PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)

PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 8 – BASIC AERODYNAMICS
Category – A/B1/B2 Sub Module 8.2 – Aerodynamics
MODULE 8
Sub Module 8.2
AERODYNAMICS
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B Basic/M 08/01 Rev. 00
8.2 Mar, 2014
Chord ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Contents Angle Of Incidence -------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Angle Of Attack ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
INTRODUCTION -----------------------------------------------------------------------1 Mean Camber Line--------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY ------------------------------------------------------2 Camber ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Pressure Distribution --------------------------------------------------------------------2 Stagnation, Up-wash and Downwash ----------------------------------------------- 17
Types of Flow ----------------------------------------------------------------------------2 Vortices ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Steady Streamline Flow -----------------------------------------------------------------2 Fineness Ratio -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Classic Linear Flow ---------------------------------------------------------------------2 Leading Edge Radius ------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
Unsteady Flow----------------------------------------------------------------------------4 GENERATION OF LIFT ------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Two-Dimensional Flow -----------------------------------------------------------------4 The Physics of Lift --------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Three-Dimensional Flow ---------------------------------------------------------------5 Angle of Attack and Lift -------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Uniform / Non-Uniform Flow ---------------------------------------------------------5 AIRFLOW SEPARATION ---------------------------------------------------------- 24
In viscid / Viscous Flow ----------------------------------------------------------------5 Stall (Stall Angle) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Incompressible/ Compressible Flow --------------------------------------------------5 Other Factors Affecting Lift ---------------------------------------------------------- 27
Steady/Unsteady -------------------------------------------------------------------------5 VELOCITY AND LIFT -------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Streamline ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 AREA AND LIFT --------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
BASIC AERODYNAMIC THEORY ------------------------------------------------6 AIR DENSITY AND LIFT ---------------------------------------------------------- 28
The Equation of Continuity ------------------------------------------------------------6 INDUCED DRAG --------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM ----------------------------------------------------------7 GENERATION OF DRAG ---------------------------------------------------------- 31
SKIN FRICTION AND AIR VISCOSITY ------------------------------------------9 AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT--------------------------------------------------- 31
LAMINAR FLOW -------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 CENTER OF PRESSURE ------------------------------------------------------------ 32
TURBULENT FLOW ---------------------------------------------------------------- 11 AERODYNAMIC CENTRE--------------------------------------------------------- 33
BOUNDARY LAYER ---------------------------------------------------------------- 12 PARASITE DRAG (Profile drag) --------------------------------------------------- 35
RELATIVE AIFLOW ---------------------------------------------------------------- 13 SKIN FRICTION DRAG ------------------------------------------------------------- 36
AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------ 15 FORM DRAG -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

8.2.i Mar, 2014
INTERFERENCE DRAG ------------------------------------------------------------ 36 GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND MASS ------------------------------------------------ 51
TOTAL DRAG ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
DRAG POLAR ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
AEROFOILS AND THEIR APPLICATION ------------------------------------- 39
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
AEROFOIL SELECTION ----------------------------------------------------------- 39
PERFORMANCE OF AEROFOILS ----------------------------------------------- 40
AEROFOIL CHARACTERISTICS ------------------------------------------------ 40
High Lift Aero foils-------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
General Purpose Aero foils ----------------------------------------------------------- 40
High Speed Aerofoils ----------------------------------------------------------------- 41
Performance----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT------------------------------------------------------------- 42
DRAG COEFFICIENT --------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Wing Shapes ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
WING AREA --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD ------------------------------------------------ 43
ASPECT RATIO----------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
EFFECTS OF ASPECT RATIO ---------------------------------------------------- 44
TAPER----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
EFFECTS OF WING TAPER ------------------------------------------------------- 46
SWEEP ANGLE ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
WASHIN AND WASHOUT -------------------------------------------------------- 48
DIHEDRAL AND ANHEDRAL --------------------------------------------------- 48
AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION -------------------------------------------------- 49
THRUST -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51

8.2.ii Mar, 2014
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8.2.iii Mar, 2014
INTRODUCTION
Several methods or theories have been developed to predict the

performance of a given wing/aerofoil shape. These can be
used to explain the subtle changes in shape necessary to
produce the required performance appropriate to the role of the
aircraft. In practice, the appropriate wing shape is calculated
from the performance criteria.
For this reason many thousands of experiments have been

carried out to investigate the problems of aerodynamics; in fact,
in this, as in almost every branch of this subject, is based mainly
on the results of accumulated experimental data.
In experimental work, it is a usual practice to allow the fluid to

flow past the body rather than to move the body through the
fluid. The former method has the great advantage that the body
is at rest, and consequently the measurement of any forces
upon it is comparatively simple.

8.2.1 Mar, 2014
AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY Types Of Flow
Pressure Distribution Steady Streamline Flow
The most useful, non-mathematical method is an examination of The flow parameters (egg speed, direction, pressure etc) may
the flow pattern and pressure distribution on the surface of a vary from point to point in the flow but, at any point, are constant
wing in flight. This approach will reveal the most important with respect to time. This flow can be represented by
factors affecting the amount of lift produced, based on streamlines and is the type of flow which it is hoped will be
experimental (wind-tunnel) data. found over the various components of an aircraft. Steady
streamline flow may be divided into two types:
The pattern of the airflow round an aircraft at low speeds
depends mainly on the shape of the aircraft and its attitude Classic Linear Flow
relative to the free stream flow. Other factors are the size of the
aircraft, the density and viscosity of the air and the speed of the The flow found over a conventional aerofoil at low incidence in
airflow. These factors are usually combined to form a which the streamlines all more or less follow the contour of the
parameter known as Reynolds Number (R) and the airflow body and there is no separation of the flow from the surface.
pattern is then dependent only on shape, attitude and Reynolds
Number. The Reynolds Number (i.e. size, density, viscosity and
speed) and condition of the surface determine the
characteristics of the boundary layer. This, in turn, modifies the
pattern of the airflow and distribution of pressure around the
aircraft. When considering the velocity of the airflow it does not
make any difference to the pattern whether the aircraft is
moving through the air or the air is flowing past the aircraft: it is
the ‘relative velocity’’ which is the important factor.
Figure1: Linear Flow

8.2.2 Mar, 2014
Controlled Separated Flow or Leading Edge Vortex FLOW. This

is a half-way stage between steady streamline flow and
unsteady flow. Due to boundary layer effects, generally at a
sharp leading edge, the flow separates from the surface; the
flow does not then break down into a turbulent chaotic condition
but, instead, forms a strong vortex which, because of its stability
and predictability, can be controlled and made to give a useful
lift force. Such flows are found in swept and delta plan forms
particularly at the higher incidences.
Figure 2: Vortex Flow

8.2.3 Mar, 2014
Unsteady Flow
In this type of flow the flow parameters vary with time and the
flow cannot be represented by streamlines.
Two-Dimensional Flow
If a wing is of infinite span, or, if it completely spans a wind

tunnel from wall to wall, then each section of the wing will have
exactly the same flow pattern round it except near the tunnel
walls. This type of flow is called two-dimensional flow since the
motion is confined to a plane parallel to the free stream
direction.
As the air flow round the aircraft its speed changes. In subsonic
flow a reduction in the velocity of the streamline flow is indicated
by an increased spacing of the streamlines whilst increasing
velocity is indicated by decreased spacing of the streamlines.
Associated with the velocity changes there will be
corresponding pressure changes.
As the air flows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the

low pressure (partial vacuum) at the upper surface; this is
termed ‘up wash’. After passing over the aerofoil the airflow
returns to its original position and state; this is termed
‘downwash’ as shown. The reason for the pressure and velocity
changes around an aerofoil is explained in later paragraphs.
However, the pressure above is usually a lot lower than ambient
pressure and the pressure below is usually slightly lower than
ambient pressure (except at high angles of attack), i.e. both
negative.

8.2.4 Mar, 2014
Three-Dimensional Flow Uniform / Non-Uniform Flow
The wing on an aircraft has a finite length (i.e. a wing tip) and, If the properties at all points of air flow are the same, the airflow
therefore, whenever it is producing lift the pressure differential is then known as a uniform flow. If the properties at all points of
tries to equalize around the wing tip. This induces a span-wise airflow are not the same then the airflow is known as a non-
drift of the air flowing over the wing, inwards on the upper uniform flow.
surface and outwards on the lower surface, producing a three-
dimensional flow. In viscid / Viscous Flow
Because the effect of the spilling at the wing tip is progressively If air is assumed to have no viscosity then airflow is referred
less pronounced from tip to root, then the amount of transverse to as an in viscid flow.
flow reduces towards the fuselage. As the upper and lower
airflows meet at the trailing edge they form vortices, small at the Incompressible/ Compressible Flow
wing root and larger towards the tip. These form one large
vortex in the vicinity of the wing tip, rotating clockwise on the If it is assumed that the air is incompressible then we call
port wing and anti-clockwise on the starboard wing; viewed from airflow as an incompressible flow.
the rear. Tip spillage means that an aircraft wing can never
produce the same amount of lift as an infinite span wing. If the Steady/Unsteady
wing has a constant section and angle of incidence from root to
tip then the lift per unit span of the wing may be considered to If the properties, at different points in airflow, do not change
be virtually constant until about 1.2 chord distance of the wing with time then airflow is said to be a steady flow. If the
tip. properties at different points in airflow do change with time the
airflow is said to be unsteady flow.
The overall size of the vortex at the trailing edge will depend on
the amount of the transverse flow. Therefore, the greater the Streamline
force (pressure difference) the larger it will be. The familiar
pictures of wing-tip vortices showing them as thin white streaks Streamline is an imaginary line in the flow on which the velocity
only show the low pressure central core and it should be vectors are always tangential.
appreciated that the influence on the airflow behind the trailing
edge is considerable.

8.2.5 Mar, 2014
BASIC AERODYNAMIC THEORY From which it may be seen that a reduction in cross-sectional
area will result in an increase in velocity and vice versa (venture
The shape of the aircraft (and boundary layer) will determine the tube). This equation enables the velocity changes round a
velocity changes and consequently the airflow pattern and given shape to be predicted mathematically.
pressure distribution. For a simplified explanation of why these
changes occur it is necessary to consider:
The Equation of Continuity
The equation of continuity states basically that mass can neither

be created nor destroyed or air mass flow is a constant.
Consider the streamline flow of air through a venture tube. The

air mass flow, or mass per unit time, will be the product of the
cross-sectional area (A), the flow velocity (V) and the density
(). This product will remain a constant value at all points along
the tube i.e.
AV   Constant
This is the general equation of continuity which applies to both

compressible and incompressible fluids
In compressible flow theory it is convenient to assume that

changes in fluid density will be insignificant at speed below
about 0.4M. This is because the pressure changes are small
and have little effect on the density. The equation of continuity
may now be simplified to:
A V  Constant
A

8.2.6 Mar, 2014
Bernoulli’s Theorem 2
P  12 V  constant
Consider a gas in steady motion. It possesses the following
Where,
types of energy.
p = static pressure,
Potential energy due to height.
Heat energy. = density and
Pressure energy. V = flow velocity.
Kinetic energy due to motion.
The significance of this law will be recognized if it is translated
In addition work and heat may pass in or out of the system. into words:
Daniel Bernoulli demonstrated that in the STEADY
STREAMLINE FLOW of an IDEAL FLUID, the sum of the Static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant.
energies present remained constant. It is emphasized that the
words in italic represent the limitations of Bernoulli’s This constant is referred to as Total Head Pressure, stagnation
experiments. In low subsonic flow (<0.4M), it is convenient to pressure or piton pressure. It has already been stated that the
regard air as being incompressible and in viscid (i.e. ideal) and flow velocity is governed by the shape of the aircraft. From
predictions of the pressure changes round a given aerofoil Bernoulli’s Theorem (simplified) it is evident that an increase in
section agree closely with measured values. Above 0.4M, velocity causes a decrease in static pressure and vice versa.
however, these simplifications would cause large errors in
2
predicted values and are no longer permissible. In low subsonic DYNAMIC PRESSURE - 12 v , is commonly abbreviated to the
flow, Bernoulli’s Theorem may be simplified still further by simple expression q, particularly when calculations are not
assuming changes in potential energy and heat energy to be required, or the factors do not change.
insignificant and that there is no transfer of heat or work. For
practical purposes therefore, in the streamline flow of air round
a wing at low speed:
PRESSURE ENERGY + KINETIC ENERGY = CONSTANT.
It can be shown that this simplified law can be expressed in

terms of pressure, thus:

8.2.7 Mar, 2014
Figure 3: Airflow in a venturi tube

8.2.8 Mar, 2014
Skin Friction And Air Viscosity free stream may be no more than a few millimeters over a’ wing.
Whenever a body is moved through air, or other viscous fluid, a

resistance to its motion is produced .In aerodynamics this
resistance is usually referred to as drag.
In the figure, a thin, flat plate is held edgewise to an air stream.

The particles of air separate at the leading edge and flow over
the upper surface and under the lower surface, reuniting behind
the trailing edge. The resistance of skin friction is caused by a
tendency of the particles of air to cling to the surface of the
plate. There are two reasons for this tendency.
The plate has a certain roughness as it is impossible to create a

perfectly smooth surface. The second reason is that the air
tends to cling to the surface due to the viscosity of the air.
Technically, viscosity is the resistance offered by a fluid to the
relative motion of its particles, but the term is most commonly
used to describe the adhesive or sticky characteristics of a fluid.
Even though it is not always apparent, air does have thickness

as any other fluid like oil. The viscosity of gases is unusual in
that the viscosity is generally a function of temperature alone; a
decrease in temperature increases the viscosity (thickness).
Therefore, viscosity will generally increase.
Skin friction slows up the air and brings it to a standstill close to

the surface. The layers of air near the surface retard the layers
farther away -owing to the friction between them, i.e. the
viscosity and so there is a gradual increase in velocity as the
distance from the surface increases. The distance above the
plate in which the velocity regains a value close to that of the

8.2.9 Mar, 2014
Figure 4: Skin Friction and Viscosity of Air

8.2.10 Mar, 2014
Laminar Flow
The term laminar describes the situation when air is flowing in

thin sheets, or layers, close to the surface "of a wing with no
disturbance between the layers of air; that is; there is no cross
flow of air particles from one layer of air to another. Also, there
is no sideways movement of air particles with respect to the
direction of airflow.
Laminar flow is most likely to occur where the surface is

extremely smooth and especially near the leading edge of an
aerofoil. Under these conditions the boundary layer will be very
thin.
Turbulent Flow
If airflow is smooth and flows in layers, it is referred to as a

laminar flow. If the velocity of airflow changes both in magnitude
and direction, then such airflow is a turbulent flow. In turbulent
airflow, air particles move from one layer to another.
Figure 5: Laminar and Turbulent Flow

8.2.11 Mar, 2014
Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is the layer adjacent to the aerofoil surface.

The air velocity in the boundary layer varies from zero on the
surface of the aerofoil to the velocity of the free stream at the
outer edge of the boundary layer.
This is illustrated in Figure a. The boundary layer is caused by

the viscosity of the air sticking to the surface of the wing and the
succeeding layers of air.
Ordinarily, the airflow at the leading edge of a wing will be

laminar, but as the air moves toward the trailing edge of the
wing, the boundary layer becomes thicker and laminar flow
diminishes. The area where the airflow changes from laminar to
turbulent is called the transition region. This is illustrated in
Figure b. It is desirable to keep a laminar flow over the aerofoil
as much as possible.
Figure 6: Boundary Layer

8.2.12 Mar, 2014
Relative Airflow
When an aerofoil is moved through the air, a stream of air flows

around the aerofoil. If the aerofoil is set at the proper angle and
has sufficient velocity, lift will be produced to sustain the
heavier-than-aircraft in flight.
In examining the flow of air around the aerofoil, assume that this
is a no-wind day. Any airflow, or wind, will be a relative wind,
that is, a wind created by the movement of an object through
still air. A relative wind flows opposite the direction of the object
in motion. The velocity of its flow around or over the object in
motion is the object's airspeed.
In Figure shown a symmetrical aerofoil is shown with its chord

extended through the leading edge. As the aerofoil moves
through the air, a relative wind is created which flows opposite
the flight direction of the aerofoil. The velocity of the relative
wind is in direct proportion to the velocity at which the aerofoil is
being moved through the air.

8.2.13 Mar, 2014
Figure 7: Relative Air Flow on Wings and Blade

8.2.14 Mar, 2014
AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY Angle Of Attack
The structure, which makes flight possible, is the aerofoil. An It is the angle, which the chord line of the aerofoil section
aerofoil is technically defined as any surface, designed to makes with the relative wind direction. It is variable and will
obtain a useful reaction from the air through which it moves. depend on aircraft attitude and/or the wind direction.
An aerofoil section is a cross-section of a wing, which can be Mean Camber Line

drawn as a silhouette. If the wing of an airplane were sawed
through from the leading edge to the trailing edge, the side view The mean camber line is a line drawn half-way between the
of the section through the wing at that point would be its aerofoil upper and lower surfaces and is equidistant from upper and
section lower surface at any given pint on the aerofoil. This line is also
referred to as the mean line or mid line. The mean camber is
Since the shape of an aerofoil and its angle to the air stream are the curvature of the mean line of an aerofoil profile from the
so important in determining its performance, it is necessary to chord.
understand aerofoil terminology. Figure shows a typical aerofoil
and illustrates various aerofoil-related terms. Camber
Chord Camber is defined as the curvature of an aerofoil surface or an

aerofoil section from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading edge perpendicular distance between the chord line and the mean
(the forward-most tip) and the trailing edge of the aerofoil. The camber line is camber. The degree or amount of camber is
distance between the leading edge and the trailing edge is expressed as the ratio of the maximum departure of the mean
referred to as the chord. camber line from the chord to the chord length.
Angle Of Incidence
It is the angle that the chord line of an aerofoil section makes

with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. It is denoted by the
symbol I. It is generally a fixed angle. However there are
exceptions such as variable incidence tail planes.

8.2.15 Mar, 2014
Figure shows an aerofoil that has a double convex curvature,

which means that it has camber above and below the chord line.
Upper chamber refers to the curve of the upper surface of an
aerofoil, and lower camber refers to the curve of the lower
surface. Camber is positive when the departure from the straight
line is upward and negative when it is downward. When the
upper and lower chamber of an aerofoil is the same, the
aerofoil is said to be symmetrical.
The shape of the mean camber line is very important in

determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil
section. The maximum camber (the maximum displacement of
the mean line from the chord line) and the location of the
maximum camber help to define the shape of the mean camber
line.
These quantities are expressed as fractions or percentages of

the basic chord dimension. A typical low-speed aerofoil may
have a maximum camber of 4% located 40% aft of the leading
edge. The maximum camber is sometimes referred to simply as
the camber.
Figure 8: Aerofoil

8.2.16 Mar, 2014
Stagnation, Up-wash and Downwash
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds

and pressures that result in the creation of lift. Lift is the
resultant force applied to the airframe, considered perpendicular
to the RAF. From Newton’s 3rd Law, there must be an opposite
force applied to the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the
airflow as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’. Which
by simple definition is ‘the downward inclination of airflow at the
trailing edge of an aerofoil, where the upward inclination of
airflow at the leading edge of an aerofoil is called ‘Up-wash’
The forward most part of the aerofoils, which strikes the airflow
first and where the speed of airflow is imagined to be zero for a
very short period of time is called the stagnation point.

8.2.17 Mar, 2014
Vortices
The presence of regions of different pressure (as happens when

lift is generated) will cause a flow to develop from high to low
pressure. This results in a span-wise component forming in
addition to the chord-wise component. It will be, root to tip on
lower surfaces and vice-versa on the upper surface.
At the tip, the flow will rotate as shown. The greater the
pressure differences, the greater will be the rotation. Now flow
rotations are sometimes weak (eddies) or sometimes form
extremely strong vortices (as in hurricanes) and a feature is the
high kinetic energy (or rotation), but a low (static) core pressure.
At the trailing-edge the chord-wise plus span-wise components

on the upper and lower surfaces meet to create a series of
vortices, termed a vortex sheet. These also drift towards and
combine at the tip.
The net effect of these vortices is to induce a downwash

additional to that resulting from lift generation. The creation of
the vortices, the creation of a downwash component, must imply
an expenditure of energy; an increase in (induced) drag. Vortex
drag arises from introducing wings of finite span.

8.2.18 Mar, 2014
Fineness Ratio where,
The ratio between the chord and the maximum thickness of the c= chord length,
aerofoil (measured perpendicular to the chord line) is known as t = maximum thickness
the fineness ratio. In equation form it can be expressed as
follows:
Where,
c= chord length,
t = maximum thickness
The thickness and thickness distribution of the profile are

important properties of an aerofoil. The distance between the
upper and lower surfaces is called, simply, the thickness. The
maximum thickness and the location of the maximum thickness
are expressed as fractions of the percentage of the chord. A
typical low-speed aerofoil may have a maximum thickness of
12% located 30% aft of the leading edge .i.e.

8.2.19 Mar, 2014
Leading Edge Radius
The leading-edge radius of the aerofoil is the radius of

curvature given the leading edge shape. It is the radius of the
circle centered on a line tangent to the leading-edge
c a m b e r connecting tangent points of upper and lower
surfaces with the leading edge. Typical leading-edge radii are 0
(knife-edge) to 4 or 5%.
Refer to the figure shown. Figure illustrates five aerofoil profiles

of different shapes together with their chords. In the figure
Profile A has a double convex shape. The chord is simply the
straight line from the Ieading edge to the trailing edge.
Profile B is designed to produce high lift, has a convex upper

curvature and a concave lower curvature. The chord is the
straight line connecting the imaginary perpendiculars erected at
the Ieading and trailing edges.
Profile C has a flat lower surface; therefore the chord is the

straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges.
Profile D resembles profile B, and again the chord is the straight

line connecting imaginary perpendiculars erected at the Ieading
and trailing edges.
Profile E is designed for supersonic flight and is almost

symmetrical.

8.2.20 Mar, 2014
GENERATION OF LIFT
An aircraft, as compared with all other types of transportation

vehicles, has a unique ability to lift into the air. The force of
gravity acts on all bodies on or near the surface of the earth and
results in the weight of an object. In order for an aircraft to fly, a
force must be created to overcome this force of gravity. This
force is called lift.
The Physics of Lift
The forces that support an aircraft in flight can be explained

principally by two basic laws of physics i.e. Newton's third law of
motion and Bernoulli's principle.
As a wing moves through the air, the airflow will be divided to

flow over and under the wing. When there is a positive angle
between the wing and the direction of the air stream, the air is Figure 10: Creation of lift from Action and Reaction of airflow
forced to change direction. If the wing is tilted upward against
the air stream, the air flowing under the wing is forced Creation of Lift can also be thought by the way that the air flows
downward. The wing therefore applies a downward force to the around an aerofoil. To understand this phenomenon it is first
air, and the air applies an equal and opposite upward force to necessary to refer to Bernoulli’s principle. Daniel Bernoulli, a
the wing. Thus the lift is created as a reaction as explained by Swiss scientist of the eighteenth century, discovered that as fluid
Newton's third Law of motion. (air) velocity increases, the pressure decreases, and as the
velocity decreases, the pressure increases.
The angle through which an air stream is deflected by any lifting
surface is called the downwash angle. It is especially important
when control surfaces are studied, because they are normally
placed to the rear of the wings where they are influenced by the
downward-deflected airstreams.

8.2.21 Mar, 2014
Suppose a stream of air is flowing through the venturi tube streamlines come closer together, indicating that the velocity of
shown in Figure. The airflow at station 1 in the tube has a the flow is greater at that point.
certain velocity and static pressure. As the air stream
approaches the constriction at station 2, certain changes must
take place. According to the law of conservation of matter, the
mass flow at any point along the tube must be the same and the
velocity therefore the pressure must change to accommodate
this continuity of flow. As the flow approaches the convergent
section, the velocity must increase to maintain the same mass
flow. As the velocity increases, the static pressure will decrease.
The total energy of the air stream in the tube is unchanged.

However, the air stream energy may be in two forms. The air
stream may have a potential energy, which is related by the
static pressure, and a kinetic energy, represented by its
dynamic pressure (velocity).
Because the total energy is unchanged, an increase in velocity

(dynamic pressure) will be accompanied by a decrease in static
pressure. Therefore, it can be said that the sum of static and
dynamic pressure in the flow tube remains constant.
Static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant
In the figure, air streams moving through a venturi tube are

indicated by arrows. Notice that close to the venturi wall the
airflow conforms to the shape of the walls. In the center of the Figure 11: Pressure variance due to Bernoulli’s effect
tube the airflow is straight. Notice that the airflow streams close
to the walls still follow the wall contours and that those farther
away gradually straighten out. Before the airflow enters the
venturi tube, the stream-lines are equally spaced, indicating a
uniform flow velocity. Adjacent to the wall of the tube the

8.2.22 Mar, 2014
In the figure c, the upper wall has been removed. The flow lines Angle of Attack and Lift
immediately adjacent to the bottom wall still follow the contour
and are spaced closely together. It is therefore indicated that A cambered aerofoil can produce lift at 0 degree AOA because
the velocity immediately adjacent to a curved surface will there is more cross-sectional area above the chord line than
increase. According to Bernoulli's principle, this increase will below it, resulting in a greater velocity and lower static pressure
bring about a similar decrease in pressure. of the airflow above the aerofoil. At 0° AOA, the airflow will divide
at the leading edge. With a positive angle of attack, such as is
The effect produced by a wing moving through the air is illustrated in Figure, the air flow no longer divides right at the tip
illustrated in figure. When the air strikes the leading edge of the of the leading edge but at a point farther down on the nose. The
wing, the air separates to flow over and below the wing. Some of point where the air flow divides is called the stagnation poin.t
the particles of airflow over the upper surface and some flow
under the lower surface, but all separating particles of air must
reach the trailing edge of the wing at the same time. Those
particles that pass over the upper surface have farther to go and
therefore must move faster than those passing under the lower
surface. In accordance with Bernoulli's principle, the increased
velocity above the wing results in a lower static pressure than
that existing below the wing.
If an area of low pressure can be produced on the top of a wing,

the higher pressure below the wing will create an upward force,
which is lift. This pressure differential is quite small, perhaps as
small as1%. Even this small difference, however, can provide
adequate lift.
The lift produced by an aerofoil is then the force produced

perpendicular to the relative wind.
Figure 12: Angle of Attack and Relative Wind

8.2.23 Mar, 2014
According to Bernoulli's principle, this greater distance on the pressure gradient impedes the flow of the boundary layer. In the
top surface will result in the creation of lift. As the angle of area of adverse pressure gradient the boundary layer flow is
attack increases, the stagnation point moves farther down on impeded and tends to show a reduction in velocity next to the
the aerofoil. Therefore the pressure difference across the surface. If the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic
aerofoil is more. As the angle of attack is increased more lift will energy in the presence of the adverse pressure gradient, the
be generated. lower levels of the boundary layer may stagnate prematurely.
Airflow Separation
The basic feature of air flow separation is stagnation of the

lower levels of the boundary layer. Air flow separation results
when the lower levels of the boundary layer do not have
sufficient kinetic energy in the presence of an adverse pressure
gradient.
The character of the boundary layer on an aero dynamic surface

is greatly influenced by the pressure gradient. In order to study
this effect, the pressure distribution of a cylinder in a perfect fluid
is repeated is considered. The air flows depict a local velocity of
zero at the forward stagnation point and a maximum local
velocity at the extreme surface. The air flow moves from the high
positive pressure to the minimum pressure point because of a
favorable pressure gradient(high to low). As the air moves from
the extreme surface aft, the local velocity decreases to zero at
the aft stagnation point. The static pressure increases from the
minimum (or maximum suction)to the high positive pressure at
the aft stagnation point-an adverse pressure gradient(low to
high).
The action of the pressure gradient is such that the favorable

pressure gradient as is the boundary layer while the adverse

8.2.24 Mar, 2014
recovered, forms drag result.

Premature stagnation of the boundary layer means that all
subsequent air flow will over run this point and the boundary An aerofoil at some high angle of attack creates a pressure
layer will separate from the surface. gradient on the upper surface too severe to allow the boundary
layer to adhere to the surface. When the air flow does not
adhere to the surface earth leading edge the high suction
pressures are lost and stall occurs.
Figure 14: Adverse pressure Gradient at Hi Alpha
When the shock wave forms on the upper surface of a wing at

high subsonic speeds, the increase of static pressure through
the shockwave creates a very strong obstacle for the boundary
layer .If the shock wave is sufficiently strong, separation will
follow and. ’compressibility buffet’, will result from the turbulent
wake or separated flow. In order to prevent separation of a
boundary layer in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient,
the boundary layer must have the highest possible kinetic
Figure 13: Flow Separation due to adverse Pressure Gradient energy. If a choice were available, the turbulent boundary layer
would be preferable to the laminar boundary layer because the
Surface flow, which is aft of the separation point, will indicate a turbulent velocity profile shows higher local velocities next to the
local flow direction forward toward the separation point. At low surface.
reversal, If separation occurs the positive pressures are not

8.2.25 Mar, 2014
Extreme surface roughness on full-scale aircraft (due to surface Stall (Stall Angle)
damage, heavy frost, etc.) causes higher skin friction and
greater energy loss in the boundary layer. The lower energy Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as the
boundary layer may cause a noticeable change in CLmax and angle of attack increases, until an angle of attack is reached
stall speed. In the same sense, vortex generators applied to the where the lift has a maximum value. This angle is the angle of
surfaces of a high-speed air plane may allay compressibility attack at which the streamline flow of air begins to breakdown
buffet to some degree. The function of the vortex generators is over the upper surface of the aerofoil and burbling begins at the
to create a strong vortex, which introduces high velocity, high- trailing edge of the aerofoil.
energy air next to the surface to reduce or delay the shock
induced separation. This breakdown and separation of the air flow is attributed to
the fact that as the stagnation point moves further down on the
These examples serve as a reminder that separation is the leading edge, the air flow over the top has an increasingly
result of premature stagnation of the boundary layer-insufficient longer path to travel. As air flows over a surface, a certain
kinetic energy in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient. amount of friction is developed. As the path gets longer, the
frictional force continues to build until the energy available in
the air stream is no longer sufficient to over come it .At this
point, the air flow will detach it self from the aerofoil.
Figure 16: Flow Separation at critical Angle

8.2.26 Mar, 2014
With the loss of a smooth air flow over the top surface, The stalling speed of an air plane is the minimum speed
pressure is no longer being reduced to create lift. This angle of at which the wing will maintain lift.
attack is called the stalling angle. At angles greater than the
angle of maximum lift, the lift decreases rapidly. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT
Velocity And Lift
A positive angle of attack causes increased velocity and

decreased pressure on the upper surface of a wing and
decreased velocity and increased pressure on the lower surface.
If the air flows slowly around the aero foil, a certain amount of lift
is generated. If the velocity of the air stream increases, the
pressure differential increases and the lift increase. Lift does not
vary in direct proportion to speed; lift varies as the square of the
speed. An aircraft traveling at 100knots has four times the lift it
would have at 50knots.
Area And Lift
One of the factors that determine the to tall if to fan aerofoil is

Figure 17: Coefficient Lift vs. Angle of Attack the area of the surface exposed to the airstream. Lift varies
directly with the area, other factors being equal. A wing with an
For each critical angle of attack there is a corresponding area of 200 square feet will lift twice as much as a wing of only
airspeed, assuming that other conditions, such as wing are and 100 square feet, providing other factors remain the same. Later
air density, remains constant. As the critical angle of attack in this text, we will explain why more lift can be obtained from a
increases, the corresponding airspeed decreases; therefore, long, narrow wing than from one in which the width more closely
the lowest possible airspeed exists at the angle of maximum approaches the length.
lift(the stalling angle). Thus another name for the angle of
maximum lift is the angle of minimum speed.

8.2.27 Mar, 2014
Air Density And Lift
The generation of lift depends upon the shape of the aerofoil,

the angle of attack, and the airspeed. An other factor that
affects lift is the air density. Lift varies directly with air density.
On hot days, the density of the air is less than on cold days; on
wet days, the density is less than on dry days. Also, density
decreases with altitude. When the density is low, the lift will
also be comparatively lower. If an airplane flies at a certain
angle of attack at sea level and then flies at the same angle of
attack at a higher altitude, where air density is less, the airplane
must be flown faster.
On hot days, when the density is less, the airplane must be

flown faster for the same angle of attack than on cold days,
when the density is greater. Therefore, the air speed must
increase as the density decreases in order to maintain the
airplane at the same angle of attack in level flight.
INDUCED DRAG
The properties of aerofoil’s, which are the same as the

properties of a wing of in finite span; indeed, aero foil at
frequently denoted as" infinite wing" data. However, all real
airplanes have wings of finite span, and the purpose of the
present chapter is to apply our knowledge of aerofoil properties
to the analysis of such finite wings.
Indeed, an aero foil is simply a section of a wing; however, the

8.2.28 Mar, 2014
flow over an aero foil is two-dimensional. In contrast, a finite

wing is a three-dimensional body, and consequently the flow
over the finite wing is three-dimensional; i.e., there is a
component of flow in the span-wise direction.
The lift on the wing is produced due to the existence of a high

pressure on the bottom surface and allow pressure on the top
surface. The imbalance of the pressure distribution creates the
lift, as discussed earlier. However the flow near the wing tips
tends to curl around the tips, being forced from the high-
pressure region just underneath the tips to the low-pressure
region on top. As a result, on the top surface of the wing, there
is generally a span wise component of flow from the tip toward
the wing root causing the stream lines over the top surface to
bend toward the root. Similarly, on the bottom surface of the
wing, there is generally a span wise component of flow from
the root to ward the tip, causing the stream lines over the
bottom surface to bend toward the tip.
Clearly, the flow over the finite wing is three-dimensional, and

therefore you would expect the overall aerodynamic properties
of such a wing to differ from those of its aero foil sections. The
Figure 18: Pressure variance on upper and lower wing surface
tendency for the flow to "leak" around the wing tips has another
important effect on the aerodynamics of the wing. This flow The wing-tip vortices contain a large amount of translational and
establishes a circulatory motion, which trails downstream of the rotational kinetic energy. This energy has to come from the
wing; i.e., a trailing vortex is created at each wing tip. These aircraft engine. Since the energy of the vortices serves no
wing tip vortices are essentially weak "tornadoes" that trail useful purpose, this power is essentially lost. In effect, the extra
downstream of the finite wing. These wing-tip vortices power provided by the engine that goes into the vortices is the
downstream of the wing induce a small down ward component extra power required from the engine to overcome the induced
of air velocity in the neighborhood of the wing it self drag.

8.2.29 Mar, 2014
- Induced drag increases at low airspeeds and high angles of

attack
- Induced drag increases greatly as the stalling angle of attack

is approached (nearly 75% of total drag)
- The greater the lift produced the greater the induced drag
Figure 19: Wake Vortex effect at Wing tips

8.2.30 Mar, 2014
Generation Of Drag
The fundamental equation for drag is found to be almost

identical with the equation for lift except that drag and the
coefficient of drag are used in place of the values for lift. The
equation for drag is then,
1
D= ρV2SCD
2
The symbol meanings are the same as those stated previously

in the equation for lift except for D (drag) and CD (coefficient of
drag).
AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT
Lift and drag are components of the total aerodynamic force

acting up on the wing. This total force is called the resultant.
Each point on the surface of the wing in flight has small force
acting upon it. The force acting on one point of the wing is
different in magnitude and direction from all the other. By
considering the magnitude, direction, and location of each of
these small forces, it is possible to add them all together into
one resultant force. This resultant force has magnitude,
direction, and location with respect to the wing.
The resultant force on an aerofoil flying at a specified speed

and angle of attack can be shown as a single entity possessing
both magnitude and direction, such as in Figure is also possible
Figure 20: Induced Drag to break the resultant down into two major components with

8.2.31 Mar, 2014
magnitudes in two directions. The component of the resultant Center Of Pressure

force, which acts perpendicular to the relative wind, is lift. The
component of the resultant force which acts parallel to the The center of pressure (CP.) is the point at which the resultant
relative wind is called drag. force intersects the chord of an aero foil. The center of pressure
is shown at A in Figure a Lift acts from the center of pressure, or,
stated another way, the center of pressure is the center of lift.
The location and direction in which the resultant will point

depends upon the shape of the aero foil section and the angle at
which it is set to the airstream. Throughout most of the flight
range, that is, at the usual angles of attack, the CP moves
forward as the angle of attack increases and backward as the
angle of attack decreases.
The center of pressure is generally located at approximately the

25% chord position. On an aerofoil with a 60-inch chord, this
would locate the center of pressure at 15 inches aft from the
leading edge. While the CP travel will generally be restricted to
the 25% (:±1O%) chord area, the CP can travel forward or
backward from these usual positions. For example, at a low
angle of attack, the CP may run off the trailing edge and
disappear because there is no more lift.
The pressure distribution is different on the top and bottom of an

aero foil. This results in the center of pressure being different on
the two surfaces. The center of pressure on the lower surface
generally being forward of that on the upper surface. Because
the resultant forces on the two surfaces are not acting at the
same chord wise location, a rotation of the aero foil will result.
This tendency for rotation is called the pitching moment. Due to
Figure 21: Aerodynamic Resultant the pitching moment, most aero foils are unstable by themselves
and require some additional method to stabilize them, such as

8.2.32 Mar, 2014
the installation of a horizontal stabilizer. Aerodynamic Centre
One of the reasons for studying CP travel is that the CP is the Another aerodynamic reference point is the “aerodynamic
point at which the aerodynamic forces can be considered to be center”. The aero dynamic Center is defined as the point along
concentrated; therefore the air plane designer must make the chord where all changes in lift effectively take place.
provisions for the CP travel by preparing a wing structure that
will meet any stress imposed up on it. Technicians and The existence of such a point is evident by the change in
inspectors can not change the design, but they can perform pressure distribution with angle of attack for the symmetrical
their duties better if they know the characteristics and aero foil and lower surface lifts are equal and located at the
limitations of an airplane. same point. With an increase in angle of attack, the upper
surface lift increases. The change of lift has taken place with no
change in the center of pressure. In contrast for cambered aero
foil to produce zero lift, the upper and lower surface lifts must be
equal.
One difference noted from the symmetrical aero foil is that the
upper and lower surface lifts are not opposite one another.
While no net lift exists on the aero foil ,the couple produced by
the upper and lower surface lifts creates a nose down moment.
As the angle of attack is increased, the upper surface lift
increases while the lower surface lift decreases. While a change
in lift has taken place, no change in moment takes place about
the point where the lift change occurs. Since the moment
about the aerodynamic center is the product of a force (lift at the
c.p.) to and a lever arm (distance from c.p.to a.c.) an increase
in lift moves the center of pressure toward the aerodynamic
center.
It should be noted that the symmetrical aero foil at zero lift has
no pitching moment about the aero dynamic center because
the upper and lower surface lifts act along the same vertical line.
Figure 22: Center of Pressure variance An increase in lift on the symmetrical aero foil produces no

8.2.33 Mar, 2014
Change in this situation and the center of pressure remains fixed

at the aerodynamic center.
The location of the aerodynamic center of an aerofoil is not

affected by camber, thickness, and angle of attack. In fact, two
dimensional incompressible aerofoil theories will product the
aerodynamic center at the 25 percent chord point for any
aerofoil regardless of camber, thickness, and angle of attack.
Actual aero foils, which are subject to real fluid flow, may not
have the lift due to angle of attack concentrated at the exact 25
percent chord point. However, the actual location the
aerodynamic center for various sections is rarely forward of 23
percent or aft of 27 percent chord point.
The moment about the aerodynamic center has its source in

the relative pressure distribution and requires application of the
coefficient from of expression for proper evaluation. The
moment about the aerodynamic center is expressed by the
following equation:

8.2.34 Mar, 2014
Parasite Drag (Profile Drag)
As explained previously, air has mass. When an airplane

flies through air, the air is moved. When any mass is
moved or accelerated, force is required, and the application
of force produces an equal and opposite force called drag.
Specifically, drag is retarding force acting upon a body in
motion. There are several different types of drag, which are
classified according to their origin.
Figure 23: Development of Pitching moment Figure 24: Parasite Drag

8.2.35 Mar, 2014
Skin Friction Drag Experiments have shown that not only the pressure at front of
the plate greater than that of the atmospheric pressure but also
The air flowing along the surface of the aero foil creates a the pressure aft of the plate is less than the atmospheric
frictional force on the body. This force is called skin friction pressure creating a sucking effect on the plate.
drag. Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the
airplane’s surfaces, and it increases considerably if the airplane Streamlining of shapes reduces form drag by decreasing the
surfaces are rough and dirty. curvature of surfaces, delaying boundary layer separation and
thereby reducing eddying. By differing the fineness ratio better
streamlining can be achieved.(Thickness/chord)
Most parts of an airplane, such as the fuselage, cowlings,

landing-gear struts, and other components, will have both
thickness and surface area, resulting in both pressure and
friction drag.
Figure 11: Skin Friction and Form Drag Pressure drag and friction drag are both components of parasite
Form Drag drag. However, in calculating the total parasitic drag force of an
aircraft, another type of drag must also be considered. This type
This is caused by the resistance due to the fact that when a of drag is called interference drag.
viscous fluid flows past a body, the pressure on the forward
facing part is greater than that on the rearward-facing portion. Interference Drag
The pressure difference is due to airflow separation from the The interference in airflow at junction of two bodies creates an
surface and resultant formation of eddies which disturbs the additional drag, which is called the interference drag. Air flow
streamline flow. from the various surfaces of the aircraft meet and form a wake
behind the aircraft. The additional turbulence that occurs in the
An example of this resistance is a flat plate placed at right wake causes a greater pressure difference between the front
angles to the wind. The resistance is very large and almost and rear surfaces of the aircraft and therefore increases the
entirely due to the pressure difference between the front and drag.
rear faces, the skin friction being negligible in comparison.
Consider the aircraft as a whole ,the total drag is greater than
just the sum of the drag on individual components of the

8.2.36 Mar, 2014
Aircraft. airspeed there is no relative motion between the airplane and

air. Therefore there is no parasite drag .As the airspeed is
This is due to the interference of the airflow at the junction of increased the skin friction, the form drag and the interference
various surfaces, such as that of the wing/fuselage junction, the drag all increase.
tail section/fuselage junction and the wing/engine nacelle
junction. Airspeed has a powerful effect on parasite drag. Doubling the
airspeed gives four times the parasite drag. Tripling the air
Suitable filleting fairing and streamlining of shapes to control speed gives nine times the parasite drag. Parasite drag varies
local pressure gradients can aid in minimizing this interference as V squared.
drag.
Parasite drag is of greatest significance at high speed and is
Several factors affect parasite drag. When each factor practically insignificant at low speeds. At low speeds most of the
considered independently, it must be assumed that the other total drag is due to induced drag resulting from heavy formation
factors remain constant. These factors are; of wing tip vortices.
- The more streamlined an object is, the less the parasite At a very high speed the total drag maybe entirely due to
drag; parasite drag. The predominance of parasite drag at high flight
speeds shows the need for aerodynamic clean lines to obtain
- The more dense the air moving past the airplane, the good performance.
greater the parasite drag;
About half the parasites drag on an aircraft may be due to the
- The larger the size of the object in the airstream, the greater wings. Any reduction in skin friction, form drag and interference
the parasite drag; drag from the wings can have a great effect in reducing the
overall parasite drag.
• As speed increases, the amount of parasite drag
increases. Total Drag
The drag incurred by an aero foil is the net-force Total drag is the sum of all the drag forces. On some occasions
produced parallel to the relative wind. we may talk of the total drag on the aircraft while on other
occasions we only refer to the total drag on the aero foil. As we
Parasite drag increases as airspeed is increased. At zero have seen the total drag has two components: -Parasite drag -
Induced drag If the graphs of each of these drags are combined

8.2.37 Mar, 2014
as they vary with air speed the resultant graph will illustrates the
variation of total drag with air speed for a given weight and
altitude. The parasite drag increases with speed. The induced
drag decreases with speed increase. The graph shows induced
drag is pre dominant at low speeds and Parasite drag Is
predominates at high speeds. The total drag is least at the point
where parasite and induced drag are equal. This is sometimes
known as minimum drag speed. In straight and level flight
lift=weight, Therefore at the point of minimum drag the wing will
be producing lift required to balance the weight, but with
minimum drag possible. Thrust is used to balance drag to
achieve steady straight and level flight. It can be seen from the
graph that high thrust will be required at both very high and low
airspeeds, and less thrust at intermediate speeds.
Figure 25: Total Drag

8.2.38 Mar, 2014
Drag Polar particularly those involved in the structural repair of aero foils,
and to others who may be interested in building their own
The overall or total drag coefficient CD = CDO + CDI, airplanes. Since the early days of aircraft research when the
Wright brothers tested aero foil shapes in a small wind tunnel,
Total drag coefficient CD = CDO + literally thousands of different aero foil shapes have been
developed and tested. These range from the types that operate
at low subsonic speeds to those designed for supersonic and
hypersonic speeds. In this chapter the basic element of aero foil
design and the characteristics that determine aero foils election
for different aircraft applications will be discussed.
Aerofoil Selection
The selection of the best aero foil for an airplane requires a

careful consideration. Due to factors that are in conflict with one
another, the result that the final decision is usually a
compromise. Some important factors to be considered in aero
foil selection are, -Aero foil characteristics, -Aero foil dimensions,
-Air flow about the aero foil, -The speed at which the air craft is
designed to operate, and -Flight operating limitations. It is not
unusual for an airplane to use more than one aero foil profile in a
wing. Often a manufacturer will use one aero foil profile for the in
board wing area, a second profile for the center section, and a
The CD Total can be plotted against CL to give a curve known as
third for the wing tip. While using more than one profile may
the Drag Polar.
increase aerodynamic performance, it also adds greatly to the
construction costs
AEROFOILS AND THEIR APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
A general knowledge of the nature of aero foils and the factors

affecting their performance is of value to many technicians,

8.2.39 Mar, 2014
Performance Of Aerofoils High Lift Aero foils
Aerofoil Characteristics
High lift sections employ a high thickness/chord ratio, a
The performance of an aerofoil is governed by its contour. pronounced camber, and a well-rounded leading edge: their
Generally, aerofoils can be divided into three classes: maximum thickness is about 25% - 30% of the chord behind the
leading edge.
High lift
General purpose The greater the camber, I e. the amount of curvature of the
High speed mean camber line, the greater the shift of Centre of pressure for
Typical examples of each are illustrated a given change in the angle of attack. The range of movement
of the CP is therefore large on a high lift section. This
movement can be greatly decreased by
reflexing upwards the trailing edge of the wing, but some lift is
lost as a result.
Sections of this type are used mainly on sailplanes and other

aircraft where a high CL is all-important and speed a secondary
consideration.
General Purpose Aero foils
General purpose sections employ a lower thickness/chord ratio,

. less camber and a sharper leading edge than those of the high
lift type, but their maximum thickness is still at about 25% - 30%

8.2.40 Mar, 2014
of the chord behind the leading edge. The lower Performance

thickness/chord ratio results in less drag and a lower CL than
those of a high lift aerofoil. The performance of all aerofoils is sensitive to small changes in
contour. Increasing or decreasing the thickness by as little as
Sections of this type are used on aircraft whose duties require 1% of the chord, or moving the point of maximum camber an
speeds which, although higher than those for high lift, are not inch or so in either direction, will alter all the characteristics. In
high enough to subject the aerofoil to the effects of particular, changes in the shape of the leading edge have a
compressibility. marked effect on the maximum lift and drag obtained and the
behavior at the stall, a sharp leading edge stalling more readily
than one that is well rounded. Also it is important that the finish
High Speed Aerofoils of the wing surfaces be carefully preserved if the aircraft is
expected to attain its maximum performance. Any dents or
High speed sections employ a very low thickness/chord ratio, no scratches in the surface bring about deterioration in the general
camber and a sharp leading edge. Their maximum thickness is performance. These points are of particular importance on high
approximately at the 50% chord point. performance aircraft when a poor finish can result in a drastic
Most of these sections lie in the 5% - 10% thickness/chord ratio reduction not only in performance, but also in control at high
band, but even thinner sections have been used on research Mach numbers.
aircraft. The reason for this is the overriding requirement for low
drag; naturally the thinner sections have low maximum lift A particular aerofoil, which is, one having certain definite
coefficients. dimensions, has specific lift, drag, and center-of–pressure (CP)
position characteristics during flight. These features are
High speed aero foils are usually symmetrical about the chord collectively known as aerofoil characteristics and they are
line; some sections are wedge-shaped whilst others consist of classified as follows:
arcs of a circle placed symmetrically about the chord line.
Lift coefficient
Drag coefficient
Lift/drag ratio

8.2.41 Mar, 2014
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT with a particular surface area.
The lift coefficient (CL or CZ) is a dimension less coefficient The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the
that relates the lift generated by an airfoil, the dynamic pressure two basic contributors to fluid dynamic drag: skin friction and
of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the platform area of the form drag. The drag coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also
airfoil. It may also be described as the ratio of lift pressure to includes the effects of lift induced drag. The drag coefficient of a
dynamic pressure complete structure such as an aircraft also includes the effects
of interference drag.
The coefficient of lift is a measure of how efficiently the wing is
changing velocity in to lift. High coefficient-of-lift numbers The drag coefficient, like the coefficient of lift, is a measure of
indicate a more efficient aero foil design. The coefficient of lift is how efficient the wing is. However, while a higher number is
a function of desirable for lift coefficients, a low drag coefficient number
indicates a more efficient aerofoil. Similarly to the coefficient of
- The aerofoil shape and lift, the coefficient of drag varies with the angle of attack. For
- The angle of attack. example, a certain aerofoil has a CD of 0.11 at a 4° angle of
attack, but at a 16° angle of attack it has a CD of 0.24.
For a given shape, the coefficient of lift varies with the angle of
attack; therefore, when the fundamental equation for lift is used
the angle of attack must be specified to make the computation WING SHAPES
meaningful. A certain aerofoil may have a CL of 0.4 at a 4°
angle of attack and a CL of 1.2 at a 16° angle of attack. The An aero foil profile has no span, air flow has been examined in
angle of attack must be known before the answer to the lift two dimensions only. The wingspan (length)and the plan form of
equation has a usable value. the wing also affect the aero dynamic characteristics. Plan form
is the shape of the wing as viewed from the top or bottom. When
Drag Coefficient the effects of wing plan form are introduced, at tent ion must be
directed to the existence of airflow in the span wise direction. In
In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as other words, aero foil section properties deal with flow in two
Cd, Cx or Cw) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify dimensions, while actual wings have flow in three dimensions.
the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment such The wing area, aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback of a
as air or water. It is used in the drag equation, where a lower plan form are the principal factors, which determine the aero
drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic dynamic characteristics of a wing. These same quantities also
or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated

8.2.42 Mar, 2014
have a definite influence on the structural weight and stiffness of Mean Aerodynamic Chord
a wing.
Physically, MAC is the chord of a rectangular wing, which has
the same area, aerodynamic force and position of the center of
pressure at a given angle of attack as the given wing has.
Simply stated, MAC is the width of an equivalent rectangular
wing in given conditions. Therefore, not only the measure but
also the position of MAC is often important. In particular, the
position of center of mass (CoM) of an aircraft is usually
measured relative to the MAC, as the percentage of the
distance from the leading edge of MAC to CoM with respect to
MAC itself.
Note that the figure to the right implies that the MAC occurs at a
point where leading or trailing edge sweep changes. In general,
Figure 27: Wing Planforms this is not the case. Any shape other than a simple trapezoid
requires evaluation of the above integral.
WING AREA The ratio of the length (or span) of a wing to its chord is known
as the aspect ratio, an important indicator of the lift-induced
drag the wing will create. In general, planes with higher aspect
As has been previously explained, the lift of an aero foil varies
ratios — long, skinny wings — will have less induced drag,
directly with the area. The wing area, S, is simply a measure of
which dominates at low airspeeds.
the total surface of the wing. Although a portion of this are a may
be covered by the fuselage or the nacelles, pressure is still
Certain aero dynamic and weight-and-balance characteristics
acting on it; therefore, it is included in the calculation of the total
are referenced as a percent of the wing chord. However, when
wing area. The wing span, b, is measured tip to tip. The average
a wing is tapered, the chord is not uniform across the entire
wing chord, c, is simply a geometric average of the wing chords.
wing span. For this reason these characteristics are referenced
As an example, a pointed-tip delta wing would have an average
as a percent of the mean aero dynamic chord(MAC).
chord equal to one-half of the root chord. As shown in Figure b,
The mean aerodynamic chord is the chord drawn through the
the product of the span and the average chord is the wing area
center of the area of the aero foil; that is, equal amounts of
(b x c= S).
wing area will lie on both sides of the MAC. Often, the MAC is

8.2.43 Mar, 2014
confused with the average chord. As an example, the pointed- induced drag by changing the dimensions of a wing.
tip delta wing shown in Figure c would have an average chord
equal to one-half the root chord but a MAC equal to two-thirds The aspect ratio (AR) of an aerofoil of rectangular shape is the
of the root chord. ratio of the span to the chord. Thus, aerofoil A in Figure has a
span of 24 ft; therefore, the aspect ratio is 9. The formula for
Aspect Ratio aspect ratio can be written as follows:
For a given wing area, the aspect ratio is proportional to the AR = span/Chord
square of the wingspan, and the wingspan is of particular
significance in determining the performance. An airplane in flight However, for aerodynamic reasons, aero foils are hardly ever
can be imagined to affect a circular cylinder of air. The diameter designed with a rectangular plan form. The aspect ratio for non
of that cylinder is equal to the wingspan. A large wingspan is rectangular aero foils is defined as the span squared divided by
working on a large cylinder of air, and a small wingspan is area. If the area is represented by the letter S and the span by
the letter b, the formula for nonrectangular aero foils can be
Working on a small cylinder of air. For two aircraft of the same
weight but different wingspans the small cylinder of air must be Expressed thus:
pushed downward by a greater amount than the large cylinder
in order to produce an equal upward force. The aft-leaning AR = b2/S
component of this change in velocity is proportional to the
induced drag. Therefore the larger downward velocity produces Effects Of Aspect Ratio
a larger aft-leaning component and this leads to larger induced
drag on the aircraft with the smaller wingspan and lower aspect The effect of increasing aspect ratio is principally to reduce
ratio. induced drag for any given coefficient of lift. This improves the
L/D ratio. Since wingtip vortices exert their influence for a
The interaction between undisturbed air outside the circular distance in board from the tips in any given aerofoil, the
cylinder of air, and the downward-moving cylinder of air occurs percentage of area so affected is less for a long, narrow aerofoil
at the wingtips, and can be seen as wingtip vortices. than it is for a short, wide aerofoil. This is shown in Figure b,
which illustrates the area affected by wingtip vortices. The
If wingtip vortices could be eliminated or reduced, the shape in the upper-left-hand corner of Figure b is short and
associated induced drag would be proportionately reduced. To wide, the center shape is long and relatively narrow, and the
totally eliminate the wingtip vortices, a wing of infinite span lower-right shape is still longer and narrower. Although the width
would have to be used. However, it is possible to reduce the of the area affected by wing tip vortices remains the same for all

8.2.44 Mar, 2014
these shapes, a smaller proportion of the total area is affected

when the aerofoil is long and narrow. The relationship of wingtip
vortices to induced drag emphasizes the need of a high aspect
ratio for an airplane, which is continually operated at high lift
coefficients. In other words, airplane configurations designed to
operate at high lift coefficients during the major portion of their
flight, demand a high-aspect-ratio wing to minimize induced
drag, long thing wings increase structural weight and have
relatively poor stiffness characteristics. This fact will temper the
preference for a very high aspect ratio.
Figure 28: Aspect Ration and Influence on Induced drag
Taper
An aerofoil is tapered when one or more of its dimensions

gradually decrease from the root to the tip. When the aerofoil
decreases from the root to the tip in both thickness and chord
,the aerofoil is said to have taper in plan and thickness. This
is shown in the bottom drawing of Figure a. If the thickness and
the chord remain the same from the root to the tip, there is no
taper .When there is a gradual change (usually a decrease) in
the chord length along the wingspan from the root to the tip,
with the wing sections remaining geometrically similar, the
aerofoil is said to have taper in plan only.

8.2.45 Mar, 2014
Effects Of Wing Taper - Low c d values especially at low α
The taper ratio affects the lift distribution and the structural - The L/D ratio is greater throughout the flight range, especially
weight of the wing. When a wing is tapered in thickness in such At the higher angles of attack.
a manner that the thickness near the tip is 60% of the thickness
at the root and it is compared with an aerofoil of constant When a wing or any aerofoil is tapered in both thickness and
section(not tapered) equal to the mean (average) section of the plan form, it is possible to take advantage of the best
tape redwing, the following characteristics are observed on aerodynamic features of an aerofoil tapered in thickness only
certain aero foils: and an aerofoil tapered in plan form only. When the distribution
of the area of a tapered wing places the resultant force near the
- The CP moves less for changes in angle of attack centerline, it may be possible to build awing of relatively
lightweight, having the thicker, heavier, and stronger portions
- The maximum CL is greater and the peak of the characteristic near the root, where the greatest stresses normally occur. On
curve is flatter because all of the wing does not attain the the other hand, in a tapered aerofoil, the spars must be tapered
maximum CL at a different angle of attack from any other and different jigs must be used for building the ribs. For this
section reason the construction of the wing tapered in both plan form
and thickness becomes considerably more costly than the
- The CD values are lower, the most noticeable decrease being construction of other types of wings.
at the low angle of attack from any other section; and
- The maximum L/D ratio is larger at small angles of attack. It is

interesting to note that a tapered wing may also have a
constantly changing aerofoil section from the root of the wing to
the tip. When a wing is tapered in plan form and is compared
with a rectangular aerofoil that has an equivalent aspect ratio,
the following characteristics are observed on certain aero foils;
- The CP moves more for changes in angle of attack; and
- C l max is greater

8.2.46 Mar, 2014
Sweep Angle Shift the center-of-lift point on the wing aft and move it closer to
the center of gravity in order to improve the stability and loading
A swept wing is a wing plan form with a wing root to wingtip properties of the aircraft.
direction angled beyond (usually aft ward) the span wise axis,
generally used to delay the drag rise caused by fluid
compressibility. Swept wings provide lateral stability and it was
for this reason that the concept was first employed
Unusual variants of this design feature are forward sweep,

variable sweep wings, and pivoting wings. Swept wings as a
means of reducing wave drag were first used on jet fighter
aircraft. Today, they have become almost universal on all but
the slowest jets (such as the A-10), and most faster airliners
and business jets.
The angle of sweep which characterizes a swept wing is

conventionally measured along the 25% chord line. If the 25%
chord line varies in sweep angle, the leading edge is used; if
that varies, the sweep is expressed in sections (e.g., 25
degrees from 0 to 50% span, 15 degrees from 50% to wingtip).
The principal reason for sweeping a wing is to increase the
critical Mach number of the aircraft. If a wing is swept, the air
flow will no longer be in a direct chord wise flow across the
wing. A component of the airflow will also travel span wise. It is
this span wise direction of the airflow that raises the critical
Mach number. Figure 29: Sweep back Angle
A Sweeping a wing back, however, also has some undesirable

characteristics. The component of the airflow that flows in the
span wise direction does not contribute to the production of lift
these results in higher stall speeds for swept-wing aircraft. Low
speed aircraft may have wings swept slightly aft in order to

8.2.47 Mar, 2014
Washin And Washout
The angle of incidence of a wing is the angle formed by the

intersection of the wing chord line and the horizontal plane
passing through the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Airplanes
are usually designed with a positive angle of incidence in which
the leading edge of the wing is slightly higher than the trailing
edge. The correct angle of incidence is essential for low drag
and longitudinal stability.
Many airplanes are designed with a greater angle of incidence

at the root of the wing than at the tip; this wing characteristic is
called washout.
The term wash in refers to an increase in the angle of incidence Figure 30: Anhedral and Dihedral Wings
of the wing from the root to the tip. If a wing has an angle of
incidence of 2° at the root and an angle of 3°at the outer end, it
has a wash in of 1°.
Dihedral And Anhedral
The angle that the wing makes with a plane parallel to the
ground is the dihedral angle. In other words the acute
angle a line parallel to the wing from root to tip makes
with a line parallel to the lateral axes of the aircraft t is the
dihedral angle. It is positive if the wing slopes upward
from root to tip. It is negative if the wing slopes downward
from root to tip. A negative dihedral is sometimes referred
to as an anhedral or cathedral.

8.2.48 Mar, 2014
AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION roughness. While the basic shape and aero dynamic contour
is unchanged, the increase in surface roughness increases
Effect of ice and frost on airplane performance without skin friction and reduces the kinetic energy of the boundary
exception, the formation of ice or frost on the surfaces of an layer. As a result, there will be an increase in drag but, of
airplane will cause a detrimental effect on aerodynamic course, the magnitude of drag increase will not compare with
performance. the considerable increase due to a severe ice formation. The
reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy will cause
The ice or frost formation on the airplane surfaces will alter incipient stalling of the wing, i.e., separation will occur at
the aerodynamic contours and affect the nature of the angles of attack and lift coefficients lower than for the clean,
boundary layer. Of course, the most important surface of the smooth wing. While the reduction in clmax. Due to frost
airplane is the wing and the formation of ice or frost can formation ordinarily is not as great as that due to ice
create significant changes in the aerodynamic formation, it is usually unexpected because it may be
characteristics. A large formation of ice on the leading edge thought that large changes in the aerodynamic shape(such
of the wing can produce large changes in the local contours as due to ice) are necessary to reduce CLmax.
and severe local pressure gradients. The extreme surface
roughness common to some forms office will cause high However, the kinetic energy of the boundary layer is an
surface friction and a considerable reduction of boundary important factor influencing separation of the air flow and this
layer energy. As a result of these effects, the ice formation energy is reduced by an increase in surface roughness. The
can produce considerable increase in drag and a large general effects of ice and frost formation on the lift
reduction in maximum lift coefficient. Thus, the ice formation characteristics are typified by the illustration of figure.
will cause an increase in power required and stall speed. In
addition, the added weight of the ice formation on the The effect of ice or frost on take off and landing performance is
airplane will provide an undesirable effect. Because of the of great importance. The effects are so detrimental to the landing
detrimental effects of ice formation, recommended anti-icing and take off that no effort should be spared to keep the airplane
procedures must be followed to preserve the airplane as free as possible for many accumulation of ice or frost. If any
performance. ice remains on the airplane as the landing phase approaches it
must be appreciated that the ice formation will have reduced CL
The effect of frost is perhaps more subtle than the effect of and incurred an increase install speed. Thus,
ice formation on the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing.
The accumulation of a hard coat of frost on the wing upper The landing speed will be greater. When this effect is coupled
surface will provide a surface texture of considerable with the possibility of poor braking action during the landing roll,

8.2.49 Mar, 2014
a critical situation can exist. It is obvious that great effort must be takeoff.
made to prevent the Accumulation of ice during flight.
In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be allowed

to remain on the airplane wing surfaces prior to take off. The
undesirable effects of ice are obvious but, as previously
mentioned, the effects of frost are more subtle. If a heavy coat of
hard frost exists on the wing upper surface, a typical reduction in
CLmax% would cause a5to10percentincrease in the airplane
stall speed. Because of this magnitude of effect, the effect of
frost on take off performance may not be realized until too late.
Thetakeoffspeedofanairplaneisgenerallysomespeed5to25
percent greater than the stall speed; hence the take off lift
coefficientwillbevaluefrom90to65percentatCL m a x %. Thus, it is
possible that the airplane with frost cannot become air borne at
the specified take off speed because of premature stalling. Even
if the airplane with frost were to become air borne at the
specified takeoff speed, the airplane could have in sufficient
margin of airspeed above stall and turbulence, gusts, turning
flight could produce incipient or complete stalling of the airplane.
The increase in drag during take off roll due to frost or ice is not
considerable and there will not be any significant effect on the
initial acceleration during take off. Thus, the effect of frost or ice
will be most apparent during the later portions of take off if the
airplane is unable to become air borne or if insufficient margin
above stall speed prevents successful initial climb.
In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be

allowed to remain on the air plane wing surfaces prior to Figure 31: Effects of Icing on Wing

8.2.50 Mar, 2014
THRUST The same system is usually used while still on the ground
although it must be admitted that it is not always a very efficient
Earlier we made a study of drag-the force that tries to hold the system forth is purpose.
airplane back. In this chapter we shall deal with thrust-the force
that opposes drag and keeps the airplane going forward. In The thrust-provider, of whatever kind it may be, must be
level flight the thrust must be equal to the drag, in order to supplied with energy. This will usually be in the form of a fuel,
accelerate the airplane it must be greater than the drag, and in which is fed into some kind of, "engine" where, in burning, its
climbing with a positive pitch attitude it must also be greater chemical energy is changed into heat energy, which in turn is
than the drag because it will have to support some proportion of converted into the mechanical work done in propelling the
the weight. airplane against the drag. Methods of providing thrust differ only
in the way in which these various conversions are effected, and
The actual conditions of balance of the forces will be dealt in the efficiency of the conversion, that Is to say in the
within the next chapter; it is sufficient at this stage to realize that proportion of useful work got out, or of thrust provided to the
we must provide the airplane with considerable thrust, and that energy supplied.
the performance that we can achieve from the airplane will be
largely dependent upon the amount of thrust that we can GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND MASS
provide.
Gravity, or gravitation, is the universal force that all bodies exert
The motorcar and the railway engine obtain their thrust by the upon one another. It is defined by the universal law of
force on the circumference of the wheels pushing backwards on gravitation, which states: The attraction between particles of
the road or rails; there is, or should be, no appreciable slip. The matter is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
earth reacts by pushing forward, the vehicle. The ship, on the inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
other hand, obtains thrust by taking some of the water through them. This can be expressed by the equation
which it travels, accelerating it and pushing it backwards at a
higher velocity than that of the ship forwards. The method of the 2
F=Gm1m2r
aero plane corresponds more closely to that of the ship than
that of the motor car or railway engine; once the airplane is
clear of the ground, the only reason able way of obtaining thrust Where,
is to push air or something else, backwards and to rely on the
reaction to push the airplane forwards. This is, in fact what is - F= attractive force
done, and to save complication
- r= distance between n two bodies(particles)

8.2.51 Mar, 2014
- miandm2= masses of bodies limitations placed upon it, e.g. MTOW. Weight limitations
depend upon the structural strength of the components that
- G= the universal gravitation constant make up the aircraft and the operational requirements that the
aircraft is designed to meet.
G= 6.67×10-11Newton.M2Kg2
The CG is the point of balance and its position depends upon
the weight of the aircraft and position of all the individual parts
The terms weight and mass are, many times, used inter of the aircraft and the load that it is carrying.
changeably; however, weight and mass have different
definitions. The weight of a body Is the pull exerted upon the
body by the gravitation of the earth. The weight of a body may
change depending upon its distance from the center of the
earth. The farther away an object is from the center of the earth,
the less it will weigh.
The mass of a body is a measure of the amount of material the

body contains. Regardless of the location to the earth's center,
the mass of a body will never change as long as no matter is
added to or removed from it. Remember, however, that lib of
mass will not be exactly lib of weight if the mass is not at the
proper distance from the center of the earth.
Both mass and weight are measured in units of pounds or

kilograms. Another run it of measuring mass that maybe
encountered is that of the slug. A slug is defined as being a unit
of mass having a value of approximately 32.175Ibunder
standard atmospheric conditions.
For our purposes in the study of principles off light weight is the
total weight of the loaded aircraft.
The magnitude of the weight is important and there are

8.2.52 Mar, 2014

PTC A, B1.1 &amp; B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)

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PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 8 – BASIC AERODYNAMICS

Category – A/B1/B2 Sub Module 8.2 – Aerodynamics

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Several methods or theories have been developed to predict the

For this reason many thousands of experiments have been

In experimental work, it is a usual practice to allow the fluid to

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AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY Types Of Flow

Pressure Distribution Steady Streamline Flow

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Controlled Separated Flow or Leading Edge Vortex FLOW. This

Figure 2: Vortex Flow

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If a wing is of infinite span, or, if it completely spans a wind

As the air flows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the

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Three-Dimensional Flow Uniform / Non-Uniform Flow

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The Equation of Continuity

The equation of continuity states basically that mass can neither

Consider the streamline flow of air through a venture tube. The

This is the general equation of continuity which applies to both

In compressible flow theory it is convenient to assume that

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PRESSURE ENERGY + KINETIC ENERGY = CONSTANT.

It can be shown that this simplified law can be expressed in

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Figure 3: Airflow in a venturi tube

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Whenever a body is moved through air, or other viscous fluid, a

In the figure, a thin, flat plate is held edgewise to an air stream.

The plate has a certain roughness as it is impossible to create a

Even though it is not always apparent, air does have thickness

Skin friction slows up the air and brings it to a standstill close to

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Figure 4: Skin Friction and Viscosity of Air

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The term laminar describes the situation when air is flowing in

Laminar flow is most likely to occur where the surface is

If airflow is smooth and flows in layers, it is referred to as a

Figure 5: Laminar and Turbulent Flow

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The boundary layer is the layer adjacent to the aerofoil surface.

This is illustrated in Figure a. The boundary layer is caused by

Ordinarily, the airflow at the leading edge of a wing will be

Figure 6: Boundary Layer

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When an aerofoil is moved through the air, a stream of air flows

In Figure shown a symmetrical aerofoil is shown with its chord

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Figure 7: Relative Air Flow on Wings and Blade

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AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY Angle Of Attack

An aerofoil section is a cross-section of a wing, which can be Mean Camber Line

Chord Camber is defined as the curvature of an aerofoil surface or an

It is the angle that the chord line of an aerofoil section makes

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Figure shows an aerofoil that has a double convex curvature,

The shape of the mean camber line is very important in

These quantities are expressed as fractions or percentages of

PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)

PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)