varying radii R and the
fractional porosity contributed by each pore radius interval
being <I> R' All the pores of a given radius are gathered
together to form a unit cross-sectional area segment of rock,
with the porosity of the segment being assumed equal to the
overall porosity etJ of the rock. The length of each segment is
set equal to etJR/<I>; the summed length of the segment is
therefore unity and the total porosity of the unit cube of the
rock is etJ. Hence the density is uniform throughout the
model. Two alternative assumptions can be made. The first
assumption is that the clay content is distributed uniformly
throughout the rock. Thus, the relative fractional clay con-
tent C existing in each different pore-size segment is equal to
the overall fractional clay content C of the rock. Conse-
quently, the absolute fractional clay content existing in each
 1936 Klimentos
segment will be equal to C times (<I> R 1<1». In this model described in the experimental procedure section. The data of
equations (12) and (13) will be valid for each different the specific areas of clays are from the existing literature on
pore-size segment and the total velocity will be equal to physical properties of clays (Diamond and Kinter, 1956;
Aylmore and Quirk, 1960; Konta, 1961; Van Olphen and
i=N <I> Fripiat, 1979; and Gillot, 1987).
_I '" Ri (14)
Vp=LJ--, Figure 15 shows the variation of the divergence "V p -
i ~ 1 II> V Pi
V o" of measured (line a) and calculated (line b) terminal
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where V Pi is the P-wave velocity of each individual segment
given by equations (12) or (13) and (II>Ri/ll» is the length L,
of each segment. The second assumption is that the bulk of
the clay content exists in the microporosity of the rock.
Thus, there will be two different types ofregions; a type of
clay-free or clean macroporosity, and a type of intra-clay
microporosity. In the macroporosity, the P- wave velocities
will tend to be equal to the "infinite-frequency" velocity V
P-wave velocity V p at 40 MPa from calculated "zero-
frequency" velocity V 0, as a function of permeability for all
samples with porosities 6-36 percent. The data show a trend
of increasing" V p - V 0" with increasing permeability, but
the scatter is very large. The discrepancy (negative V p -
Yo) at very low permeabilities (very high clay content) may
00

and in the clay microporosity they will tend to approach the

"zero-frequency" velocity V o' The total P-wave velocity
for a random distribution of the two types of porosity in this 1.000
10

10.
,
model is
e 10

1 1- x x
-=--+- (Klimentos, 1988a), (15)
v- v; V o
where x is the total fractional length of the intraclay micro- ~ .950
porosity regions. If the clay-microporosity regions have a "~
uniform clay distribution, then 1Il •
LEAST SQUARES FIT
x = C<I>clay (16) >0-
(UNCONSTRAINED fOlYNOMIAl,
<,
where II>clay is the intraclay fractional microporosity. V 0 and FOURTH DEGREE)
o
V can be estimated from the dry elastic bulk and shear
00 II .900
e
moduli.

METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE ELASTIC MODULI FROM

o
P-WAVE DATA FOR POROUS ROCKS UNDER HIGH-
PRESSURE CONDITIONS
.850
Figure 12 shows the variation of (V p-fully water saturatedl
V p-dry) as a function of porosity at high pressures (Gregory, PRESSURE=10.000 PSI.
1976). From "V p-fully water saturated" and Figure 12 we
" Sw.WATER SATURATION. PERCENT
can estimate "V p-dry" for a specific porosity. We can then
estimate the shear wave velocity" V s -fully water saturated"
from the following equation (Castagna et al., 1985) .800 ' - - _ - L _ - 1_ _.L-_-L_--I_ _..1.-_-1.---I
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
V p = 1.16V s + 1.36 (17) POROSITY. PERCENT

V s is almost independent of saturation, hence we may
assume that Vs-fully water saturated = V s-dry; knowing
Vp-dryand V s-dry we can then estimate the dry elastic bulk
and shear moduli. V 0 and V can then be estimated from the
00
FIG. 12. P-wave velocity ratio versus porosity for fully
water-saturated rocks and dry rocks under 69 MPa (10,000
Psi) confining pressure (after Gregory, 1976).

elastic moduli. A numerical example is given in Table 1. Table 1. Measured properties and predicted values.
COMPARISON OF THE THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL Measured properties:
P-WAVE VELOCITIES FOR ALL ROCKS STUDIED
Measured V p (fully water-saturated) = 4246 mls
Figures 13 and 14 show a comparison between measured Porosity II> = 0.1541
and predicted P-wave velocities by the single-pore size and Clay content C = 0.15
Intra-clay microporosity II>clay = 0.3
the multiple pore-size model, respectively. The dashed line
is the best fit for the measured/predicted P-wave velocities The predicted values are:
and the solid line stands for loo-percent accurate predictions Bulk modulus of the dry rock K o = 19.657 GPa
(predicted V p = measured V p). It can be seen that for Shear modulus /.l. = 14.41 GPa
velocities> 4000 m/s, both models predict velocities within "Zero-frequency" velocity V o = 4166 mls
the experimental error (± 1 percent). The petrophysical data "Infinite-frequency" velocity V = 4234 mls
00

P-wave velocity V p = 4231 mls

of porosity, permeability, and clay content were obtained as
 P-wave Velocity in Sandstones 1937

be due to the dominant effect of clay content on the dry
elastic moduli as described in the previous section. On the
basis of Figure 15 it would appear that "V p - V o"
increases with increasing permeability, but the scatter is so
large that is rather difficult to compute an accurate enough
permeability from velocity data only. Nevertheless, P-wave
velocity can give qualitative permeability information; very
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pecting «200 Hz) and in sonic logging (10 to 30 KHz). The
velocity of sound is known to vary slightly with frequency.
Velocities measured at logging frequencies (~1O KHz) are
higher than those measured at seismic frequencies (10-100
Hz) (Goetz et al., 1979). Velocity dispersion with frequency
is an extensively but inadequately understood subject of
exploration geophysics. An understanding of velocity dis-

low" V p - V 0" is probably but not definitely attributed to persion could help in correcting the distortion of seismic
very low-permeability rocks. pulses in seismics and vertical seismic profiling and thus
improve the resolution ofrefiector locations (Winkler, 1986).
King (1966), Murphy (1982), Gregory (1976), and Winkler
EXTRAPOLATION FROM ULTRASONIC TO SEISMIC (1985, 1986) found that in many rocks dispersion between
FREQUENCIES zero frequency and ultrasonic frequencies is of the order of
10 percent at low effective pressures, and it decreases to
Results of seismic wave propagation studies in the labo- only a few percent at higher pressures. Winkler (1985),
ratory would be very valuable if they could guide the studying the P-wave velocity dispersion on brine-saturated
interpretation of seismic field data and sonic well logs. It is Berea sandstone, found that at 20 MPa effective stress the
recognized that wide differences exist between the ultrasonic observed dispersion between seismic and ultrasonic frequen-
frequencies (0.5-1.5 MHz) and those used in seismic pros- cies is 2.1 percent (percent increase of the "ultrasonic-
frequency" velocity in the saturated rock relative to the
"seismic-frequency" velocity), i.e, Vultras =3923 mls and
Vseism = 3843 m/s. Hence, there is no significant velocity
6000
dispersion with frequency in consolidated fully water-satu-
rated sedimentary porous rocks over this frequency range at
high differential pressures. Nevertheless, for a more realistic
~ 5000 approach to the "seismic velocity/porosity-permeability-
..s clay content" relationship, it would be appropriate to con-
vert the seismic velocities from ultrasonic to seismic fre-
quencies. This was done here by using the method of
estimating the dry elastic moduli from ultrasonic P-wave
velocity data, as suggested above; then the "zero or seismic-
frequency" P-wave velocity Vo was calculated from the
elastic moduli (Gassmann, 1951). By replacing the measured
ultrasonic velocities V p by the seismic velocities V 0' for
sandstones with porosities between 6 and 36 percent, I
2000 +r."..-rr,....,...,""--rr-1r-r-1--'-'--rT--r-r.,..,."..-rr,....,...,.,...,r-r-1"""-' obtain
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
MEASURED P-WAVE VELOCITY (m/s)

FIG. 13. Comparison between measured and predicted

P-wave velocities by the single-pore size model.

6000

'Z 5000
..s
t:
u
d> 4000
~,.
I /'
o,
o /'
~ 3000 /

s
W
0:
o, 300 350
100 150 200 250
PERMEABILITY (mDorcy)
3000 4000 5000 6000
MEASURED P-WAVE VELOCITY (m/s) FIG. 15. Variation of the divergence V p - V 0 of measured
V p (line a) and calculated V p (line b) at 40 MPa from
FIG. 14. Comparison between measured and predicted calculated "zero-frequency" velocity V 0, as a function of
P-wave velocities by the multiple-pore size model. permeability for all samples with porosities 6--36 percent.
 1938 Klimentos
VP(seismic) = 5.27 - 5.4<1> - 2.54C + 0.97 1O- 3K,
(18)
r = 0.93
where V P(seismic) is in Km/s at seismic frequencies.
CONCLUSIONS
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The following conclusions can be drawn for the fully
water-saturated porous rocks studied under conditions of
high differential pressure:
1) P-wave velocity in water-saturated sandstones is in-
versely proportional to clay content.
2) P-wave velocity, even at very high pressures, de-
creases with increasing porosity, but the scatter is
large. When velocity is plotted versus porosity for
different zones of clay content the scatter is reduced
significantly.
3) The effect of porosity on P-wave velocities is approx-
imately twice that of the clay content.
4) It was observed that P-wave velocity increases slightly
with increasing permeability, but the scatter is large.
The scatter was reduced significantly when measured
P-wave velocity was plotted versus permeability for
rocks with identical porosities (Figure 6). This slight
increase of P-wave velocity with permeability arises
mainly from the strong dependencies of P-wave veloc-
ity and permeability on clay content.
5) The effect of permeability alone on P-wave velocity
was found to be negligible (Figure 7) in sandstones with
negligible « 1 percent) or identical clay content, iden-
tical porosity, lithology, and other petrophysical prop-
erties (e.g., grain-size and sorting, pore-size and shape,
etc.). Hence, the misleading velocity-permeability de-
pendence in Figures 5 and 6 arises mainly from the
velocity-clay content and clay content-permeability
interrelations.
6) P-wave velocity information only, may distinguish
very tight from very permeable rocks via the velocity-
clay and permeability-clay interdependencies, but it is
not adequate for a precise permeability prediction.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Dr. C. McCann and Dr. A. Parker (Department of
Geoscience and Postgraduate Research Institute for Sed-
imentology, University of Reading, U. K.) for useful discus-
sions. I particularly thank Jeremy Sothcott (Department of
Geoscience, University of Reading, U.K.) for outstanding
technical expertise in supporting the experimental work, Dr.
D. M. McCann and Mr. D. Entwhistle of the British Geo-
logical Survey, Keyworth, for the loan of the high-pressure
equipment and the demonstrations of its capabilities. British
Petroleum pic and British Geological Survey kindly provided
the cores of sandstones studied. Atomic Weapons Research
Establishment, Aldermaston, U.K., provided an Aerotech
ultrasonic pulse generator. Some of the work in this paper
forms part of my Ph.D. thesis at the University of Reading,
U.K. I was supported as a postgraduate student by the
Hellenic Scholarship Foundation.
I particularly thank Dr. John Castagna of Arco Oil and
Gas, the other two anonymous reviewers and the Associate
Editor of Geophysics for their helpful and constructive
review of this paper. I thank Maurice Vanderhaeghen
(Soekor pty ltd) for his in-house review of this paper. Soekor
(Pty) Ltd provided the use of their facilities for manuscript
preparation and editing.
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