Spring Design

Strength of Materials

is compressed to its solid height. The solid height of a
coil spring is the overall length of the spring when it is

Springs
compressed until all adjacent coils touch. The length of the
coil spring under no load condition is called the free
length.

A spring is an elastic machine element that stores Wahl Factor

energy and when released, will recover to its basic form or
position. A mechanical spring is an elastic body or resilient The Wahl factor (A. M. Wahl) is a correction
member whose primary function is to deflect or distort factor which takes into account the effects of transverse
under load; recover its original shape when released after shear (the 0.615/C part) and curvature (the 4C – 1 / 4C –
being distorted. Spring design involves the relationships 4 part). This factor depends on the spring index C and is
between force, torque, deflection and stress. The more applied under the assumption that the spring is still under
important types of springs are : its elastic limit.
4C − 1 0.615
Uses of Springs K= +
4C − 4 C

1. To absorb energy or shock loads as in automobiles
chassis springs and railroad bumper springs.
2. To act as a source of energy as in clocks.
3. To produce a pressure or force as in surfaces of
clutches and as in keeping a cam follower in contact
with the cam.
4. To absorb vibration.
5. To act as load-measuring device as in instruments
such as gauges, meters and engine indicators.
Helical Compression Springs
Helical springs are usually made of circular cross
section wire or rod. These springs are subjected to a
torsional shear stress and to a transverse shear stress.
There is also an additional stress effect due to the
curvature of the helix. In order to take into account the
effects of transverse shear and curvature, it is customary
to multiply the torsional shear stress by a correction factor
K, called the Wahl factor.
When multiplied by K, the shear stress calculated
this way is called corrected stress. K ranges from 1.3105
(C = 5) to 1.1840 (C = 8). A small value for C leads to a
long, slender spring with large value of the stress factor K,
while a large value of C leads to a short, fat spring with
lower value of the stress factor K.
Stress at Solid Height
In the design of compression springs it is usually
desirable to choose the coil pitch so that when the spring
is compressed solid, no appreciable permanent set will
occur. (Webster – set is the permanent change of form
due to repeated or excessive stress.) The reason for this is
that in operation the spring may at times be compressed
solid, and, if under these conditions it takes a set, the load
at working deflections will be changed; hence the spring
will no longer have its initial characteristics. Thus the
stress at solid compression should not, in general, be
exceeded.

Spring Index Spring Constant

Spring constant is defined as the ratio of the

The spring index, C is the ratio of the mean
load (N) to the deflection (mm or m). The unit is therefore
diameter, D to the diameter of the wire, d. The best
N/m. Synonyms of the term include spring gradient, spring
proportioned springs have an index of 7 through 9.
scale and spring rate. Note: the unit kN/m is numerically
equal to N/mm and the English unit lb/in is equal to 0.175
C = D/d
126 8352 N/mm.
The mean diameter of a spring is the average of F F −F
ks = ks = 2 1
its outside and inside diameter : D = (DO + DI)/2. It is δ δ 2 − δ1
measured from the center of the spring’s wire, through the
Gd Gd 4
center of the coil, to the center of the wire on the other ks = ks =
side. 8C 3n 8D 3n

Deflection in Coil Springs

Stresses in Coil Springs
Deflection is the lengthening or shortening of coil
A coil spring loaded by an axial load may be springs caused by an applied load. An equation for the
considered essentially as a bar under a torsion moment. axial deflection of a helical spring in terms of the axial
On this basis, the torsional shearing stress will be equal to load, spring dimensions and a material’s constant may be
the moment divided by the section modulus. The shear conveniently determined by equating the work required to
stress induced in a helical spring due to an axial load is deflect the spring to the strain energy in the twisted wire.
8KFC 8KFD
D
Ss = Ss = 8FC 3 n 8FD 3 n
π d2 π d3 δ = δ =
Gd Gd 4
Ss – shear stress, Pa δmax = FL – SH
K – Wahl factor
F – applied force, N d δ – deflection, m
C – spring index G – modulus of rigidity, 80 GPa
d – wire diameter, m DO
n – effective number of coils
D – mean coil diameter, m FL – free length, m
SH – solid height, m
F FS
δ Maximum deflection is obtained when the spring is
compressed to its solid height. Wahl found that the actual
FL deflection agreed well, within 1-2%, with values calculated
SH by these formulas, provided that G is accurately known
and the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Free Deflection Solid The number of active coils is the actual number
Length Height of coils used in supporting the load. For the usual
compression spring with ends squared and ground,
The maximum stress is obtained when the spring approximately one inactive coil may be taken at each end

1 Patrick D. Sta. Maria / February 19, 2017

 Spring Design Strength of Materials

giving a value for n equal to the total number of coils δ – deflection, m
minus 2. However, slightly better accuracy will be obtained C – spring index
in most cases by using a figure of 1.75 instead of 2. d – wire diameter, m
D – mean coil diameter, m
Types of ends of coil springs Do – outside diameter, m
E – modulus of elasticity
200 GPa for steel
F – applied force, N
G – modulus of rigidity
80 GPa for steel
Ss – shear stress, Pa
K – Wahl factor
Ks – spring constant, N/m
n – effective number of coils

Conversion Factors

in = 25.4 mm
plain plain and squared squared
lb = 4.448 221 615 N
end ground end ends and
psi = 6 894.757 293 Pa
ground
hp = 745.6997 W
in-lb = 0.112 984 829 N-m
Spring System ft-lb = 1.355 817 948 N-m
lb/in = 0.1751268352 N/mm
Springs in Series – For springs in series (one on top
of the other), the force on each of the spring is equal to
the net force applied on the system. The individual
deflection is computed based on individual index. In the Problems
following formula, U stands for upper, L stands for lower
spring. 1. Determine the maximum shearing stress and
elongation in a helical steel spring composed of 20 turns of
FT = FU = FL 20-mm diameter wire on a mean diameter of 160 mm
δU = FU / kSU δL = FL / kSL when the spring is supporting a load of 2 kN.
δT = δU + δL
FU F FT 2. A helical spring is made by wrapping steel wire 20 mm
δT = + L =
k SU k SL k ST in diameter around a forming cylinder 150 mm in
1 1 1 diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit
or : = + an elongation of 100 mm without exceeding a shearing
k ST k SU k SL stress of 140 MPa. G = 83 Gpa.

The reciprocal of the spring constant of a system
of springs in series is the sum of the reciprocal of
individual spring constants.
Springs in Parallel – For springs in parallel (one
inside the other), the individual deflection of each of the
spring is equal to the deflection of the system. The total
force is the sum of the force carried by each member of
the system. In the following formula, I stands for inner
and O stands for outer spring.
δT = δO = δI
FT = FO + FI
(kST)(δT) = (kSO)(δO) + (kSI)(δI)
or : kST = kSO + kSI
3. Two steel springs arranged in series as shown support
a load P. The upper spring has 12 turns of 25-mm
diameter wire on a mean diameter of 200 mm. The lower
spring consists of 10 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a
mean radius of 75 mm. If the maximum shearing stress in
either spring must not exceed 200 MPa, compute the
maximum value of P and the total elongation of the
assembly. Let G = 83 GPa. Compute the equivalent spring
constant.
4. A load P is supported by two concentric steel springs
one inside the other. The inner spring consists of 30 turns
of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean diameter of 150 mm;
the outer spring has 20 turns of 30-mm wire on a mean
diameter of 200 mm. Compute the maximum load that will
not exceed a shearing stress of 140 MPa in either spring.

The spring constant of a system of springs in

parallel is the sum of the individual spring constants.

Summary of Formulas
for Coil Springs
Mean Diameter Spring Index
D = Do – d C=D/d

Wahl Factor

4C − 1 0.615
K= +
4C − 4 C
Spring Constant

F Gd 4
ks = ks =
δ 8D 3n
Deflection Stress
8FD n3
8KFD
δ = Ss =
Gd 4 π d3

2 Patrick D. Sta. Maria / February 19, 2017