PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 14 – PROPULSION

Category – B2

MODULE 14: PROPULSION

14.1 TURBINE ENGINES

14.2 ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS
14.3 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS

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List of Amendments

Sub-Module &
Amendment No. Issue Date: Date Inserted: Inserted By: Date Removed: Removed By:
Pages:

Issue 01, Rev-00 All 31 March 2014

Issue 01, Rev-01 All 30 Nov 2017

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MODULE 14
Sub Module 14.1

TURBINE ENGINES

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CONTENTS TURBOJET CHARACTERISTICS AND USES...................27

14.1.1 GAS TURBINE ENGINE ...................................................2 TURBOPROP CHARACTERISTICS AND USES ..............27

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF GAS ....................................2 TURBOFAN CHARACTERISTICS AND USES..................28

AIR INTAKE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS .................................4 ................................................................................................................29

COMPONENTS OF THE FUEL SYSTEM .............................32
...................................................................................................................4
AIR INTAKE TYPES:........................................................................5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ....................................................35

COMPRESSORS ...............................................................................7 FADEC POWER SUPPLY ...........................................................42

COMPRESSOR TYPES ..................................................................8 FUEL METERING BY FADEC ...................................................43

EXHAUST SECTION ..................................................................... 13 DATA ENTRY PLUG .....................................................................43

ACCESSORY GEAR BOX .......................................................... 15 ADVANTAGES .................................................................................46

TYPES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE....................................... 16 DISADVANTAGES .........................................................................46

TURBOFAN ENGINE .................................................................... 18

TURBO JET ENGINE .................................................................... 21
................................................................................................................ 22
TURBOPROP ENGINE................................................................. 23
................................................................................................................ 24
TURBOSHAFT ENGINE .............................................................. 25
COMPARISON AND EVALUATION OF GAS TURBINE
................................................................................................................ 27

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14.1.1 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE
The gas turbine engine is a relatively new form of aircraft
A typical gas turbine engine consists of:
propulsion unit, having first flown successfully as an
experimental power plant during the Second World War and
1. An air inlet
only truly beginning to replace the piston engine in commercial
2. Compressor section
aircraft in the early 1950’s.
3. Combustion section
4. Turbine section
The gas turbine may be used to accelerate a mass of gas
5. Exhaust section
through the engine and a propelling nozzle ,in which case it is
6. Accessory section
known as a turbo-jet ,to drive a propeller (turbo-prop) , a large
fan (turbo-fan) ,or to drive the rotor of helicopter (turbo-shaft)
early examples of aircraft using the first two propulsion
methods were De Havilland Comet and the Vickers Viscount
most present day large transport aircraft use the turbo-fan
engines.

All aircraft propulsion systems employ Newton’s third law of

motion which states that for every force (or action) there is an
equal and opposite reaction. The amount of forward thrust
created is proportional to the product of the mass of air affected
and the rearward acceleration imparted to it. In the case of
propeller driven aircraft and turbo-fans a large mass of air is
given a relatively small rearward acceleration. In turbo-jets a
much smaller mass of air is subject to a much greater
acceleration.

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Fig.1-1 Gas Turbine Engine - General Layout

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AIR INTAKE  Those that maintain optimum airflow condition up to high

The engine air intake serves to furnish a relatively distortion
free, high energy supply of air, in the required quantity, to the
face of the compressor. A uniform and steady airflow is
necessary to avoid compressor stall and excessive internal
engine temperatures at the turbine.
subsonic speed.
 The second group has to fulfill the requirements of the
first group, but in addition have to operate efficiently at
aircraft speeds exceeding Mach 1.

The high energy enables the engine to produce an optimum

amount of thrust. Normally, the air intake duct is considered to
be an airframe part, but the duct itself is so important when
considering engine performance that it must be included in any
discussion on the complete engine.

AIR INTAKE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The air intake should be able to:

 Recover as much of the total pressure of the free

airstreams as possible, and deliver this pressure to the
face of the engine compressor with the minimum loss.

 Deliver the air uniformly, with as little turbulence and

pressure variation as possible.

 As far as the aircraft itself is concerned, keep

aerodynamic drag to a minimum.

Air intakes can be said to fall into two groups:

Fig.1-2 Comparison of normal and distorted airflow into
the compressor section

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AIR INTAKE TYPES:

Air intakes are of either subsonic or supersonic configuration.

SUBSONIC INTAKES

Subsonic intakes are designed to maintain optimum airflow

conditions up to high subsonic speeds.

For a typical gas turbine engine, the velocity of the airflow at the
compressor inlet is normally not in excess of Mach 0.5, this
ensures high compressor efficiency.

Under flight 'cruising' conditions, the airflow velocity must, in

most circumstances, be reduced before it reaches the
compressor inlet. This is achieved by designing the intake to
function as a SUBSONIC diffuser; such intakes have ducts that
increase in cross-sectional area from front to rear i.e. divergent
ducts (see Fig.1-3).

You will recall that in a divergent duct, the velocity of flow

decreases, with a resulting increase in pressure and
temperature above ambient.

Fig.1-3 Subsonic Intake

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SUPERSONIC INTAKES

A supersonic diffuser progressively decreases in area from front

to rear, therefore supersonic intake ducts follow this general
configuration, until the incoming air is reduced down to a
velocity below Mach1.

To further reduce the velocity to that required by a subsonic

intake, the duct now increases in cross-sectional area, as
shown in Fig.1-4, thereby acting as a subsonic diffuser.

Fig.1-4 Supersonic Intake

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COMPRESSORS

A compressor is designed to supply a specific quantity of

compressed air to combustion chamber with the least
expenditure of the power produced by the turbine.
The amount of air passing through a compressor will depend
upon:
 Air density
 Aircraft speed
 Engine r.p.m.

COMPRESSION PRINCIPLE

By increasing the velocity (and hence the kinetic energy) of the

air flowing through the rotating part of the compressor, and then
slowing down the air to the static portion (by diffusion), the
kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy.

COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS

To perform maximum efficiency, the compressor must satisfy a

number of requirements. The most important are:

 It must produce the desired pressure rise.

 Compression must be performed with minimum losses.
Large losses, waste power taken from the turbine.

 Where possible, the tip speed of the rotating blades or

impeller should be subsonic. A speed of Mach 0.9 at any
point on the radius is normally the design maximum
preferred.

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COMPRESSOR TYPES

There are two types of compressor available for use in gas

turbine engines. These are Axial Flow and Centrifugal as
shown in Fig.1-5.

Either type, or a combination of both, may be used

Both types are connected to, and driven by, the turbine via a
drive shaft.

A compressor comprises primarily a rotor and a stator.

Fig.1-5

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THE AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR

The axial-flow compressor has two main elements: a rotor and a

stator. The rotor has blades fixed on a spindle. These blades
impel air rearward in the same manner as a propeller because
of their angle and airfoil contour. The rotor, turning at high
speed, takes in air at the compressor inlet and impels it through
a series of stages.

From inlet to exit, the air flows along an axial path and is
compressed at a ratio of approximately 1.25:1 per stage. The
action of the rotor increases the compression of the air at each
stage and accelerates it rearward through several stages. With
this increased velocity, energy is transferred from the
compressor to the air in the form of velocity energy. The stator
blades act as diffusers at each stage, partially converting high
velocity to pressure.

Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a

pressure stage. The number of rows of blades (stages) is
determined by the amount of air and total pressure rise
required. Compressor pressure ratio increases with the number
of compression stages. Most engines utilize up to 16 stages and
more. The function of the stator vanes is to receive air from the
air inlet duct or from each preceding stage and increase the
pressure of the air and deliver it to the next stage at the correct
velocity and pressure.

Fig.1-6 Axial-Flow Compressor

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CENTRIFUGAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR

The centrifugal-flow compressor consists of an impeller (rotor),

a diffuser (stator), and a compressor manifold. Fig.1-6
Centrifugal compressors have a high pressure rise per stage
that can be around 8:1.

The two main functional elements are the impeller and the
diffuser. Although the diffuser is a separate unit and is placed
inside and bolted to the manifold, the entire assembly (diffuser
and manifold) is often referred to as the diffuser. The impeller,
whose function is to pick up and accelerate the air outwardly to
the diffuser.

The diffuser is an annular chamber provided with a number of

vanes forming a series of divergent passages into the manifold.
The diffuser vanes direct the flow of air from the impeller to the
manifold at an angle designed to retain the maximum amount of
energy imparted by the impeller. The compressor manifold
shown in Fig.1-7 diverts the flow of air from the diffuser, which is
an integral part of the manifold, into the combustion chambers.

Fig.1-7 Centrifugal-Flow Compressor

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COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The combustion section houses the combustion process, which

raises the temperature of the air passing through the engine.
This process releases energy contained in the air/ fuel mixture.
The major part of this energy is required at the turbine or turbine
stages to drive the compressor.
About 2/3 of the energy is used to drive the gas generator
compressor. The remaining energy passes through the
remaining turbine stages that absorb more of the energy to
drive the fan, output shaft, or propeller. The primary function of
the combustion section is, of course, to burn the fuel/air mixture,
thereby adding heat energy to the air. The location of the
combustion section is directly between the compressor and the
turbine sections.
The combustion chambers are always arranged coaxially with
the compressor and turbine regardless of type, since the
chambers must be in a through-flow position to function
efficiently. All combustion chambers contain the same basic
elements:
1. Casing
2. Perforated inner liner
3. Fuel injection system
4. Some means for initial ignition
5. Fuel drainage system to drain off unburned fuel after
engine shutdown

There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers,

These types are: Fig.1-8 Can-annular combustion chamber
1. Can type components and arrangement.
2. Can-annular type
3. Annular type

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TURBINE SECTION

The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic (velocity) energy

of the exhaust gases into mechanical energy to drive the
compressor and accessories.

The sole purpose of the turbine is to absorb approximately 60

to 70 percent of the total pressure energy from the exhaust
gases. The exact amount of energy absorption at the turbine is
determined by the load the turbine is driving (i.e. compressor
size and type, number of accessories, and the load applied by
the other turbine stages).

These turbine stages can be used to drive compressor (fan),

propeller, and shaft. The turbine section of a gas turbine engine
is located aft, or downstream, of the combustion chamber.
Specifically, it is directly behind the combustion chamber outlet.

The rotor element of the turbine section consists essentially of a

shaft and a wheel (Fig.1-9). The turbine wheel is a dynamically
balanced unit consisting of blades attached to a rotating disk.
The disk, in turn, is attached to the main power-transmitting
shaft of the engine. The exhaust gases leaving the turbine inlet
nozzle vanes act on the blades of the turbine wheel, causing the
assembly to rotate at a very high rate of speed.

The high rotational speed imposes severe centrifugal loads on

the turbine wheel, and at the same time the elevated
temperatures result in a lowering of the strength of the material.
Consequently, the engine speed and temperature must be Fig.1-9 Turbine Rotor
controlled to keep turbine operation within safe limits.

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EXHAUST SECTION

The exhaust section of the gas turbine engine consists of

several components. Although the components have individual
purposes, they also have one common function: they must
direct the flow of hot gases rearward in such a manner as to
prevent turbulence and, at the same time, impart a high final or
exit velocity to the gases.

In performing the various functions, each of the components

affects the flow of gases in different ways. The exhaust section
is located directly behind the turbine section and ends when the
gases are ejected at the rear in the form of a high-velocity
exhaust gases.

The components of the exhaust section include the exhaust

cone, tailpipe (if required), and the exhaust nozzle. The exhaust
cone collects the exhaust gases discharged from the turbine
section and gradually converts them into a solid flow of gases.

The exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer shell or duct,

an inner cone, three or four radial hollow struts or fins, and the
necessary number of tie rods to aid the struts in supporting the
inner cone from the outer duct.

Fig.1-10 Exhaust Section

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OUTER SHELL

The outer shell or duct is usually made of stainless steel and is

attached to the rear flange of the turbine case. This element
collects the exhaust gases and delivers them directly to the
exhaust nozzle.

The duct must be constructed to include such features as a

predetermined number of thermocouple bosses for installing
exhaust temperature thermocouples, and there must also be
insertion holes for the supporting tie rods.

In some cases, tie rods are not used for supporting the inner
cone. If such is the case, the hollow struts provide the sole
support of the inner cone, the struts being spot-welded in
position to the inside surface of the duct and to the inner cone
respectively.

STRUTS

The radial struts actually have a two-fold function. They not only
support the inner cone in the exhaust duct, but they also
perform the important function of straightening the swirling
exhaust gases that would otherwise leave the turbine at an
angle of approximately 45°.

Fig.1-11

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ACCESSORY GEAR BOX

The primary purpose of a gas turbine accessory section is to

provide space for the mounting of accessories for the operation
of the aircraft systems and the control of the engine. The
accessory section is basically a gearbox arrangement,
connected to the HP compressor, which drives various gear
trains within the unit; the gear trains in turn drive various
components at the correct speed. The accessories provided
include:-

Engine:

 Fuel control unit (FCU).

 Fuel pump.
 Oil pumps (engine lubrication).
 Oil scavenge pump.

Aircraft Systems:

 Hydraulic pump.
 Electrical generator.

Fig.1-12 Accessory Gearbox

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TYPES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Aircraft gas turbine engines can be classified according to the

type of compressor used and power usage produces by the
engine.

1. Compressor types are as follows:

 Centrifugal flow

 Axial flow

 Centrifugal-Axial flow.

2. power usage produces are as follows:

 Thrust producing gas turbine engines

Turbo-fan engine
Turbo-jet engine

 Torque producing gas turbine engines

Turbo propeller or turboprop engine

Turbo shaft engine.

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Fig.1-13 Gas Generator Section of Different Types of Gas Turbine Engine

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TURBOFAN ENGINE
In the turbofan engine, part of the compressor airflow is
separated from the main compressor airflow and diverted to
flow along an annular concentric duct around the engine so as
to by-pass the rest of the compressor, the combustor, and the
turbine. This separated by-pass airflow, according to design, is
either reintroduced into the main airflow at the exhaust, prior to
the exhaust nozzle or may be accelerated to the ambient
through a separate propelling nozzle.
Several terms are used to identify the air that is diverted from
the compressor, such as by-pass airflow, secondary airflow, fan
discharge or cold stream, while the airflow that passes through
the engine is termed as core airflow, primary airflow or hot
stream.
engine usually has more turbine stages than the turbine of a
turbojet.
Also, as more energy is extracted from the hot gas flow, less
energy will be present in the core airflow to develop thrust,
which results in lower core jet velocities.
In a turbofan engine thrust is generated by the acceleration of
the both the core airflow and the by-pass airflow. Therefore, the
turbofan engine accelerates a relatively larger amount of air at a
relatively slower velocity than the turbojet engine. This will result
in greater propulsive efficiency at low air speeds; therefore an
aircraft equipped with a turbofan engine will have better short-
field take-off characteristics than if the aircraft is equipped with a
turbojet engine.

In a typical turbofan engine, the size of the forward part of the

compressor that handles both airflows is usually made larger so
as to full fill core engine airflow requirements while still
permitting considerable amount of air to be by-passed. This
enlarged portion of the compressor is called the fan, hence the
term turbo fan.

This fan section can consist of several slightly larger diameter

compressor stages or a single considerably larger diameter
stage; the latter is the most commonly used version found in
contemporary engines.

The additional power required in driving the larger compressor

means the turbine driving the compressor needs to extract more
energy from the gas flow; therefore, the turbine of a turbofan

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Fig.1-14 Turbo Fan Engine

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Several configurations exist for turbo fan engines, but basically

all turbofan engines can be divided into two major categories:
Forward Fan Or Front Fan Engine Fig.1-15a - In a front fan
engine the fan section is at forward end of the compressor. The
fan may be bolted directly to the Low-pressure compressor.
compressor and rotate at the same speed, the fan can be
connected through a reduction gear system to the compressor
or the fan may be driven by a separate turbine and rotate
independently of the compressor.

Rear Fan Or Aft Fan Engine Fig.1-15b. In an aft fan engine,

the fan is mounted in the turbine section as an extension of the
turbine wheel blades.

Fig.1-15 a Forward Fan Engine

Fig -1-15 b Aft Fan Engine

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TURBO JET ENGINE

Turbojet engine produces thrust solely by the acceleration of the

hot gasses from the turbine to a high velocity at the exhaust
nozzle.

In turbojet engines, all of the air entering the intake passes

through the compressor, combustor, turbine and the exhaust.

Turbojet engines are also known as pure jet or straight jet

engines.

In comparison with other types of gas turbine engines, the

turbojet accelerates a small mass of air to a very high velocity to
produce thrust.

Because of this the efficiency of the turbojet is sustained at its

best at high altitude and high airspeed. Therefore, turbojet
engines are well suited for highflying, high-speed aircraft that
operate over sufficient range to make the climb to their best
operating altitude worthwhile.

But, the thrust of a turbojet engine is much dependent upon the

ram air pressure at the inlet, which is a function of the forward
speed of the aircraft. Therefore, turbojet engine equipped
aircraft need longer runways for take-off.

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Fig.1-16 Turbo Jet Engine

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TURBOPROP ENGINE
Turbo propeller engine is a gas turbine engine where the power
extracted by the turbine is used to drive a propeller through a
reduction gearbox in addition to the compressor.
Low forward speeds results in very low ram pressure rise at the
intake, therefore the turboprop engine does not benefit from the
intake ram effect to the forward speed.

A major part of the thrust in a turboprop engine is from the

propeller but a fraction of the thrust is produced by the
acceleration of the core airflow.

In a turboprop engine every effort is made to extract as much

energy as possible from the hot gas flow by the turbine to drive
the propeller, therefore a typical turboprop engine has more
turbine stages than a turbojet engine.

The propeller of a turboprop engine may be driven by the

turbine driving the compressor or by a separate turbine, which
will allow the turbine driving the propeller to seek its own
optimum speed.

Turboprop engine gives a large mass of air a small acceleration

when compared with the turbojet or the turbofan engine.
Therefore, the turboprop engine gives the maximum thrust
under low speed conditions such as during take-off, and an
aircraft fitted with a turboprop engine will have a very short take-
off roll.

But with increase in forward speed, the thrust generated by the

turboprop engine decreases steadily, this causes a turboprop
engine equipped aircraft to cruise at low subsonic speeds, in
order to maintain efficiency.

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Fig.1-17 Turbo Prop Engine

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TURBOSHAFT ENGINE

Turbo shaft engine is a gas turbine engine that delivers power

through a shaft to operate some machine other than a propeller
In aviation turbo shaft engines are used to power helicopters
and tilt-rotor aircraft.

Similar to the turboprop the power output shaft maybe coupled

to and driven directly by the turbine that drives the compressor,
or by a turbine of its own.

Turbo shaft engine delivers the maximum shaft output at very

low speeds and low altitudes. Usually providing shaft power to
slow moving vehicles such as helicopters, the turbo shaft
engine receives negligible benefit from the low forward speed.

Therefore, the intake of a turbo shaft engines is designed

instead to cause as minimum loss as possible, at such low
forward velocities.

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Fig.1-18 Turbo-shaft Engine

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COMPARISON AND EVALUATION OF GAS TURBINE TURBOPROP CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

ENGINES
 High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which falls
By converting the shaft horsepower of the turboprop into off rapidly as airspeed increases. This results in shorter
pounds of thrust, and the fuel consumption per horsepower into take-off rolls.
fuel consumption per pound of thrust, a comparison between
turbojet, turboprop, and turbofan can be made, but assuming  More complicated and heavier than a turbojet
that the engines are equivalent as to compressor ratio and the
internal temperatures and that the engines are installed in  Lowest thrust specific fuel consumption
equal-sized aircraft best suited to the particular type of engine
being used.  Large frontal area of the propeller engine combination
necessitates longer landing gear for low-wing aircraft
TURBOJET CHARACTERISTICS AND USES
 Efficient reverse thrust possible.
 Low thrust at low forward velocities. Therefore,
long take-off roll required

 Relatively high thrust specific fuel consumption

(TSFC) at low altitudes and airspeeds. But TSFC
reduces with increase in altitude and airspeed

 Small frontal area results in reduced ground

clearance problems

 Lightest specific weight (Weight per pound of

thrust produced)

 Ability to take advantage of high ram pressure

ratio.

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TURBOFAN CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

 Increased thrust at low forward airspeeds as a

turboprop. But not penalized as the turboprop engine
with increasing airspeed, up to sonic speed.

 Weight falls between the turbojet and turboprop

 Ground clearances are less than turboprop, but not as

low as turbojet.

 Thrust specific fuel consumption and specific weight fall

between turbojet and turboprop.

 Considerable noise level reduction over the turbojet

 Superior to turbojet in ‘hot day’ or high outside air

temperature performance

 In some installations, separate thrust reversers may be

required for the primary and secondary airflows.

Fig.1-19a shows the comparison of thrust

with altitude for turbojet and turbofan
engines.

Figs and 1-19d,.1-19b, 1-19c shows how the various engines

compare as to thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption
versus airspeed. As the graphs indicate, each engine type has
its advantages and limitations. Fig.1-19a

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Fig.1-19b Fig.1-19c Fig.1-19d

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Fig.1-19e shows the comparison of thrust with OAT (Outside Air

Temperature) for turbojet and turbofan engines.

Fig.1-19e

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 PIA Training Centre (PTC)
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14.1.2 FUEL SYSTEM AND FADEC
GAS TURBINE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
The fuel system of a gas turbine engine serves two main
functions. They can be classified as the primary function and
the secondary function.
PRIMARY FUNCTION
The primary function of the fuel system is
 To supply the engine combustion chamber with
the required amount of fuel (metered), in proper
state (filtered and pressurized) for easy starting,
in-flight relighting acceleration/deceleration and
stable running under all operating conditions of
the engine.
 To automatically control Engine gas temperature
(EGT) and Speed of the rotating assemblies
(RPM) within the safe margin.
 Also some means must be provided to stop the
engine when required.
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SECONDARY FUNCTION
The secondary function is
 To use fuel as a cooling medium for engine and
IDG oil.
 To use pressurized fuel as servo pressure to
operate certain engine system actuators and
valves (VIGV / VSV / VBV actuators, AOHE
valve etc).
These functions are performed according to the inputs from the
 Human or the auto pilot (Thrust Demand
Start/shutdown command)
 Atmospheric conditions (TAT, P0)
 Engine itself (EGT, CDP, RPM).
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COMPONENTS OF THE FUEL SYSTEM

To perform these primary and secondary functions the fuel

system consists of the following components.

 Fuel low-pressure valve (LP Cock)

 Low pressure fuel pump

 Fuel filters (LP & HP)

 Fuel / Oil heat exchanger (FOHE / FCOC / Fuel heater)

 High pressure fuel pumps

 Fuel control unit – metering valve, pressurizing & shutoff

valve (HP Cock), bypass valve and/or spill valve,
acceleration / deceleration control unit, RPM governors,
dump valve, over speed control system

 Fuel flow transmitter

 Flow divider

 Fuel nozzles.

Fig. 2-1 Fuel System

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FUEL CONTROL UNIT (F.C.U.)
This is one of the major components of the fuel system. The
primary function of the unit is metering of fuel. Other functions
include fuel shutoff, over speed protection and supply of servo
fuel to various fuel pressure operated actuators.
In a fuel control unit there are two major modules.
 Computing module
 Metering module
COMPUTING MODULE
This module computes the required amount of fuel supply to the
combustion chamber depending upon various control input
signals it receives. These inputs are
 Throttle position
 Compressor discharge pressure (CDP)
 Compressor inlet temperature (CIT)
 Ambient temperature and pressure (TAT, P0).
Other than these control parameters there is some limiting
parameters. They are
 Speed of individual spools to prevent over speeding
 Turbine gas temperature to prevent damage to the hot
section of the engine.
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The fuel flow is calculated according to these parameters.
Calculated fuel signal is then used by the metering module to
control the fuel flow to the combustion chamber. On
conventional fuel control systems computing module is a hydro
mechanical unit, where all the inputs are received and
interpreted using rods, cams, pipes and pneumatic bellows.
TYPICAL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
The engine fuel system must supply clean fuel to the aircraft
combustors at the correct pressure and fuel flow. However,
these fuel requirements change with altitude and temperature,
as well as the speed requirements of the engine.
In order to accomplish a correct fuel flow, the fuel control portion
of the engine fuel system must be capable of making decisions
from the information of the various sensors available to it, i.e.
from the atmosphere and the engine.
The fuel control monitors these variations, compares them with
the throttle position request, and delivers the fuel to the
combustors at the correct fuel flow. This reduces the work load
required by the flight crew.
The fuel flow begins at the aircraft fuel tank and is assisted by
wing mounted boost pumps. Fuel is delivered to the fuel system
components as shown in Fig. 2-2.
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FUEL CONTROL UNIT

(FCU)

FUEL NOZZLES

FLOW DIVIDER

FUEL PUMP

FUEL/ OIL

COOLER FUEL HEATER

FUEL FLOW
TRANSMITTER

Fig. 2-2 Fuel System Components

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The fuel passes to the engine driven pump at a fairly low GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
pressure, this ensures an adequate head of pressure at the
inlet to the pump, preventing cavitation of the pump during A gas turbine fuel system must satisfy the following
normal operation. requirements:-

The fuel flow is then directed through the fuel heater. However,
this may be an optional extra depending on the design
requirements of the system. The fuel heater ensures that any
ice particles are removed from the fuel before the fuel reaches
the Fuel Control Unit (FCU). Hot air for heating the fuel is drawn
from the engine compressor.
 The pilot must have control of the engine power at all times.
 The fuel flow must be such that the engine has good
acceleration capabilities.
 The fuel fed to the burners must burn readily and easily.

The fuel control unit meters and supplies the correct amount of  Engine starting must be easy.
fuel to the engine burners depending upon throttle position and
the various environmental conditions that affect the engine  Automatic safety devices must be built into the system to
performance. It is a hydro mechanical computer, consisting of prevent over speeding and overheating (over temping) of the
two parts, a metering section and a computing section. The fuel engine.
control unit is fitted with a fuel filter.  The system must be designed to automatically control the
following variations:-
A fuel flow transmitter indicates to the flight deck crew the
amount of fuel flowing from the fuel control unit to the engine. (i) Aircraft forward speed
(ii) Altitude
The fuel cooled oil cooler, although part of the fuel system has a (iii) Acceleration
primary function to cool the oil from the engine lubricating (iv) Air temperature
system. The cold fuel cools the oil and at the same time the oil (v) Engine rpm
heats the fuel. (vi) Gas temperature.

The flow divider directs the fuel flow to either the primary or the
secondary fuel nozzles. These nozzles provide an atomized
flow of fuel into the engine combustion chamber for burning
purposes.

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Fig. 2-3 Typical Gas Turbine Fuel System

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Normal fuel flow is from the fuel pump to the fuel heater, the
operation of the heater depends on the icing indications sensed
by the differential pressure switch. The fuel then passes through
the filter and on to the fuel control unit which meters the fuel to
the engine depending upon the many parameters it senses.

From the FCU fuel flows to the flow meter which indicates to the
crew the amount of fuel going to the engine. After passing
through the fuel meter the fuel helps to cool the oil in the oil
cooler to an acceptable level. From the oil cooler the fuel
passes to the flow divider which will direct fuel to either the
primary or secondary fuel nozzles. In some cases, the aircraft
will have dual flow nozzles, and if this is the case, it will negate
the need for a flow divider.

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ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Until recently the controlling thrust (mainly fuel flow) of most gas
turbine engines were achieved with conventional methods,
which employed cables, bell cranks, pulleys and push pull rods
to give input to a hydro-mechanical fuel control unit, which
controlled the fuel flow.
Although this type of conventional controls are still available on
the engines that are currently in use and also being
manufactured, with the advancements in the field of the
electronics the engine manufacturers are increasingly opting to
hand over the control of the engine to computers.
As the engines with purely conventional control systems were
relatively slow to respond to inputs and were relatively inefficient
in operation, the engine manufactures recognized that, with the
use of computers they could improve this situation. With this
view engine manufacturers started experimenting on using
computers for the purpose of engine control.
By the onset of the decade of 1970 leading engine
manufacturers on either side of the Atlantic Ocean has started
experimenting on some form of electronic device associated
with the engine control.
British engine manufacturer Rolls Royce introduced an
electronic unit, just for the purpose of monitoring the engine
operation, which was called an Engine Supervisory Unit (ESU).
Further development they introduced a unit called Full Authority
Fuel Controller (FAFC), which had the total control of the fuel
supply to the engine combustion chamber, as per the inputs it
received.
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The American manufacturers took a different approach. They
tried to increase the efficiency of the engine by optimizing the
engine operating conditions with the use of electronics. They
initially installed several electronic amplifiers on the engine,
which made fine adjustments and refined the engine operating
parameters as per the pilot inputs and inputs from the engine
such as RPM, EGT, CIT and thrust demand signal.
Due to the advancements made in this field of electronic engine
control, in the early 1980s the aviation community accepted the
term “Full Authority Digital Engine Control” (FADEC) as a
general term used to identify electronic engine control systems.
The advantage of FADEC is the speed and accuracy with which
the engine is controlled. This has been found to give significant
savings in specific fuel consumption in airline use.
Further improvements has enabled the handing over of
secondary engine control functions such as engine fuel and oil
temperature, bleed valves and variable stator vanes to the
FADEC for programming and control during all engine operating
conditions.
The primary purpose of an electronic engine control system is to
reduce the pilot's work load by computing, displaying and
maintaining the selected engine settings as a function of
external sensors and selected flight modes.
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FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL (FADEC) parameter values for the usage of other aircraft computers and
systems.
FADEC is an acronym that stands for” Full Authority Digital
Engine Control”. The term is used in the real and model
turbine engine world to describe the engine control unit or ECU
as many people might call it.

The FADEC is a small computer that monitors and controls

various functions on the model jet engine to start it, keep it
running safely and efficiently, and shut it down.

Although there could be variations in the operation of FADEC

systems of different engines the basic architecture of most of
these systems are the same.

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) is a centralized

electronic computer-controlled system. It controls the engine
fuel flow (thrust) and most or all other systems associated with
the engine operation within the safe margins at all operating
conditions of the engine in the most efficient manner according
to the inputs in to the system and information the system has in
its memory. The inputs FADEC receive are from the

 Human / auto pilot

 Aircraft systems
 Atmospheric conditions
 The engine itself

This system also carries out the functions of monitoring engine

parameters. It generates or assist to generate cautions and
warnings in the cockpit if an engine parameter drift towards or
exceed the parameter limits. FADEC also transmit engine

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Fig. 2-4 A Typical FADEC System

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FADEC COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The primary component in the FADEC system is an Engine
Electronic Controller (EEC). On some engines it is also called
as Electronic Control Unit (ECU) or Electronic Control Box
(ECB). This unit is shock mounted and provided with some
means of cooling.
If at any time the control channel was identified as defective, the
control of the engine will be handed over to the monitor channel,
thus making it the control channel. Even if the both channels are
healthy normally at every engine start the monitor and the
control channels will switchover. On some engine models this
channel changeover takes place after the engine shutdown.

The EEC is generally a two-channel digital unit, which use two

high integrity computers as two channels. The two Channels are
generally identified as Channel A and Channel B. Each Channel
is supplied with identical inputs from aircraft and FADEC system
sources. Thus, each Channel can monitor and control the
operation of the engine and transmit engine data to the aircraft.
At any moment of engine operation, one channel is the monitor
computer while the other Channel is the control computer. The
control computer can access the input and the output interfaces
of the monitor computer. This is so that it can stay in control if a
related input or output becomes defective. A failure such as the
failure of the control computer circuits causes control to be
given to the monitor computer.

In each channel there are two central processing units (CPU).

One is the control CPU and the other is the monitoring CPU.
Both these CPUs receive same inputs and carry out the same
calculations, but only the control CPU output is sent out as an
engine controlling command. The outputs of both CPUs are
sent to a comparator, which compares the two outputs. If the
two outputs does not match then the particular channel is
declared as unserviceable.
Fig. 2-5 FADEC Installed on the Engine Case

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FADEC POWER SUPPLY

The primary source of electrical power for the FADEC system is

an EEC Dedicated Alternator, which is attached to the engine
gear box. Three-phase power from the alternator is regulated by
a Power Control Unit (PCU) and supplied to each channel
independently. For ground maintenance, engine starts and
incase of failure of the alternator three-phase power from the
aircraft electrical system is used.

Fig. 2-6 FADEC Dedicated Alternator

Fig. 2-7 Power Control Unit

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FUEL METERING BY FADEC  Engine rating

The EEC controls the flow of fuel to the combustion system by
operation of a Fuel Metering Unit (FMU), which is generally an
electro hydraulic unit. The FMU contains control valves, which
are directly controlled by torque motors, which are electrically
operated by the EEC. The EEC may control some valves with
the help of solenoids.
OTHER COMPONENTS CONTROLLED BY THE FADEC
SYSTEM
The DEP is only programmed with the applicable data for the
particular engine on which it is installed. It is possible to alter the
operating characteristics such as the flat rating of the engine by
reprogramming the DEP. If removed it must not be installed on
to a different engine unless it is reprogrammed for that particular
engine. Thus, to prevent easy removal of the DEP (and possible
incorrect installation to a different engine) it is generally,
permanently attached to the engine with a lanyard and
considered as a part of the engine.

 The operation of HP/ IP bleeds valves

 The angular position of the Variable Stator Vanes
 The operation of the turbine case cooling or active
clearance control valves
 The operations of the air-cooled oil cooler/ fuel-cooled oil
cooler to control and maintain oil and/or fuel
temperature.
 The hydraulic/pneumatic operation of the thrust reverser

DATA ENTRY PLUG

The function of the Data Entry Plug (DEP) is to supply the

engine related data (in coded form) for EEC operation. This
data is used by the EEC to calibrate the performance of the
engine in relation to:

 The engine type

 The engine manufacturers type test
 The aircraft operation.
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Fig. 2-8 Data Entry Plug

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FADEC INTERFACE UNIT

The data transmission between the aircraft systems and the
FADEC system is achieved through an interface unit. On some
engines this unit may be designed to perform some secondary
functions (such as vibration monitoring) other than being just the
interface. By having such an interface, it is possible
 To centralize the data transfer between the EEC and the aircraft
 To standardize the EEC data transfers and make it compatible
with the aircraft computers
 To perform secondary functions such as vibration monitoring,
starter and /or ignition power supply control

Fig. 2-9 FADEC Interface

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ADVANTAGES  Due to the high number of parameters monitored, the FADEC

makes possible "Fault Tolerant Systems" (where a system can
 Better fuel efficiency. operate within required reliability and safety limitation with
certain fault configurations).
 Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance operations.
 Can support automatic aircraft and engine emergency
 Safer as the multiple channel FADEC computer responses (e.g. in case of aircraft stall, engines increase thrust
provides redundancy in case of failure. automatically).

 Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings.

 Saves weight.

 Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements by

just reprogramming the FADEC. DISADVANTAGES

 Full authority digital engine controls have no form of manual

 Provides semi-automatic engine starting. override available, placing full authority over the operating
parameters of the engine in the hands of the computer.

 Better systems integration with engine and aircraft systems.  If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails.

 Upon total FADEC failure, pilots have no manual controls for

 Can provide engine long-term health monitoring and engine restart, throttle, or other functions.
diagnostics.

 High system complexity compared to hydro mechanical,

 Number of external and internal parameters used in the control analogue or manual control systems.
processes increases by one order of magnitude.
 High system development and validation effort due to the
complexity.
 Reduces the number of parameters to be monitored by flight
crews.

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