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AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

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Table of Contents

Class Page

Biological Psychology (Psychobiology) 3

Child Psychology (Birth -‐ Adolescence) 12

Consciousness & Sleep 19

History of Psychology 30

Intelligence 36

Learning & Conditioning 40

Memory 50

Motivation & Emotion 58

Personality 69

Psychology Disorders (Abnormal Psychology) 75

Research Methods 83

Sensation & Perception 91

Social Psychology 99

Stress & Health 112

Therapy 118


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Biological Psychology (Psychobiology)
A. Life as a single celled organism
1. Minimal Abilities - the single cell organism can find food and ingest it, can move away from
irritating environmental factors, maybe even learn and habituate to stimuli.
2. Problems - as a single celled organism, when improvement or focus is given to any one
ability, there is an associated decrement in others. With many functions, too much
emphasis on one function causes others to suffer.
B. The colony
1. Solution - one day you (a single cell organism) are crawling around and run into another (an
amoeba). You make a deal. You like to crawl around, it likes to ingest. So, the two of you
team up, form cells or societies and make use of each other's skills. You compensate for
its shortcomings and it compensates for yours. Together, you are far more efficient,
productive, and thus, more likely to survive and reproduce.
2. Specialization - soon, specialization begins occurring (some movement, some sensitivity to

environmental stimuli, others to irritation from environment, other secretion) - this means a
reduction in flexibility of individual cells. Each cell becomes dependent on other cells for
certain functions - while there is an increase in the ability to deal with the environment
when together, there is a decrease in the ability to deal with the environment when cut off
from the other cells.
All of this leads to advancements in cell organization and development. Now, multi-celled organisms
begin to evolve and adapt to their environments. Now we can take a closer look at the individual
cells (neurons) and their components. Let's examine the Neuron and its components.
I. The Neuron
Definition - a self-sufficient, specialized cell in the nervous system that receives, integrates, and
carries information throughout the body.

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The majority of neurons are located in the brain - approx. 100 billion in the brain, although this is
debatable.
Each neuron receives information, on average, from tens of thousands of other neurons, making it
the most complex communications system in creation.
A. Types of Neurons - although most communicate within the central nervous system (CNS - brain &
spinal cord), some do get signals from outside the central nervous system. There are three major
types of neurons upon which information travels. In addition, the information travels from the
Sensory Neurons to the Interneurons, and then finally to the Motor Neurons.
1. Sensory Neurons
Brings information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Brings information
from the eyes, ears, etc., as well as from within the body like the stomach.
2. Interneurons
Neurons in the brain and spinal cord serve as an intermediary between sensory and motor
neurons. They carry info around the brain for processing.
3. Motor Neurons
Carry the information from the CNS to the appropriate muscles to carry out behaviors.
For example, if you hold your hand over a hot flame, the information about "heat" travels from
your hand on the sensory neurons, to the interneurons where it is brought to the appropriate
brain region to process the information (now you know it is "hot") and make a decision about
a corresponding action (too hot, let's move the hand). The information then travels on the

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Motor Neurons from the brain to the hand so that your muscles move the hand from the hot
flame. See how easy that is?
B. Structure of the Neuron
1. Soma - the cell body, which contains the nucleus, cytoplasm, etc. Everything needed for
survival.
a. Dendrites - specialized branch-like structures used to receive information from other

neurons. The more dendrites a cell has the more neurons it can communicate with.
2. Axon - thin, tail-like fiber that extends from the soma to the terminal buttons. This can range
from as small as a red blood cell to 3 ft. long.
a. Axon Hillock - area where the axon connects to the soma.
b. Myelin - a fatty substance that covers the axon that serves 2 purposes:
The myelin forms a sheath (covering) called the myelin sheath that helps the signal travel
faster along the neuron (see Nodes of Ranvier below), and it also protects the axon from
damage and signals from other neurons.
The myelin sheath is not indestructible, but can deteriorate - For example, multiple
sclerosis - signals are impeded and don't get to and from the brain properly.
c. Nodes of Ranvier - myelin sheath is not an even cover, but there are areas that are
covered and others that aren't. The areas w/o myelin are the nodes of Ranvier. The way
this helps speed up transmission is that the electrical current/signal jumps from Node of
Ranvier to Node of Ranvier instead of traveling down the entire axon.
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d. Axon Terminal - area at the end of the neuron where it meets another neuron.
BUT ONE NEURON ALONE IS MEANINGLESS - THEY MUST TALK! They communicate using
an electrical signal called the Neural Impulse (sometimes it is combined with chemical
signals...you'll see).
II. The Neural Impulse
Definition: the electrical and chemical transmission of information from one neuron to another. Take a
look at two neurons.
A. Neural impulse - takes the same path all the time - it is a process of conducting information from
a stimulus by the dendrite of one neuron and carrying it through the axon and on to the next
neuron. Let's take a look at what's involved in the neural impulse:
1. Ions - we have positively (+) and negatively (-) charged particles called ions. For the neural
impulse, however, we are only concerned with Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+).
2. Selectively Permeable Membrane - the outer membrane of the neuron is not impermeable, but
instead selectively allows some ions to pass back and forth. The way it selects is easy - it has
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pores that are only so big. So, only very small ions can fit through. Any large ions simply can't
pass through the small pores.
3. Charge of the Neuron - inside the neuron, the ions are mostly negatively charged. Outside the
neuron, the ions are mostly positively charged. In this state (with mostly negative charge
inside and positive charge on the outside) the neuron is said to be polarized.
4. Resting Potential - while the neuron is polarized, it is in a stable, negatively charged, inactive
state. The charge is approx. -70 millivolts, and it means that the neuron is ready to fire (receive
and send information).
5. Stimulus - eventually, some stimulation occurs (ex. hand to close to a flame), and the
information is brought into the body by a sensory receptor and brought to the dendrites of a
neuron.
6. Action Potential - once the stimulation (the heat) reaches a certain threshold (come to later)
the neural membrane opens at one area and allows the positively charged ions to rush in and
the negative ions to rush out. The charge inside the neuron then rises to approx. +40 mv. This
only occurs for a brief moment, but it is enough to create a domino effect.
7. Repolarization - the neuron tries to quickly restore its charge by pumping out the positively
charged ions and bringing back the negative ones. Can occur fast enough to allow up to
1,000 action potentials per second.
8. Absolute Refractory Period - after the action potential occurs, there is a brief period during
which the neuron is unable to have another action potential. Then the charge inside the
neuron drops to about -90 mv (refractory period) before restoring itself to normal.
9. Speed of an Action Potential - can travel from 10120 meters/sec, or 2-270 miles/hour.
10. All-or-None Law - a neural impulse will either occur or not. There is no in between. Once the
threshold is reached, there is no going back, the neural impulse will begin and will go through
the complete cycle.
B. Threshold - a dividing line that determines if a stimulus is strong enough to warrant action. If the
threshold is reached, an action potential will occur.
III. The Synapse (this is a list of the components that make up the synapse)
Definition: area where the axon terminal of one neuron meets the dendrite of another neuron. They
do not connect, but there is a small gap called the SYNAPTIC CLEFT/GAP.
A. Pre and Post Synaptic Neurons (a small cleft can be jumped by the impulse) - as you can
guess, these are the neurons that…
1. Have the information to pass on to the next neuron

2. The next neuron waiting to receive the information

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B. Neurotransmitters - chemicals that carry information from one neuron to the next. When the
synaptic cleft is too large to be jumped by the neural impulse, the signal/information must be
passed using chemicals as (neurotransmitters) instead of electrical currents.
C. Transmission of Neurotransmitters - When the synaptic cleft is too large to be jumped, the gap
can be crossed using neurotransmitters located in sacs within the axon terminal (the end of the
axon). The sac with the appropriate neurotransmitters is forced through the membrane into the
cleft, releasing the neurotransmitters into the cleft. Neurotransmitters then make their way to
receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron, where they stimulate the neuron and the action
potential begins again.
D. Receptors - the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron are specific, and thus will only allow
certain neurotransmitters into them. In essence, it is very much like a lock and key - you must
have the right key (neurotransmitter) for the right lock (receptor site).
E. Recycling - after neurotransmitters have been used, they are recycled by the body for later use.
They are broken down by enzymes so that they vacate the receptor sites, and then brought
back to the axon terminal and stored. Pretty efficient, wouldn't you say?
F. Types of Neurotransmitters - approx. 60, but let's just only touch on two of them.
1. Acetylcholine (ACh) - found in parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), spinal cord, &
areas of the brain.
In PNS - ACh activates muscles that help the body move. But also is inhibitory since it helps
the body slow down in the parasympathetic nervous system.
In Brain - ACh is involved in breathing, attention, arousal, motivation, etc.
Problems occur if ACH functioning is hindered.
For Example - South American Indians use curare on the tips of arrows for hunting. The
curare binds to the receptor cites where Ach binds, so the Ach can't work, this results in
paralysis and death.
Another Example - the black widow spider uses venom that causes flood of ACh into
neuromuscular synapses, which result in violent, uncontrollable muscle contractions,
paralysis, and death.
2. Dopamine - involved in movement, learning, reinforcement, etc. Has been associated with
several clinical disorders such as schizophrenia.
Dopamine Hypothesis (of schizophrenia) - one possible explanation for Schizophrenia is that
there is an excess of dopamine at certain synapses in the brain. The increased dopamine
levels produce abnormal, problematic behaviors. There are 3 ways this can occur:
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a. Presynaptic neuron produces too much dopamine.
b. Dopamine is not removed from cleft, so keeps working.
c. Oversensitive postsynaptic neuron receptors (Most popular)
IV. The Two Nervous Systems
A. Central Nervous System (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
1. Spinal Cord - bundles of neurons that extend from the base of the skull to just below the
waist, and act as an information link between the brain and the rest of the body.
2. Brain - the brain has 3 major divisions - hindbrain, midbrain, & forebrain (image of the brain)
a. Hindbrain - attached to the spinal cord and is responsible for many automatic functions
such as breathing and heartbeat, as well as some voluntary actions like walking and facial
movements.
b. Midbrain - area of the brain that serves primarily as a relay station between the forebrain
and hindbrain, but does control some bodily movements like the startle reflex.
c. Forebrain - the largest and most complex region of the brain.

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3. Cerebrum - center for complex thought. Involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and
consciousness. Divided into two halves (hemispheres) that are connected by the corpus
callosum - if split, hemispheres can't communicate, but that does not mean that a person
can't survive. There is a large and interesting body of research on split-brain functions. Please
check your textbook for this.
B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - carries information from the sense organs to the CNS and
then from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
1. Somatic Nervous System - nerves that connect the voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory
receptors (skin, muscles, & joints).
2. Autonomic Nervous System - nerves that connect the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles,
& glands. Controls automatic functioning like heart rate, eye blinking, & digestion. Controls
much of the physiological arousal you experience from emotions. It is this nervous system that
is involved in the famous fight-or-flight response.
Fight-or-Flight Response - Walter Cannon (1932) - found that when confronted with
dogs, cats responded by: 1. preparing to fight; 2 preparing to flee. People are the
same.
3. Sympathetic Nervous System - prepares the body for emergencies. Responsible for the fight-
or-flight response: brings blood from internals to externals (muscles), slows down digestion,
signals adrenal glands to release hormones, etc.
4. Parasympathetic Nervous System - slows body down, conserves bodily resources: slows
heart rate, reduces blood pressure, etc.
V. Genetics (this is going to be covered very, very, briefly)
Definition: the study of heredity (characteristics transmitted by the genes a person is born with).
A. Gene - DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.
1. Genotype - all of the genes you are born with (the combination of these genes and
environmental influences form a person's observable characteristics).
2. Phenotype - the expression of your genetic makeup (eye color, height, hair color, etc.).
3. Dominant Genes - genes that are expressed when paired genes are mixed.
4. Recessive Genes - genes that are masked when paired genes are mixed.
5. Homozygous Genes - the combination of two similar genes in a pair (bb, BB, etc.).
6. Heterozygous Genes - the combination of two dissimilar genes in a pair (Bb, etc.).

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B. Chromosomes - thread-like strands of DNA molecules that form the DNA segments. Every
cell in the human body has 46 chromosomes; 23 from mom, 23 from dad.
Each parent's chromosomes can be scrambled 8 million ways to give approx. 70 trillion
possible configurations. The more closely related we are the more genes we have in common,
the more similar we are to one another.
1. Autosomes - all chromosomes except sex chromosomes, which regulate such things as
eye color, hair, body size, etc.
2. Sex Chromosomes - one pair of the 23 chromosomes from each parent, which determines
your gender.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/biopsych.html#ixzz1OpmzMmXG


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Child Psychology (Birth to Adolescence)
Definition: Developmental Psychology is the study of how individuals become more advanced and
effective as they age, and focuses on the process of BECOMING (how people become who and
what they are) as opposed to BEING (the current state of who and what people are)
What is Development? It’s the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses
from conception to death. We go through different types of changes:
Physical Development - motor skills, bone structure, weight, etc.
Cognitive Development - thought patterns and skills, problem solving, etc.
Social Development - emotional changes, personality, etc.
The Developmental Psychologist does the following:
Examines past experiences and influences in order to understand current behavior.
Uses current behavior to predict future behavior. Who we are is assumed to be a function of past
experiences.
Development begins long before the child is born. From conception, there are changes happening all
of the time. In addition, many factors influence how the child develops before birth - in fact, I am
often find myself thinking how amazing it is that ANY child is born healthy. One major influence is
MATERNAL HEALTH.
I. Maternal Health
A. Maternal Drug Taking - although most Introductory Psychology books mention (only briefly) the
effects of drugs on prenatal development, they fail to mention Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, which
affects 1 out of every 750 children born in the U.S.
1. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - a 1991 study found that mothers who consumed just 1 alcoholic
beverage a day during pregnancy (and assuming these are drinks that contain moderate
alcohol levels per drink), had children who scored lower on IQ tests at age 4 than children
whose mothers did not drink. Even when environmental factors were accounted for, IQ scores
were still lower.
2. Maternal Smoking - has immediate effects such as hindering oxygenation of blood to the
baby, as well as long-term effects like deficits in growth and learning abilities.
3. Obstetrical Medication - although prescribed by a doctor, studies have found that pain
medication given during labor (in larger doses) have been correlated with sluggish, less

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animated infant behavior during the first few weeks of life. This has a common effect of
hindering the parent-infant bond. In addition, these children have been found to have poor
motor coordination and cognitive deficits up to a year old.
4. Maternal Emotional State (Just hang on a second before you make any comments) often
overlooked; since more than half of the pregnancies in this country are unplanned, there nay
be guilt, anxiety, and depression, all of which are mediated by hormonal reactions, which pass
through the placenta to the baby. Thus, a rise in adrenaline in mom also occurs in baby. This
can be damaging when prolonged, but temporary reactions are not as damaging.
Highly emotional mothers during pregnancy have been linked with highly active, irritable infant
behaviors, as well as infants who are abnormal sleepers and eaters. Finally, emotionality in
mothers has been correlated with miscarriages (greater emotionality is positively correlated
with incidences of miscarriage).
5. Maternal Age - Both Down's Syndrome and infant mortality increase with mother's age.
Women age 40 have a 1/100 chance of giving birth to a child with Down's Syndrome. Women
age 50 have a 1/10 chance! Mortality rate is also higher in young mothers (meaning
adolescents). This is possibly due to the body's inability to handle pregnancy before a certain
developmental level.
6. Nutrition (for years, my mother has been screaming about the importance of nutrition on
everything in life) - this has become popular in more recent years...especially the notion of
how much weight to gain during pregnancy. Today, it is more common for a doctor to
recommend gaining between 25 and 30 pounds as opposed to 15-18 that was common just a
few years ago.
7. Environmental Factors - such as RADIATION that can occur from jobs (X-ray technicians,
flight attendants) and lead to low birth-weight, stillborns, birth defects, etc. This is not only for
mothers - men exposed to radiation also may contribute to prenatal health problems like
chromosomal alterations and mental retardation.
II. Infancy (from age 0 - 2)
A. Developments
1. Sensory Development - It was once believed that a neonate (new born) was an empty-
headed, passive organism that was unable to perceive. Simply ate, drank, slept, etc…BUT
more recently, the consensus is that infancy is an active time of exploration and acquiring
information through primitive but effective means (sight, hearing, etc.).
a. Visual Perception - Recent research has shown that neonates are more advanced visually
than once believed. Two Examples:
1) Visual Cliff - a researcher places a checkered cloth over a table or other raised surface
that extends over the table, floor, everything around. Then, a piece of clear plastic or
glass is placed on the raised surface so that it extends out from the surface. This gives

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the appearance, when looking from the top of the clear material, that there is a cliff. A
child is placed on the table/surface and the mother stands at the end of the clear
plastic or glass, and calls for the child to crawl to her. If the child simply crawls to her,
over the edge of the table on the plastic, then the child has not yet developed depth
perception. If the child stops at the edge of the table and looks down, but refuses to
crawl to the mother, than it can be inferred that the child does have depth perception.
Depth perception is usually exhibited between 6 - 14 months; At that point, children are
less likely to crawl over the edge of the table.
2) Preference for Visual Stimuli - Frantz (1961) showed infants different pictures of shapes
that, to varying degrees, represented a human face. There was a range - some of the
pictures just looked like a bunch of unrelated images, while at the other end, some
looked like a human face. He found that up to 40% of fixation time was on human face,
20% on complex non-face, 10% on solid color stimuli. REASONS - complex images
provide more stimulation; humans may be biologically programmed to keep contact
with caregivers (survival).
b. Behavioral Development - includes reflexes such as rooting, Moro, etc.
What about crying? The average neonate spends 6-7% of awake time crying. Early cries
are reflex to discomfort; biological method of communication with caregivers. Many
different types of crying - research shows that adults (not just parents) can identify types of
cries (pain, anger, etc.). Of course, the all important question is…
Should you respond to a crying baby? There are two primary perspectives:
1) John Watson - he stated that responding to crying was not a good idea because it
produces a reward for crying. Thus, the baby learns to cry anytime it wants to see mom
or dad, not when it actually is in need.
2) Mary Ainsworth - impossible to respond too often. Responding establishes secure
attachment. Research is INCONCLUSIVE.
a) Attachment - process of forming close emotional bonds of affection that develop

between infants and care givers.
b) Mary Ainsworth - developed the strange situation procedure to measure attachment
in infants. From this research, she has established that there are 3 main categories
of child-parent attachment:
§ avoidant attachment - infant avoids mother when reunited.

§ secure attachment (65%) - infant actively seeks out contact with mother.
§ ambivalent attachment - seeks contact but then resist once contact is made.
2. Language - are we more capable to learn language at a younger age?

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III. Childhood (from 2-11)
As infants become children, they become less socially dependent on their parents and more
responsive to peers. This becomes particularly prevalent during adolescence, but for now, let's just
look at childhood.
A. Social Developments
1. Identification - at approximately age 4-5, children become less egocentric begins to identify
with parents. Identification is a process of adopting the attitudes, values, and behaviors of
their parents. In addition, children start to imitate same-sex parent (act like daddy). During
this time, children also begin to develop their SELF-CONCEPT (knowledge of who you are as
an individual) by beginning to focus on external factors like name, age, where you live, friends,
etc. For example, during this time, ask a child who they are, and you may get responses that
include "I am kid" "I am a kid with lots of friends" "I am a kid with lots of friends who lives in
Washington DC", etc...
2. Early Social Influences - at approximately age 6-10, children begin to expand their social
contacts beyond family and friends. They may become members of clubs or groups at school,
play on sports teams, etc.
Also, they begin to experience pressure from peers and observe how others act and how they
should act. This is the time during which that drives to be like others begin to pick up steam
(bring a certain toy to school because everyone else has one). They need to feel ACCEPTED
by peers to develop confidence.
B. Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development)
One of the most important Figures in Psychological understanding of Childhood development in

Jean Piaget. Let's take a look at some of his work and influences. His theories of cognitive
development is a "stage theory" in that in each stage of development, children are faced with
challenging situations which must deal with and overcome through increased mental abilities. Once
the challenge is successfully dealt in that stage, the children can move on to the next stage of
cognitive development. There are several key components of Piaget's theory of cognitive
development:
1. Schemas - mental models that incorporate characteristics of people, places, objects, etc., that
the child uses to complete a series of actions (ex. - to stand, an infant may have to reach up,
grab side of crib, hold firmly, etc.). These schemas are adaptable to our lives...as we age and
change so do the schemas by two processes:
a. assimilation - incorporate new information with previous schemas.
b. accommodation - alter an existing schema to compensate for new information.
2. Stages of Piagetian Development

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a. Sensorimotor - ages 0-2. Stage is marked by infant's increasing ability to organize and
coordinate sensations and perceptions with their actions.
b. Object Permanence - most significant accomplishment during this stage - approx. 8 months
old, infant acquires the ability to understand that objects that are out of sight still exist.
3. Preoperational - ages 2-7. During this stage mental reasoning begins, egocentrism reduces as
child approaches end of stage, magical belief system disappears, etc.
a. Egocentrism - infant is only able to perceive the world from its own point of view.
4. Concrete operational - ages 7-12. child develops the ability to perform complex intellectual
operations such as conservation, classification, seriation, and temporal relationships.
a. Conservation - realization that changing the form of an object/substance does not change
its amount.
b. Classification - ability to group items according to identifying characteristics (cats & dogs).
c. Seriation - putting items in order according to size.
d. Temporal Relations - concept of first, second, last, before, after, etc.
5. Formal Operational - ages 11-15 - period when the person learns hypothetical reasoning. Now
they can function purely on a symbolic, abstract level.
6. Some Problems with Piaget's Theory
a. Piaget may have underestimated the cognitive abilities of children (especially when very
young) - object permanence may occur earlier; children also may be less egocentric (or at
least be able to understand another persons perspective).
b. What about individual differences? What about when a child displays behaviors from
several different stages? Ever seen an infant do something incredible and sophisticated
cognitively?
c. This theory is a true stage theory, which may be inappropriate. His estimates for passing
through each stage are based on age. However, it is possible that children advance
through stages in response to environmental factors, not just age. For example, children
may begin to walk, on average, between ages 1-2 years, but the old adage "he/she will
walk when ready, may be correct. A child may be capable of walking at 1 year old, but not
receive proper motivation or environmental factors to go ahead and actually begin walking.

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IV. Adolescence
A. Characteristics
Occurs between the ages of approximately 11-22. There is usually some debate about the exact age
range, but most agree that adolescence is correlated with the onset of puberty.
This stage is often characterized as a state of Flux - intermediate zone between childhood and
adulthood.
The adolescent no longer wants to be w/mother or father all the time. Now has drive to become
independent, search for own solutions and ideas, opinions, and beliefs. But, still not prepared to be
self-supporting.
Very confusing time - seek to answer one question, "WHO AM I?" answered when an individual
establishes their own sense of identity. This term, "Identity" is a major theme of adolescence.
Identity - a total concept of self - this is a combination of physical, sexual, social, vocational,
moral, ideological, and psychological characteristics. This will be covered in more detail
shortly.
B. Why is adolescence so much more difficult than other stages?
1. Rapid Physical Changes - often leads to self-image concerns. More than at other
developmental stages, adolescents are concerned (often overwhelmingly so) with fitting in
with others, looking a certain way, appearing "pretty" or "god looking", etc. In addition, the
sense of identity is sometimes based on physical appearance at this stage in life.
2. Cognitive Changes - the use of introspection (this is new) and abstract reasoning to consider
complex ideas and hypotheses can cause many, many problems. For example, "what
happens if I don't look good? Are they going to dislike me because I am ugly?"
3. Career Concerns - desire to know who we will become often arises here.
C. Development of Identity
1. Erik Erikson (7 parts of identity – sub-stages of Identity vs. Identity/Role Confusion)
a. Temporal Perspective vs. Time Confusion -- gaining a true sense of time and the continuity
of life. Needed to make plans for future. Usually occurs around ages 15-16.
b. Self Certainty vs. Self Consciousness -- use past experiences to gain self-confidence and
realize that you can succeed in the future. Must go through a period of self-awareness &
self-consciousness, during which the adolescent focuses on self-image both physically
and socially to accomplish self-certainty. Very Crucial Time.

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c. Role Experimentation vs. Role Fixation -- try out different roles, ideas, philosophies, etc. to
find own way of thinking and acting.
d. Apprenticeship vs. Work Paralysis -- try out jobs to get insight into possible career. Jobs
can be very important for improving self-identity. Poor self-image can lead to failure at
work, school, etc., and to one's own self-opinion.
e. Sexual Polarization vs. Bisexual Confusion -- (criticized greatly for this stage) Searching for
a sexual identity people now have to understand and accept their role as either a man or
woman, and everything that comes with that role (reason for "Polarization").
f. Leadership & Followership vs. Authority Confusion -- do we become leaders or followers,

or do we not know our place in society. Demands from many places and people on the
adolescent so now he must decide whom to listen to - who is an authority figure.
g. Ideological Commitment vs. Confusion of Values -- "search for fidelity" - find

something/someone to believe in.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/birthtoadol.html#ixzz1OsmOO75Y


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Consciousness & Sleep
Definition: the awareness or perception of the environment and of one's own mental processes.
Many books state that consciousness is the awareness of internal and external stimuli.
One problem with this definition, and with this area of study as a whole, is that it seems like an
impossible area to understand since we do not know if the experience of consciousness is the same
(or even similar) between individuals. I can tell you about my conscious experiences, and you can tell
me about yours, but we can never truly understand and appreciate the conscious of others? Can I
really understand what it is like to think the way you think or if we imagine things the same way?
I. William James
Possibly the most influential figure in the study of consciousness (you know that phrase, "stream of
consciousness"? That's his). He identified the following 4 basic perspectives on consciousness. He
indicated that, consciousness is:
A. Always Changing - can't be held for study: "No state once gone can recur and be identical with
what it was before." If that is the case, then how in the world do we study it?
B. A Personal Experience - you can try to tell me about your consciousness but I can never appreciate
it or experience it.
C. Continuous - our awareness is not broken into pieces, and there are no gaps. We really can't tell
where one thought ends and one begins. "Consciousness then does not appear to itself chopped
up in bits...It is nothing jointed; it flows. A river or stream is most naturally described. In talking of it
hereafter, let us call it the stream of thought, of consciousness..."
D. Selective - awareness is often a matter of making choices, of selecting what to attend to and what
to ignore.
In general, when we speak of "consciousness" we refer to either being awake or being asleep. There
are, however, altered states of consciousness:
sleep, drugs, hypnosis, meditation, sensory deprivation, sensory confusion
BUT - we will focus on sleep from this point on.
II. Sleep
A. Measuring Sleep - Scientists measure sleep with the following:
1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- a device that measures the electrical activity of the brain. This
is the measure scientists rely on most when determining which stage of sleep a person is in.

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When using the EEG, we look at each wave in terms of the: a) frequency - how many times the
wave occurs within a specific period, and b) the amplitude - the size of the wave. These two
sub-measures help us identify wave types so that, in turn, we can identify different stages of
sleep.
2. Electrooculagram (EOG) -- a device that measures eye activity. During different stages of
sleep, our eyes move in distinct ways. For example, during slow wave sleep (SWS), we have
slow, rolling eye movements, however, during REM sleep, our eye movements are much more
rapid and occur in a sharp, back and forth way. The EOG is a vital tool for identifying REM
sleep since the EEG in REM, wake and stage look so similar. But, when we combine the EEG
and EOG it is easy to see the differences.
3. Electromyogram (EMG) -- this device is used to measure the muscle activity that occurs
during sleep, and is particularly helpful when attempting to identify REM sleep. During REM
sleep (as you will soon read), humans experience a type of temporary paralysis during which
the EMG drops to almost nothing (close to a flat line).
4. Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) -- as you most likely know, the electrocardiogram is a

measure of heart muscle contractions.
5. Temperature - body temperature is connected with sleep via the circadian rhythms (your
body's internal, biological clock). Although most people believe that the circadian rhythms are
a function of time, they in fact work according to body temperature that fluctuates over a 24
(or so) hour period. So, our internal clock seems to function according to our body
temperature that varies across a 24 hour period, and not strictly according to time. So, the
clock showing 11:00 am does not influence a person's ability to sleep...the body temperature
that occurs at that time of day is more important.
Types of Sleep (although we use many measures in combination to determine when a person is in
which stage of sleep, here we are going to discuss only the EEG, since this is the most prominent
feature of sleep. When we use percentages of wave occurrences, we mean that those percentages
of brain waves were present in a specific time period of brain wave activity - typically a 50 second
period. For example, if we say that the stage is made up of 50% Alpha waves, it means that in a 50
second period, 50% of all the brain waves measurable in that period are Alpha waves):
Take a look at an image of EEG recording.

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1. Non-REM Sleep (NREM) -- There are two main categories of sleep, Non-Rapid Eye Movement
or Non-REM (NREM) and Rapid Eye Movement (REM). NREM sleep contains all stages of
sleep except REM (there are 5, although this is debatable).
a. Stage 0 - also known as wake. In this stage your brain wave activity is composed mainly of
alpha and beta wave activity. Typically, it is said that the more beta waves, the more active
and "awake" your brain. However, do not take this to mean that when you sleep your brain
is inactive. In fact, your brain is very active in certain stages of sleep, it is just not in a
"waking" state. Do you see the difference?
b. Stage 1 - this is the transition stage from wake to sleep. It is that stage in which you are
aware that you are about to fall asleep, but haven't just yet. Approximately 5% of sleep is
stage 1, and is characterized by increased amounts of Theta waves and a reduction in
Alpha and Beta waves.
This is my favorite type of sleep, since I feel extremely relaxed and comfortable as I am
dozing off the sleep. Many people indicate that they are most aware of this when falling
asleep, for example, on the couch watching TV. This may be the result of trying to stay
awake...the resistance to sleep may prolong stage 1 and make you more aware of it.
c. Stage 2 - This stage of sleep is the most prominent stage as we spend the majority of
sleep time in it. Approximately 45% of sleep time is spent in Stage 2. Stage 2 is
characterized by a mix of Theta, sleep spindles, K-Complexes, & some Delta waves. Look
at the image above, and you can see all of these different components (although not that
well).

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Let me describe a couple of important ones:
1) Sleep Spindles - these are short episodes that look (the EEG that is) like small footballs.
When looking at the EEG, if you notice an area in which the amplitude (the height of the
wave) increases little by little, and the frequency (how close each wave is to the others)
decreases slightly, thus giving it the shape of a football, and then goes back to normal,
you know you are looking at a spindle.
2) K-Complex -- these are the surest indicators of stage 2 sleep. When a K-Complex
occurs, there is a sudden rise in wave amplitude (height) so the wave goes high above
baseline, and sharp decrease in frequency (so the wave looks very wide). Then there is
a sudden decrease in amplitude (so the wave now goes well below baseline) and then
back to baseline. In addition, there is often a little spike in the wave when it is moving
from high above baseline to far below baseline that gives it its characteristic "K" shape.
If you are monitoring a persons sleeping EEG, sleep spindles are a nice indicator of
Stage 2, but when you see K-Complexes, you know the person is definitely in Stage 2.
d. Stage 3 - This is the first stage of what is considered "deep sleep" or Slow Wave Sleep
(SWS). We spend approximately 7% of our time asleep in this stage, and it is characterized
by approximately 20-50% delta waves within minimal amplitude. Although it is a type of
deep sleep, many consider this a transition stage (much like Stage 1) between stages 2 &
4. As a result, there has been a push in recent years to eliminate Stages 3 & 4 and replace
them with just a single, "Stage 3" sleep.
e. Stage 4 - This stage is sometimes considered that "true" slow wave sleep stage. We
spend approximately 13% of our sleeping time in Stage 4. The sleeper has definitely
entered Stage 4 when there are more than 50% delta waves.
Many people believe that we dream only in REM sleep (in fact, some people refer to REM
as the dreaming stage. While it is true we have most of our dreams during REM, we also
dream in SWS)
* Note -- NREM sleep is considered inactive sleep, because during these stages, we have
decreased Blood Pressure, decreased Heart Rate (measured with ECG), reduced muscle
tension (measured with EMG), and slower eye movements (measured with EOG).
2. REM - Occurs in regular intervals every 60-90 minutes. REM sleep has its own unique
pattern of brain waves. The waves look much like the teeth of a saw (means that the waves
are fast and close together) and the pattern looks almost identical to stage 1 or wake. How
then can we differentiate between REM and Stage 1 or wake?
We rely on the other measures - during REM, muscle activity drops to almost nothing. In
fact, did you know that you are virtually paralyzed during REM? It's true. There are many
theories about why this is so, but regardless of why we are, the fact is that we are. In
addition, eye movements become more frequent and, instead of occurring a slow rolling
fashion like in other stages, they are sharper and occur in a fast, back and forth motion.

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REM cycle length seems to be dependent on brain size:
Rats = approximately every 12 minutes. Also humans have approximately twice the amount
of REM as other species.
a. dreaming - mostly occurs in REM, approximately 80%, although, as mentioned, we do

dream in SWS.
b. age - amount of REM decreases with age.
Pattern of Sleep (Hypnogram): Each human has a unique way and pattern of sleeping, but all
follow the same general sleep pattern. When we go to sleep, we...
a. have a rapid descent through the stages, from wake, to Stage 1, Stage 2...all the way to
Stage 4
b. then we go back to Stages 3 and then 2 briefly before entering the first REM cycle
c. this first REM period occurs 60-90 min after sleep onset, and is usually very brief (maybe
a minute to a few minutes)
d. majority of SWS during first cycle.
e. as the night progresses, we continue to have REM cycles every 60-90 minutes, but
length and intensity increases across each cycle. So while the first is very brief and light,
the last one of the evening (assuming an 8 hour sleep period) is very long and intense.
f. the second half of night is mainly stage 2 and REM. After the first half of the night we
have very, very, little SWS.
** Lots of people say that they do not dream or that on specific nights they did not
dream. Well, the reality is we all dream and we all dream every night. However, we
remember our dreams when we wake up during one of them. So, if we wake during a
REM cycle, we remember or aware of the fact that we were dreaming. This is why
people often believe they dreamt in the morning but not earlier in the night - remember
that the REM cycle is most intense toward morning (later in the sleep period), so
dreaming occurs more frequently and we are more likely to wake during it.
II. Sleep and Age
A. Infancy - lots of SWS, REM, and total sleep time.
From age 1 to the mid 20s, approximately 25% of peoples’ total sleep is spent in SWS. In
addition, REM decreases from approximately 35% to 25% of total sleep time, and total sleep
time drops by approximately half.
B. After mid 20s - daily sleep pattern becomes stable from now to approximately age 60, except for
SWS which drops dramatically after age 30. SWS drops from approximately 13% in mid 30s to
approximately 5% by age 60.
As you can see, the younger a person is, the more sleep they require. So the next time your
parents complain about you sleeping a lot, you can tell them that it has been scientifically
documented that younger people require lots of sleep.
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III. Sleep Theories
A. Early Theories
The early theories focused on what produced sleep not what sleep does (the purpose of sleep). It
was originally believed that sleep resulted from a build-up of some substance in the brain that
occurred during wake, which diminished with sleep. Aristotle actually had similar beliefs 2000
years earlier.
Advances in Physiology resulted in a new perspective that sleep was caused by "congestion in
the blood". Some said sleep was caused by blood building up in the brain...some said it was from
blood draining from the brain.
B. Behavioral Theorists
During the 19th century scientists believed sleep was a result of lack of stimulation...remove
stimulation, an organism goes to sleep. Also, it was believed that sleep was an active process of
preventing fatigue - "we sleep not because we are intoxicated or exhausted, but to prevent from
becoming intoxicated or exhausted."
C. 20th Century
The main ideas were substances accumulating in the brain like carbon dioxide, cholesterol, lactic
acid, etc. These theories were very poorly formulated and not well supported.
D. The Restorative (restoration) Perspective
Belief that sleep is used to restore our bodies after wear and tare. Despite the lack of conclusive
evidence or supporting data, this is still one of the most popular theories.
E. Non-Restorative
Rather than sleep being restorative, this perspective is that sleep is instinctive. Sleep is an
"evolutionary leftover". During the days of being hunters, and trying to avoid being the hunted, we
needed to be as invisible and quite as possible during the night hours (since we are not nocturnal,
we are more easily caught and eaten during those times). As a result, we developed REM sleep
so that we can be immobile and silent during the night (remember that we are paralyzed during
REM). We are immobile during non-productive hours, which can serve to protect us from danger,
prevent waste of energy, etc.
IV. Sleep Deprivation
One of the best ways to study the importance and function of sleep is to remove it and see what the
effects are.

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A. Longest Group Studies - these occurred in California during the late 1960s, and included total
sleep deprivation for 8-11 days.
B. Longest Single Subject Study - Randy Gardner, a 17 year old high school student set out to
break the world record for staying awake in order to win a science fair. The previous record was
260 hours of total sleep deprivation (Yikes!). Once word got out that Randy was trying this,
scientists came to monitor and record his progress. Here are some of the things that Randy
experienced during that time:
Day 1 - nothing unusual, just some fatigue.
Day 2 - Randy began having problems focusing his eyes. As a result, he gave up one of the
most utilized tools in sleep deprivation studies to remain awake - he stopped watching TV for
rest of study.
Day 3 - at this point, he started having some minor mood changes, ataxia (poor body
movement coordination), speech problems, and nausea.
Day 4 - not surprisingly, Randy started getting irritable on day 4, became a bit uncooperative,
had some memory losses, poor concentration, and indicated that he felt like tight band
around head. He also had a few hallucinations, including mistaking a street sign for a person.
Day 5 - Randy started having more hallucinations. For example, Randy insisted he was a great
football player (although he clearly wasn't) and became annoyed with any arguments to the
contrary. Later in day he began to feel better.
Days 6-8 - more ataxia, speech and memory problems.
Day 9 - fragmented thoughts and speech, blurred vision, and he became paranoid (he stated
that others were out to ruin his attempt to break the record).
After reaching goal, Randy slept for 14.75 hours, after which all of the speech and memory
problems disappeared. He also obtained an extra 6.5 hours of sleep over next two nights,
regaining 24% of lost sleep including 2/3 of lost stage 4 and 1/2 of lost REM. It is a bit
misleading to use the term "regaining lost sleep" as we never truly regain sleep (once gone,
it's gone). However, what happens is that we can have an increase in the amount of particular
stages of sleep we obtain. This is often referred to as "regaining lost sleep".
Randy's experiences showed us several things about sleep, including:
1. The cerebrum and human behavior are affected, although significantly harmful effects were not
found
2. Physical condition (BP, Heart Rate, strength, etc.) all remained normal throughout the study.
3. Circadian rhythms were demonstrated
4. Most recovery sleep occurred in one session and most recovery was stage 4 and REM.

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V. Sleep Disorders
A. Insomnia - chronic problem with obtaining a sufficient amount of sleep.
There are 3 basic patterns of insomnia:
1. Initial problems falling asleep

2. Difficulty remaining asleep
3. Persistent early awakenings
Although many people believe they are insomniacs, most are not (pseudo-insomnia). There is a high
rate of false belief in insomnia for several reasons. The main reason is the erroneous belief that we
must get 8 hours of sleep. Many sleep experts (including several that I have worked with) insist that 8
hours is the required minimum for the "normal" adult human to obtain in order to function properly.
However, the research simply does not support this. It is true that some cognitive functioning is
slightly hindered, but overall, not obtaining 8 hours of sleep is NOT going to cause you major
problems. Now, it may make you very tired, and the feelings of drowsiness may then result in
problems, but physiological deficits due to sleep deprivation are not seen simply by not obtaining 8
hours of sleep a night. Sorry.
In addition to the myth of 8 hours, there are a couple of other reasons many people believe they have
insomnia:
1. People frequently overestimate how long it takes to fall asleep.

2. When a person has had problems falling asleep (even if the problems are only imagined), they
often spend time laying in bed worrying about not sleeping. Doing this produces anxiety,
which in turn, reduces the likelihood that you will fall asleep.
As you can see, Insomnia is not a physical problem but a psychological one. So, how do we correct
it? The Solution: Sleep Hygiene:
1. Don't take naps during the day

2. Try to wake up at the same time each day - helps circadians
3. Only attempt to sleep when sleepy
4. Associate bed with sleep
B. Narcolepsy - sudden and irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours.
Characteristics of narcolepsy:
1. Person goes directly from wake to REM. Studies have indicated that excitement tends to
produce a narcoleptic fit
2. Obviously, this is a very dangerous disorder
3. Etiology (cause) is unknown - true narcolepsy is rare

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C. Sleep Apnea - reflexive gasping for air which awakens person and disrupts sleep. During different
stages of sleep, the Apneac's muscles become so limp that the air passages essentially close.
This has serious ramifications as it make it difficult for the sleeper to get enough oxygen.
1. Although the Apneic may be unaware of it, they may have hundreds of awakenings a night
2. Blood oxygen level can go as low as 30% (I can't express to you just how dangerous this is.
Just take my word for it, 30% oxygenation is very dangerous)
3. Muscles become completely limp (has been linked to SIDS - sudden infant death syndrome)
D. Night Terrors - abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep accompanied by intense autonomic arousal
and feelings of panic.
1. Usually occurs during SWS

2. This is most common in children ages 3-8, although it sometimes occurs in adults
3. Typically during a night terror, the child will sit upright, scream a lot (one father told me that it
sounds like the child is being murdered), but then just stops and goes back to sleep.
4. Usually the child has no recollection of the event
5. Not indicative of emotional disorders
E. Somnambulism (sleep walking)
1. Despite what your mother may have told you, a sleep walker is Not acting out a dream
2. Typically, sleep walking occurs during SWS
3. Etiology is unknown - may be affected by stress
4. Often accident prone
VI. Dreaming
Despite an incredible amount of interest, empirical study of dreams is relatively new and
unsophisticated.
Generally, research consists of waking people up during REM and asking them about content of their
dreams, OR the subjects are asked to keep a log of dreams over a period of time. Do you see any
problems with this??
Validity is very questionable - anytime you are asked to "remember" something, there are gaps in
your memory, which you attempt to fill in. Therefore, memory is subjective and often flawed when
asked to remember things that occurred while you were awake. Imagine how much greater the
problems are when you are asked to remember something that occurred when you were asleep.
A. Dream Content
Most dreams are mundane - consist of familiar settings, with known characteristics like friends and
family. Take a look at this short list of common themes (adapted from Wieten, 1992)

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Type of Dream Frequency Reported (%)
falling 83
being attacked or pursued 77
trying repeatedly to do something 71
school, studying, teachers 71
sexual experiences 66
Not as exciting as you may have thought!
Dreams seem to be influenced by our waking lives (stress, happiness, trauma, etc. influence dream
content). This makes a lot of sense. When we sleep, we are the same people we were while awake,
with the same problems, concerns, things that make us happy, excited, etc. Why should our thought
process be so drastically different when we sleep? Should we become different people when we
sleep?
B. Dream Theories
1. Freud - believed dreams were a way to achieve wish fulfillment (what you lack in your life you
get in your dreams). He stated that there are 2 types of content in all dreams
a. Manifest dream content - what you remember about the dream

b. Latent dream content - what the dream was actually about
Freud believed that to understand dreams, you need to understand both Manifest and Latent
content, as well as:
a. Displacement - emotional feelings are displaced from one object to another. For Example
- you dislike Greg who you see everyday in school. You just want to burst when you see
him, but never say anything to him. When you sleep, you have a dream that you beat up
his younger brother, Bobby. Thus, your hatred for Greg is expressed as dislike for and
aggression toward poor Bobby.
b. Symbolization - latent content is converted into manifest symbols. Many meanings are
disguised in dreams, and appear not as themselves, but as figures. For example, you have
a dream you are riding on a "train" that is traveling "out of control" and suddenly goes
"through a tunnel"...do I need to go on with this example?

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2. Rosalind Cartwright (Cognitive Problem Solving View) - dreams are a way to work out every
day problems. We have no social, moral, or ethical constraints during sleep that we have
during wake, so we can take care of business in ways we can't when awake.
3. Activation Synthesis Model (Hobson & McCarley) - dreams are byproducts of bursts of neural
activity in the subcortical area of the brain. Brain is getting neural impulses that are not
important or useful so it simply tries to make sense of them.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/c&sleep.html#ixzz1OsmszRbP

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History of Psychology
So you are taking your first Psychology class...you are about to enter into a new and interesting
world. You will be exposed to information that can alter the way you view yourself, others, and the
world around you. It is a world in which you learn about topics such as how people can behave
violently towards others, why and how people fall in love, how to people with devastating illnesses
can be helped, why people conform, how people can fall into cults like Heaven's Gate, how memory
works and is influenced by others, and much, much, more. So, Let's jump right in.
I. What is psychology?
A. There is so much diversity in the topics studied, theoretical perspectives, and disciplines involved
that answering this question is difficult. This may seem like I am just being evasive, but that is not
so. Take these non-scientific examples:
1. Try to define basketball. What is basketball?
Is it: a game, a sport, a hobby, an art form? Is it a game of skill, technique, luck? Is it a sport in
which the object is to score as many points as possible, prevent others from scoring as many
points as possible, defeat another team? And so on...
As you can see, there are many perspectives. Which is correct? All show different ideas and
perspectives of the same concept. Try another, similar one:
2. What do basketball players do (yes, I know that they "play basketball")?
B. Some Aspects/Themes of Psychology
Psychology is:
1. Scientific/Empirical
Psychology demands that we ask questions in a precise manner and find answers through
SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION (not simply watching people and events in some haphazard,
undisciplined, manner).
As a science, psychology focuses on specific issues and seeks CAUSE & EFFECT. This is the
"holy grail" (cause and effect are going to become vital components to your Psychological
education, so get comfortable with them now).
2. Practical -What Do Psychologists Do?

There are MANY different types of psychologists, and they are much more than mad scientists
locked in a laboratory running rats in a maze, or old men with beards and pipes listening to
clients' problems. For example, Psychologists are involved in such daily events as why people
feel depressed, and how they cope with those feelings; what factors influence people to fall in
love; why people behave differently in a group than they do when they are alone, and much,
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much, more (did I mention that they study much more than just these few things?) Here are
some more examples that you may be familiar with:
a. O.J. Simpson Trial - prosecution attempted to incorporate previous records of physical

abuse as evidence - show a pattern that if he can beat his wife, he can kill his wife. Is that
So??? Forensic Psychology addresses these types of issues.
b. McVeigh - Elizabeth Loftus was asked to testify at the Oklahoma City bombing trial about
eyewitness testimony and the problems associated with it. There is a tremendous body of
literature about eyewitness testimony be trusted? Do we accurately remember and recall
what we see? Are our memories truth or fiction? Cognitive Psychology addresses these
types of issues.
3. Theoretical - A wise man once said, there is nothing so practical as a good theory.
Psychologists collect data in an effort to understand the world around them. Once they have
some information (data) they attempt to link the pieces together into a meaningful whole
(theory - this too is a fundamental component of Psychology and will be covered much more
throughout the semester).
4. Continually Evolving - psychology is very much done by people, for people. As a result, the
discipline of psychology exists and changes according to society. As societies vary and
evolve, so too do our perspectives on behavior and thinking, and thus, Psychology.
C. Definition of Psychology
Psychology is the study of behavior and cognition.
Thus there are two major aspects of psychology:
1. Behavior - any observable activity.
EXAMPLE - During a lecture, an instructor speaks to the class --- You (and all the other excellent
students) pay attention. How does the instructor know that you are paying attention during a
lecture? The instructor OBSERVES YOUR BEHAVIOR - your eyes are open and directed toward
the instructor, you look alert, sitting upright, not sleeping, etc. These observable behaviors are
indications that you are paying attention to the instructor.
Here are a couple of questions for you to think about (the answers will come later as you become
versed in Psychology): Is your behavior predictable? Why do students come into a classroom, sit
down, and face the front of the room? What is it that causes behavior - personality (they sit and
are quiet because they are good people) or environmental forces (they sit and are quiet because
it is a class room and that is how you behave in a classroom)?

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2. Cognition - any mental process.
EXAMPLE - As an instructor speaks his/her mind is doing many things very quickly...what should
be said next, how should it be said, what order to say it in, etc. As you listen to the instructor, the
information is carried to your brain which then decides to process that information, store it, label
it, OR that it is unimportant and gets rid of it. All of these are cognitive processes.
Can you name some other types of cognitive processes?
Here are a few - problem solving, learning, forgetting, etc.
II. History of Psychology
The literal definition of Psychology is - the study of the soul or mind.
Although it seems as though psychology has been around (and should have been around) for a long
time, psychology as a science really began just over 100 years ago.
Why did it take until so recently for psychology to become a science?
Until recently people did not believe that the mind could be studied objectively.
The technology was not there. We had no way to take the next step from speculation to science.
A. Psychology as a science grew out of two other existing sciences:
1. Philosophy - philosophers were grappling with psychological questions hundreds of years

ago, such as:
How do sensations become mental thoughts? Example - how does the feel of a hand stroking
your face become a thought? And then if I ask you to imagine that feeling, can you do so?
Is the world that we perceive truly reality? Example - does color exist?
Do we actually choose our actions or are they predetermined?
To address these issues, philosophers used RATIONALISM - true knowledge comes from
proper reasoning and logic to find truth. Is this a sound (or VALID) path to scientific truth?
2. Physiology - while philosophy is based on rationalism, physiologists based their science on

observation. They used the SCIENTIFIC METHOD (don't worry, this will be cover in detail
soon), which came from EMPIRICISM.

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Early physiologists studied such questions as nerve signals and receptors in the eyes. It
should be easy to see how this discipline led to the field of psychology. Once Psychology
became a science, several schools of thought emerged, each with its own perspectives and
important people.
B. Schools of Thought
1. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt - set up the first psychological laboratory in 1879. He was studying an area
that became known as Structuralism.
School of thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind.
They believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind
down into its most basic elements. Their basic premise was:
the whole is = to the sum of the parts
The field was popularized by Edward Titchener (student of Wundt) who was interested in the
conscious mind and used a technique called INTROSPECTION.
Conscious - Feelings, thoughts and sensations that you are aware of at that moment. These
things make up the conscious.
Introspection - To look within and examine your own thoughts or feelings.
BUT, introspection relies on subjective or self-report data, which is a week methodological

form of data collection. Example. - If you become angry and then begin to examine your anger
through introspection you alter your current state (most likely stopping to examine your
current state will reduce your anger and hostility) and thus the experience of anger.
2. Functionalism - Moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with
how the conscious is related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do?
One of the major proponents of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle
box).
He studied the primary issue of functionalism...WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR

HAVE…
The puzzle box showed that the function of the animal's behavior was to get out of the box.
However, some Functionalists still used introspection and/or examined "unobservable"

concepts.
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WILLIAM JAMES - in his pursuit of the meaning of life, James was active in art, medicine,
physiology, psychology, parapsychology, philosophy and religion.
He viewed the mind as a stream which cannot be meaningfully broken down into distinct
components...It is nothing jointed; it flows. A river or stream are metaphors by which it is most
naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let us call it the stream of thought, of
consciousness, or of subjective life.
3. Behaviorism
Founded by John B. Watson, this school of thought that rejected the study of mental
processes in favor of the study of overt behavior and external factors - OBSERVABLE
EVENTS.
Another behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov, threatened to fire anyone in his laboratory who dared to use
mental terminology.
Along with one of the mostly active leaders in the field, B. F. Skinner, the Behaviorists
concluded that in order to understand and study psychology, we must study what we can see
and record. Although Watson did not deny the existence of the human mind and mental
experiences, he rejected the notion that the mental experience of, for example, thirst, causes
drinking. Instead, he indicated that psychology should examine the bodily explanation of the
cause of drinking (such as dehydration of muscle tissue) or the environmental explanation
(such as the sight of a frosty beer when you have been working in the hot sun for many hours
- not that many of you college student is familiar with beer) over the mental explanations (such
as the feeling of needing a drink).
Skinner, however, was an extremist: ...I am a radical Behaviorist simply in the sense that I find
no place in the formulation for anything which is mental...
4. Gestalt
“Form or Shape"- focused on perception & problem solving.
The school of thought (founded by Max Wertheimer) that claimed we perceive and think about
wholes rather than simply about combinations of separate elements.
In other words...the whole is NOT = to the sum of the parts
Example: look at geese flying south for the winter in a "V" formation. If you look at individual
geese, you do not see the "V" shape, only a couple of birds flying - but, if you look at the
entire flock, you see the form and structure.
5. Psychoanalysis

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School of thought that focused on the importance of the UNCONSCIOUS mind (not
consciousness). In other words, psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behavior is
determined by your past experiences.
SIGMUND FREUD founded this field and has become synonymous with psychology. Freud's
psychoanalytic perspective began in his attempts to cure patients of physical symptoms (such
as leg paralysis) that had not apparent cause. He was introduced to hypnosis - he tried this on
one of his patients who, after undergoing hypnosis, was cured of all physical ailments.
He later concluded that such disorders were the result of unconscious psychological conflicts
about sex cause by "cultural prohibitions against sexual enjoyment." These conflicts were
then converted into physical symptoms that provided the patient with an excuse not to
engage in the "taboo" behaviors.
NOTE: please read you text carefully and pay special attention to those aspects not covered
in your lecture or these notes. For example, the themes related to psychology's subject matter
and the different perspectives and disciplines within psychology.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/history.html#ixzz1OspvHGCG


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Intelligence
In 1917, as the United States mobilized its vast resources for the war against Germany, Professor
Lewis Terman of Stanford University traveled east to meet with a group of prominent psychologists.
Terman was an expert on intelligence testing, for he had pioneered the application of a French
Intelligence test (developed by Alfred Binet) in the U.S. Terman, a devoted member of the Stanford
University faculty, called his test the Stanford- Binet, and it was widely used in clinical settings.
But why was Terman meeting with other psychologists? Their goal: to develop some kind of
psychological test that the U.S. Army could give to the thousands of new recruits coming into the
army. The test would help them decide who had the intellectual potential to be an officer, who did
not.
Terman carried in his briefcase the rough materials his student Arthur Otis had designed for a
questionnaire measure of intelligence. In several weeks the group of psychologists had designed the
Army Alpha Examination, based on the Otis scales.
The test was given to 1,700,000 men, and it seemed to work. Some were sent off to the trenches,
and others were selected to lead them there. And psychologists, delighted with their success, began
to spread their testing into civilian settings: particularly in educational settings.
School systems and colleges snatched up the tests for use in pupil classification, guidance, and
admissions
Within 30 months of the first publication of the group test some four million children had been tested,
and the IQ test was on its way to acceptance.
I. Intelligence Testing
A. Historical Development
1. Alfred Binet - Charged by the Minister of Public Instruction in Paris to develop a method of
detecting "defective" children who could then be given special instructions. Although he
toyed with the idea of developing a physiological measure, he ended up with a test he called
"aptitude for academic achievement" this test was designed to be relevant in academic
settings.
Simple procedures used identified behaviors for each age (important - this test was age
specific - also known as the "age-standard method"). This made it possible to establish range
of normality ("norms"), then checked to see if the child/person possessed these abilities

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a. 3 years: show eyes, nose, mouth, name objects in a picture, repeat figures, repeat a
sentence of 6 syllables, give last name b) 5 years: compare 2 boxes of different weights,
copy a square, repeat a sentence of 10 syllables, put together 2 pieces of a game c) 7
years: indicate omissions in drawings, copy a written sentence, copy a triangle and a
diamond, etc.
b. 9 years: give the date complete, name days of the week, give definitions, memory this
measure proved highly successful in predicting school success
2. In 1916, an American psychologist (TERMAN) revised and translated the test
a. Problem: unfair to say an 8 year old is more intelligent than a 6 year old simply because he
or she gets more questions right
b. Need to adjust for chronological age
c. He used the formula IQ = MA/CA X 100 (to get rid of decimals) - HOWEVER, this formula
was actually developed by William Stern in 1912 in order to avoid the inconvenience of
decimals.
For example - A 10 year old with a mental age of 8 has a ratio of 8/10 = .8 and a 6 year old
with a mental age of 4 has a ratio of 4/6 = .67. This indicates that the 6 year old is relatively
farther behind his or her age peers.
STERN then got rid of the decimal point so .8 becomes 80, and .67 becomes 67. d. if 100,
just right. This would mean that a person has the same mental age and chronological age.
B. Types of Tests
1. Individual Tests
a. Stanford-Binet: This made it possible to test adults & children
1) Established the procedures to use in administering the test - takes 1 hour or more so it
was not good for collecting data from groups very quickly. This was not good if you
wanted to test military troops - So, Otis instead created an oral intelligence test (goes
back to introduction).
2) Established the norms for the test (e.g., how many an "X" year old got correct) but,
there is still a problem here. This test still utilized the intelligence quotient developed by
Stern - but mental age slows dramatically after childhood. So, someone could go from
gifted as a young person, to mentally challenged as an older adult without actually
getting "less intelligent".
3) Example: a 15 year old female with a mental age of 20: 20/15 x 100 = 133, which would
classify her as "gifted". Then, as an adult of age 40, let's say she retained the mental
age of 20: 20/40 x 100 = 50. Now she would be classified as mentally retarded, yet she
may be successful doctor. This problem was overcome by the introduction of the
DEVIATION IQ, by Wechsler.

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2. Wechsler tests
This scale compares a person's intelligence test scores with those of the mean scores of their
age peers. Those who perform exactly the same as their age peers would receive the score of
100.
a. Developed many tests, three very important: WISC (W Int. Scale for Children), the WAIS
(W. adult int. scale), and the WPPSI (W preschool and primary scale of intelligence; good
for ages 4-6 1/2)
b. Attempted to bring in more behavioral measures rather than just verbal
c. Two subsections: verbal subtests, performance subtests
1) Verbal: information, comprehension, arithmetic, digit span, similarities, and vocabulary
2) Performance: picture arrangement, picture completion, block design, etc.
C. Forms of Intelligence
1. Basic approach: verbal and math
2. Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence - Sternberg performed poorly on IQ tests as a child

and suffered from severe test anxiety. Yet he was able to become a successful cognitive
psychologist and a leader in the field of intelligence. This was a major influence in his belief
that intelligence was much more than those abilities measured by traditional intelligence tests.
He and colleagues wanted to know what the "lay person" though intelligence was so they
interviewed many people. Most people indicated that intelligent people have good verbal
skills, problem-solving skills, and social judgment. Thus, he developed the Triarchic
theory which is comprised of the following:
a. Componential Intelligence - reflects our information-processing abilities. This is similar to

traditional intelligence tests.
b. Experiential Intelligence - ability to combine different experiences in insightful ways to

solve novel problems. Reflects creativity.
c. Contextual Intelligence - ability to function in practical, everyday social situations. Reflects

"street smarts".
Sternberg recognized that situations may call for one type or a combination of all three, and
that each can be improved through training. D. IQ Controversies

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3. Questions to Consider
a. What does the IQ Test Measure? Intelligence?

Example - the California Legislature has twice voted to prohibit group testing in schools
on the grounds their effect is to limit the quality of education given to minority students.
Many experts have gone on record as opposing IQ tests as invalid, easily altered by
special coaching, and monopolizing the testing industry.
Intelligence ----> IQ score Intelligence + Other Factors -----> IQ score
b. Are IQ tests Valid (fair)? -Why is there a difference between groups on the IQ test?
c. Is Intelligence Genetically determined Nurture Nature -learning -instinct -experience -

innate determinant -flexible -inflexible, wired in -acquired -genetic
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/intelligence.html#ixzz1OsnrNaUC


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Learning & Conditioning
Don't Assume
Learning seems to be one process that many people take for granted (just assume it happens and
happens basically the same way for most people) but know very little about.
Please don't forget that we have a full page dedicated to the topic of Learning and Conditioning. You
can see it here: http://alleydog.com/topics/learning_and_behavior.php
Ask The Right Questions

So, how do we learn? How do other animals learn? Do we learn the same way? What are our
limitations? Can we learn anything? Is there one right way to learn? To answer these questions, we
need to first establish a definition of learning.
Our definition is comprised of several different components:
How Do We Define the Learning Process?
The 4 Factors That Form The Definition of Learning
1) learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance*

2) learning results in an inferred change in memory
3) learning is the result of experience
4) learning is relatively permanent
It is the combination of these 4 factors that make our definition of learning. Or, you can go with a
slightly less comprehensive definition that is offered in many textbooks: Learning is a relatively
durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
What is Behavior Potential?

This means that behavior changes that are temporary or due to things like drugs, alcohol, etc., are
not "learned".
Behavior Potential - once something is learned, an organism can exhibit a behavior that indicates
learning as occurred. Thus, once a behavior has been "learned", it can be exhibited by
"performance" of a corresponding behavior.
It is the combination of these 4 factors that make our definition of learning. Or, you can go with a
slightly less comprehensive definition that is offered in many textbooks: Learning is a relatively
durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
We are going to discuss the two main types of learning examined by researchers, classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.

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I. Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity
to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus.
A. Ivan Pavlov - Russian physiologist interested in behavior (digestion).
1. Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs - he was measuring the amount of salivation produced
by the salivary glands of dogs by presenting them meat powder through a food dispenser.
The dispenser would deliver the meat powder to which the animals salivated. However, what
Pavlov noticed was that the food dispenser made a sound when delivering the powder, and
that the dogs salivated before the powder was delivered.
He realized that the dogs associated the sound (which occurred seconds before the powder
actually arrived) with the delivery of the food. Thus, the dogs had "learned" that when the
sound occurred, the meat powder was going to arrive.
This is conditioning (Stimulus-Response; S-R Bonds). The stimulus (sound of food dispenser)
produced a response (salivation). It is important to note that at this point, we are talking about
reflexive responses (salivation is automatic).
2. Terminology (if you are still confused by these definitions, please look in the non-Psychology
jargon glossary on the AlleyDog.com homepage)
a. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without

any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).
b. Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned

stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning.
c. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning,
acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
d. Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs

because of prior conditioning.
* These are reflexive behaviors. Not a result from engaging in goal directed behavior.
e. Trial - presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.
Don't worry, we will get to some examples that make this all much more clear.

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3. Basic Principles
a. Acquisition - formation of a new CR tendency. This means that when an organism learns
something new, it has been "acquired".
Pavlov believed in contiguity - temporal association between two events that occur
closely together in time. The more closely in time two events occurred, the more likely they
were to become associated; s time passes, association becomes less likely.
For example, when people are house training a dog -- you notice that the dog went to the
bathroom on the rug. If the dog had the accident hours ago, it will not do any good to
scold the dog because too much time has passed for the dog to associate your scolding
with the accident. But, if you catch the dog right after the accident occurred, it is more
likely to become associated with the accident.
There are several different ways conditioning can occur -- order that the stimulus-response
can occur:
1) Delayed conditioning (forward) - the CS is presented before the US and it (CS) stays on
until the US is presented. This is generally the best, especially when the delay is short.
Example - a bell begins to ring and continues to ring until food is presented.
2) Trace conditioning - discrete event is presented, then the US occurs. Shorter the
interval the better, but as you can tell, this approach is not very effective.
Example - a bell begins ringing and ends just before the food is presented.
3) Simultaneous conditioning - CS and US presented together. Not very good.
Example - the bell begins to ring at the same time the food is presented. Both begin,
continue, and end at the same time.
4) Backward conditioning - US occurs before CS.
Example - the food is presented, then the bell rings. This is not really effective.
b. Extinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency.

Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US.
Essentially, the organism continues to be presented with the conditioned stimulus but
without the unconditioned stimulus the CS loses its power to evoke the CR. For example,
Pavlov's dogs stopped salivating when the dispenser sound kept occurring without the
meat powder following.

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c. Spontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had
been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is
called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere.
d. Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other

stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli.
For Example - a child who gets bitten by black lab, later becomes afraid of all dogs. The
original fear evoked by the Black Lab has now generalized to ALL dogs.
Another Example - little Albert (I am assuming you are familiar with Little Albert, so I will
give a very general example).
John Watson conditioned a baby (Albert) to be afraid of a white rabbit by showing Albert
the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes together behind Albert's head (nice!). The
pipes produced a very loud, sudden noise that frightened Albert and made him cry.
Watson did this several times (multiple trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously
he would pet the rabbit and play with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made
Albert scream -- then what Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified
behaviors to Watson's face (just looking at Watson's face made Albert cry. What a shock!).
What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard Watson had at
the time. So, the fear evoked by the white, furry, rabbit, had generalized to other white,
furry things, like Watson's beard.
e. Stimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an
organism becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli.
For Example - a puppy may initially respond to lots of different people, but over time it
learns to respond to only one or a few people's commands.
f. Higher Order Conditioning - a CS can be used to produce a response from another neutral
stimulus (can evoke CS). There are a couple of different orders or levels. Let's take a
"Pavlovian Dog-like" example to look at the different orders:
In this example, light is paired with food. The food is a US since it produces a response
without any prior learning. Then, when food is paired with a neutral stimulus (light) it
becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - the dog begins to respond (salivate) to the light
without the presentation of the food.

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First Order
1) light -‐-‐ US (food) 2) light -‐-‐ US (food)

\-‐-‐> UR (salivation) \-‐-‐> CR (salivation)
Second Order
4) tone -‐-‐ light

3) tone -‐-‐ light \-‐-‐> CR (salivation)
\-‐-‐> CR (salivation)
B. Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
One of the great things about conditioning is that we can see it all around us. Here are some
examples of classical conditioning that you may see:
1. Conditioned Fear & Anxiety - many phobias that people experience are the results of
conditioning.
For Example - "fear of bridges" - fear of bridges can develop from many different sources. For
example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about
the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and
so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and
now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all
bridges, which now evoke fear.
2. Advertising - modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of conditioning.
The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer
will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US.
US --> CS --> CR/UR
attractive person --> car --> pleasant emotional response
3. A Clockwork Orange - No additional information necessary! If you haven't seen this movie or
read the book, do it. You will find it very interesting, and a wonderful example of conditioning
in action.

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II. Operant Conditioning
Definition: Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary

(controllable; non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is
punished (or not reinforced).
Note: Skinner referred to this as Instrumental Conditioning/Learning
A. The most prominent figure in the development and study of Operant Conditioning was B. F.
Skinner
1. History
a. As an Undergraduate he was an English major, then decided to study Psychology in

graduate school.
b. Early in his career he believed much of behavior could be studied in a single, controlled
environment (created Skinner box - address later). Instead of observing behavior in the
natural world, he attempted to study behavior in a closed, controlled unit. This prevents any
factors not under study from interfering with the study - as a result, Skinner could truly
study behavior and specific factors that influence behavior.
c. During the "cognitive revolution" that swept Psychology (discussed later), Skinner stuck to
the position that behavior was not guided by inner force or cognition. This made him a
"radical behaviorist".
d. As his theories of Operant Conditioning developed, Skinner became passionate about

social issues, such as free will, how they developed, why they developed, how they were
propagated, etc.
2. Skinner's views of Operant Conditioning
a. Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in that the behaviors studied
in Classical Conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However, the behaviors
studied and governed by the principles of Operant Conditioning are non-reflexive (for
example, gambling). So, compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning
attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviors, and the conditions in which
they will occur. In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviors that are performed
so that the organism can obtain reinforcement.
b. There are many factors involved in determining if an organism will engage in a behavior -
just because there is food doesn't mean an organism will eat (time of day, last meal, etc.).
SO, unlike classical conditioning...(go to "c", below).

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c. In Op. Cond., the organism has a lot of control. Just because a stimulus is presented, does
not necessarily mean that an organism is going to react in any specific way. Instead,
reinforcement is dependent on the organism's behavior. In other words, in order for an
organism to receive some type of reinforcement, the organism must behave in a specific
manner. For example, you can't win at a slot machine unless several things happen, most
importantly, you pull the lever. Pulling the lever is a voluntary, non-reflexive behavior that
must be exhibited before reinforcement (hopefully a jackpot) can be delivered.
d. In classical conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes before the behavior. But in Operant
Conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes after the behavior. If we look at Pavlov's meat
powder example, you remember that the sound occurred (controlling stimulus), the dog
salivated, and then the meat powder was delivered. With Operant conditioning, the sound
would occur, then the dog would have to perform some behavior in order to get the meat
powder as a reinforcement. (like making a dog sit to receive a bone).
e. Skinner Box - This is a chamber in which Skinner placed animals such as rats and pigeons
to study. The chamber contains either a lever or key that can be pressed in order to receive
reinforcements such as food and water.
* The Skinner Box created Free Operant Procedure - responses can be made and
recorded continuously without the need to stop the experiment for the experimenter to
record the responses made by the animal.
d. Shaping - operant conditioning method for creating an entirely new behavior by using
rewards to guide an organism toward a desired behavior (called Successive
Approximations). In doing so, the organism is rewarded with each small advancement in
the right direction. Once one appropriate behavior is made and rewarded, the organism is
not reinforced again until they make a further advancement, then another and another until
the organism is only rewarded once the entire behavior is performed.
For Example, to get a rat to learn how to press a lever, the experimenter will use small
rewards after each behavior that brings the rat toward pressing the lever. So, the rat is
placed in the box. When it takes a step toward the lever, the experimenter will reinforce the
behavior by presenting food or water in the dish (located next to or under the lever). Then,
when the rat makes any additional behavior toward the lever, like standing in front of the
lever, it is given reinforcement (note that the rat will no longer get a reward for just taking a
single step in the direction of the lever). This continues until the rat reliably goes to the
lever and presses it to receive reward.
3. Principles of Reinforcement
a. Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given; and
those in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is
to increase the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.

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1) Positive reinforcement - give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant
response is made. For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives
a treat (positive reinforcement)
2) Negative reinforcement - take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response
is made. For example, stop shocking a rat when it presses the lever (yikes!)
** I can't tell you how often people use the term "negative reinforcement" incorrectly. It is
NOT a method of increasing the chances an organism will behave in a bad way. It is a
method of rewarding the behavior you want to increase. It is a good thing - not a bad
thing!
b. Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers:
1) Primary reinforcer - stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it
(e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of the organism.
These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.
2) Secondary/conditioned reinforcer - a previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability

to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer.
For example, an organism may become conditioned to the sound of food dispenser,
which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the food dispenser
becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to Classical Conditioning, with the exception
that the behavior is voluntary and occurs before the presentation of a reinforcer.
4. Schedules of Reinforcement
There are two types of reinforcement schedules - continuous, and partial/intermittent (four
subtypes of partial schedules)
a. Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the size of the
ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting reinforcement).
For example - many factory workers are paid according to the number of some product they
produce. A worker may get paid $10.00 for every 100 widgets he makes. This would be an
example of an FR100 schedule.
b. Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except that the ratio
varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is given after every N th
response, but N is an average.
For example - slot machines in casinos function on VR schedules (despite what many
people believe about their "systems"). The slot machine is programmed to provide a
"winner" every average N th response, such as every 75th lever pull on average. So, the slot

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machine may give a winner after 1 pull, then on the 190th pull, then on the 33rd pull,
etc...just so long as it averages out to give a winner on average, every 75th pull.
c. Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain response
must be made in order to get reinforcement.
For example - when you wait for a bus example. The bus may run on a specific schedule,
like it stops at the nearest location to you every 20 minutes. After one bus has stopped and
left your bus stop, the timer resets so that the next one will arrive in 20 minutes. You must
wait that amount of time for the bus to arrive and stop for you to get on it.
d. Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies.
For example - when you wait to get your mail. Your mail carrier may come to your house at
approximately the same time each day. So, you go out and check at the approximate time
the mail usually arrives, but there is no mail. You wait a little while and check, but no mail.
This continues until some time has passed (a varied amount of time) and then you go out,
check, and to your delight, there is mail.
5. Punishment - Whereas reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring again,

the premise of punishment is to decrease the frequency or probability of a response
occurring again.
a. Skinner did not believe that punishment was as powerful a form of control as reinforcement,
even though it is the so commonly used. Thus, it is not truly the opposite of reinforcement
like he originally thought, and the effects are normally short-lived.
b. There are two types of punishment
1) Positive - presentation of an aversive stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant

response occurring again. For example, a child reaches for a cookie before dinner, and
you slap his hand.
2) Negative - the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant

response occurring again. For example, each time a child says a curse word, you
remove one dollar from their piggy bank.
6. Applications of Operant Conditioning
a. In the Classroom
Skinner thought that our education system was ineffective. He suggested that one teacher
in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child learns at a
different rate. He proposed using teaching machines (what we now call computers) that
would allow each student to move at their own pace. The teaching machine would provide

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self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback, immediate reinforcement, identification
of problem areas, etc…, that a teacher could not possibly provide.
b. In the Workplace
I already gave the example of piece work in factories.
Another example - study by Pedalino & Gamboa (1974) - To help reduce the frequency of
employee tardiness, the researchers implemented a game-like system for all employees
that arrived on time. When an employee arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card.
Over the course of a 5-day workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker. At
the end of the week, the best hand won $20. This simple method reduced employee
tardiness significantly and demonstrated the effectiveness of operant conditioning on
humans.
There are also many clinical uses, including Ivar Lovaas' method of teaching autistic
children how to speak (see your book).
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html#ixzz1OspPjP5o

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Memory
Memory is one of the most fascinating topics you can ever hope to study in any field. It is a
fundamental component of daily life. We rely on it so heavily, that it is not a stretch to say that life
without memory would be close to impossible. Our very survival depends on our ability to remember
who we are, who others are, our past experiences, what is dangerous, what is safe, etc. Its
importance can't be understated.
In addition, people often believe their memories to be absolute and true. After all, it would be very
disconcerting to think that the things that we remember to be true, are in fact wrong. The reality is,
memory is not complete or absolute. In fact, many of our memories are completely wrong and yet we
hold onto them dearly.
We are sure of our memories...we know what happened to us...where we have been...what we
said...what we did. Or do we?
Although you will not get to witness this, one of my favorite activities to conduct in class is to create
false memories in students. One example that use (I have lots, but this is an easy one to explain) is to
read a list of words that all fit into a certain category (for example, couch, stool, recliner, etc.) and
then ask the students to write down as many word as they can recall immediately after I finish the
list.
The key is that the word "chair" is never included in the list that I read, but it is the target word - it is
a word that fits perfectly into the category I am reading, but it not included in the list.
What I usually find is close to 100% of the students include "chair" on their list and insist that I said
it. In fact, several times I have had to get one of the students who was taping the class to play back
the tape just to prove that I never said the word "chair". Even in this case, students often leave
convinced that they heard "chair"...sure that they "remember" that word being said.
Now think about this - in that example, the students are asked to recall the words immediately after I
read the list - immediately. If their memories are incorrect then, what happens to memories after a
day has passed; a week; a month; years?
In this section, we will discuss how memory occurs - the process of storing and retrieving
information. We will also take a look at some of the ways that this process is limited and the results
of such an imperfect memory system (for example, we will examine false memories). So, let's get
started.
Memory can be defined as the storage of learned information for retrieval and future use.
I. The Key Questions
When psychologists study memory they usually focus on 3 key questions:

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A. How does information get INTO memory?
B. How is information MAINTAINED in memory?
C. How do we get information BACK OUT of memory?
These 3 questions correspond to the 3 key processes in memory:
ENCODING --> STORAGE --> RETRIEVAL
II. Basic Processes (we will discuss each in detail later, but for now we need a few definitions)
A. Encoding - process of forming a memory code in order to get information into memory.
For Example: we may emphasize the shape of a dog's nose to identify the breed (e.g., a
German Sheppard has a longer, more pointed nose than a bull dog) and subsequently make a
code for "German Sheppard" according to the dog's nose.
B. Encoding usually involves attention - focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events.
C. Storage (memory stores) - maintaining encoded information in memory over a period of time.
D. Retrieval - recovering information from memory stores.
These processes are the foundation for all memory - how it works and why it may not work at
times. When memory does not work, we have forgetting, which may occur at any of these 3 levels.
We will address forgetting soon, but for now let's focus on how memory works.
The most popular model/theoretical framework today is the Information Processing Theory,
modeled after computers.
III. The Atkinson & Shiffrin Information Processing Model
According to this model information must pass through two temporary storage buffers (stores)
before it can be placed into more permanent storage, and then retrieved for later use. Take a look
at the model below to get an overview of the whole process, and then move on with the notes.

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For the memory process to begin, we must first encounter some stimulus (identified as "input" in the
model above), which goes into sensory storage.
A. Sensory Storage - the immediate, initial recording of sensory information. Here information is
preserved for a very brief time (usually only a fraction of a second) in its original form.
The name "sensory storage" implies that something perceptual occurs. In fact, what enters into
sensory storage are images (in the case of vision), or more precisely, afterimages. Although the
actual stimulus may have disappeared, we may still perceive it for a second or so.
The actual length of time an image exists in sensory storage depends on the modality:
1. Iconic memory - a visual image in sensory storage. Although most people seem to believe that
visual images last longer (this is based on intuition, not science), they do not - they last
approximately 1/4 of a second.
2. Echoic memory - auditory image. These (as well as other senses) seem to last up to 3
seconds.
So, we can see that within sensory storage we have 2 distinct stores - an iconic and echoic.

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Once one of these types of memories occur, we have some raw data that will be lost if we do not
engage in one of two processes (these two processes are required to get information from sensory
memory to short term memory).
1. Pattern recognition - when new information comes into sensory storage, we actively
search through long-term memory in an effort to find a match for this new raw data.
2. Attention - this is pretty obvious. The more we pay attention to a stimulus, the more likely it
will continue onto the next memory store (short term memory)
Once we have successfully recognized or attended to the information, we are able to bring the
information into SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM).
B. Short-Term Memory - a limited capacity store that can maintain information for approximately 20
seconds.
It is possible to extend duration of STM (to approximately 30 seconds) by engaging in a process

called Maintenance Rehearsal.
1. Maintenance Rehearsal - the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about the

information.
For example - late at night, you have been out partying all night, you et back home and
you are hungry. You decide...it's time for pizza. So you pick up the phone and call
information to get the number of a local pizza delivery place. When the operator gives the
number, you say the number over and over so that you don't forget it in the time it takes to
hang up and dial the number. This process of repeating the number over and over is
actually maintenance rehearsal. It won't help get the information into long term memory,
but it will help keep it in short term memory a little longer.
2. Slots - STM seems to be divided into "slots" - to be precise, STM has 7 slots, each one
capable of holding one piece of information.
This is also commonly referred to as the MAGIC #7 (+/- 2), which was introduced by
George Miller.
But, we are bombarded with so much information all the time that STM can become
cluttered. In order to prevent the clutter from become too much, STM pushes some
information out in order to make room for other information. But what gets pushed out???
3. Primacy and Recency
a. Primacy - when you are receiving information, the information perceived first is more
likely to be remembered. This more recent information may simply get to long-term

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memory more easily, and thus be remembered or we may just rehearse the early
information more.
b. Recency - information perceived toward the end of an event is also more likely to be
remembered. So, information in the "middle" seems to get pushed out and is less likely
to be remembered.
While maintenance rehearsal will help keep information in STM, the only way to bring
information into long-term memory is through ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL.
4. Elaborative Rehearsal - connecting new information with previously stored, already existing
associative structures.
For Example - when our sixth grade teachers used to make us put a vocabulary word into
context in a sentence - this combines the new information (the vocabulary word) with an
associative structure (the sentence).
"Johnny, the word is pimple. Can you use pimple in a sentence?" "Yes. My head is so full
of all of this Psychological information, I think it is going to pop like a big, white, pimple"
C. Long Term Memory (LTM) - an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over
lengthy periods of time.
The name is a bit of a misnomer, since information in LTM may stay there over the course of a
life span.
1. There are 3 categories (or subcategories) of LTM
a. Procedural memory - this is the most basic type of long term memory (very simplistic)
and primarily involves memories of rudimentary procedures and behaviors.
For example - procedural memories include our memory for eating, sitting in a chair,
etc. As you can see, these are based on behavior.
Some even suggest that there is an additional, basic category called DECLARATIVE
memory - just factual information like names and dates.
b. Semantic memory - mental models of the environment as well as procedures.
For example - knowledge of word meanings, language, strategies for problem solving,
factual information (like laws), etc.
c. Episodic memory - information about events, people, places, etc., that include an
autobiographical aspect as well as a time and place.
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For example - "I saw a bear last night in my back yard."
Now that we have seen how memory works, let's look at how or why memory may NOT
work.
IV. Theories of Forgetting
A. Decay - forgetting due to memories fading over time. This does NOT apply to LTM. This often
occurs in sensory storage and STM since we do not need to process and store all the information
that we encounter. As a result, there is a lot of information we don't attend to, recognize, or
rehearse, and so it simply fades away.
B. Interference - hindrance of learning new information because of other information learned before or
after the new information. There are two types:
1. Proactive interference - information learned previously causes problems with new information.
For Example - if you took Psychology 101 already with a different teacher they may have
presented information differently than me. This may affect your ability to recall the information in
the way I have explained it. You get them mixed together.
2. Retroactive interference - new information cause recall problem with previously learned
information.
For example - now you are learning in my class, you cannot recall the information the way it
was presented by your previous Psychology 101 instructor.
3. Retrieval-Based Forgetting - information stored in LTM is not being accessed or brought out
properly; however, if given enough time or cues, it is possible to retrieve the information.
This suggests that LTM is permanent. Since the information is said to still be in LTM and not
lost (the person has the information but just can't get to it).
4. Storage-Based Forgetting - information in LTM was distorted, altered, or changed so it is no

longer accessible when searching for what it "used to be". The information can be retrieved, but
only if you look for it in its new form.
5. Motivated Forgetting - a purposeful process of blocking or "suppressing" information.
FREUD referred to this as Repression - keeping distressing thoughts or feelings buried in the
unconscious. (I am always amused when clinical Psychologists renounce Freud as a lunatic and
then, in the same breath, talk about how meaningful and real repression is. They seem to forget
who pioneered this area).
BUT - can we actually intentionally forget something?

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Here is a quick HOMEWORK assignment - do whatever you must do to forget the number
sequence 5-3-1. Try as hard as you can to forget it - do what you must, but forget the number
sequence 5-3-1!!
Today, Repressed Memories are a very hot topic, but how much can we trust repressed memories?
How often are these memories actually False Memories?
When a repressed memory is remembered, we say it has been Recovered. A recovered memory can
be defined as the emergence of a formerly repressed memory.
Even Freud, who pioneered this area, had doubts about this:
1. He was never able to confirm that childhood sexual traumas cause later adult pathology.
2. Even he realized that not all recovered memories were accurate.
Thus, it is possible that some or all of these memories are actually false memories.
V. False Memories - How and Why
A. The Misinformation Effect - an unconscious adoption of later-learned information. We know that

our experiences affect memory...experiences that occur before, during, and after a memory is
formed. Thus, the misinformation effect occurs when information received after a memory has
formed influences the way we remember the event.
1. How - it occurs when someone fails to record into memory certain details of an event
(remember, we can't process and store ALL pieces of information from an event). Then, when
they see or hear another person's account of what occurred, they include these new pieces of
information into their own memory. This finding has been demonstrated empirically many
times.
2. Children may be especially susceptible to this since they have less sophisticated encoding
ability, which results in more memory fragments. These fragments leave holes or gaps that are
then filled in by experiences (social influences).
Studies of memories of abuse in children. There was a series of studies a few years ago in
which young children of different ages were given physical exams and then questioned about
the exams afterwards (the interviews occurred right after the exam, a short time later, and
then a few more times across the next Year). The doctors were part of the experimental team
and acted according to a script and so children were treated and touched in very controlled
ways (plus the exams were video taped). The children were asked about where the doctors
touched them, how the doctors touched them, etc...much like children are questioned by
police and Psychologists when trying to determine whether sexual abuse has occurred. The
results indicated that, despite NO fondling or sexual contact in any way (no genitalia were

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touched, etc.), many of the children stated that they had been touched in inappropriate places
by the doctors. Many of the reports did not happen at first, but over time and with different
questions, the children began to alter their stories slightly.
3. Eyewitness testimony - despite the importance we place on eyewitness testimony in our legal
system, experts agree that it is, at best, very questionable and susceptible to influence and
change.
Police are notorious for using leading questions to evoke the types of responses they want
from witnesses. For example, if you were a witness to a robbery, a police officer might ask
you, "what type of gun did the robber have" instead of asking you "did the robber have any
type of weapon". In addition, the more you learn about a case (TV, newspapers, etc.) the more
likely you are to incorporate the new information into your own memory of the event.
Some final misconceptions about repressed memories
1. Wouldn't repressed or false memories be less vivid?
No - research has shown that false memories are often "recollected" with more clarity and
certainty than real memories
2. Wouldn't it be different for a traumatic event?
NO - research has shown that memories of real traumatic events in childhood often fade over
time.
BUT - if an event is VERY TRAUMATIC it is more likely to become problematic due to inability
to stop thinking about it. People often dwell on a traumatic event, not forget it (PTSD).
3. Does this mean that Repression is all a myth?
Not necessarily. The research is not conclusive, but suggests that repressed memories may not be
as common as people may believe today (it seems to have gotten very hip today).
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/memory.html#ixzz1OspahcHR


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Motivation & Emotion
Motivation and Emotion - In this section, we will examine motives, motivation, and some related
theoretical perspectives. Then, we'll look at Emotions, some of the components or elements to
emotions, and some theoretical perspectives.
Motivation
Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill Abel? Why do students
study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations (and don't say, "to pass
examinations")? Why do professors teach students, and why do they test students? Why did you
pick out those shoes or those pants to wear today?
Each of these questions has an answer...there is some motive for engaging in those behaviors. We
may define a motive (or motivation) as a need, want, interest, or desire that propels someone (or an
organism) in a certain direction.
This motivating mechanism can be called many things--a habit, a belief, a desire, an instinct, a need,
an interest, a compulsion, or a drive--but no matter what its label, it is this motivation that prompts
us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the verb "to move."
Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study of goal-directed
behavior. With this definition in mind, are humans the only type of living organism that can have
motivation? (this is for you to think about, not a question I am going to answer for you at this point)
I. Theoretical Perspectives
A. Instinct Theories
Many of the different theories of motivation are similar, except for the amount of emphasis they
place on either biology or environment. Most include some level of both (some nature, some
nurture). However, there is one theory that completely emphasizes biology...Instinct theory.
1. Instinct Theory - states that motivation is the result of biological, genetic programming. Thus, all
beings within a species are programmed for the same motivations.
a. At the heart of this perspective, is the motivation to survive - we are biologically

programmed to survive. And, all of our behaviors and motivations stem from biological
programming. Thus, are actions are instincts.
For example, a human mother, unlike many other species, will stay awake with a crying
infant all night long trying to provide comfort. Why? Instinct theory suggests that she is
programmed to behave in this manner - it is not due to learning or conditioning, not to
being raised properly or poorly, not to having strong female role models or weak role
models, or anything else, other that pure biology.

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This perspective is very much the sort that was offered recently in the controversial
article that stated, Parents don't matter that much in the development of their children.
b. William McDougal (1908) - influential theorist who viewed instincts as behavior patterns
that are:
1) unlearned
2) uniform in expression
3) universal in a species
For example, within a species of bird, all the members may build identical nests and
work in the same ways. This is true even for those birds of that species born and raised
in captivity and isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest building
behavior from other, experienced role model birds.
McDougal carried it a step further by stating that humans are the same and have
instincts for behaviors such as: parenting, submission, jealousy, mating, and more.
c. Problems with this perspective
2. Theorists have never been able to agree on a list of instincts: Many instincts are NOT universal
and seem to be more dependent on individual differences (for example, jealousy. Not all
humans exhibit the same jealously levels, behaviors, etc.).
3. Today - instinct theory has a more biological emphasis for specific motives and not all (like
aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong instinct perspective in the study of animals
(ethology).
B. Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) - the study of genetic and evolutionary bases of

behavior in all organisms, including humans. This view spawned from instinct theory, but it is not
purely an instinct theory.
1. Major Viewpoint - sociobiology states that natural selection favors social behaviors that
maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for living organisms
(including humans) is to pass on our genes from one generation to the next.
This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in the last 15 million years the human
species has evolved socially as well as physically. Through the process of natural selection,
individuals who were even slightly predisposed to engage in adaptive social behaviors were
the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more successful in passing their genes
along to future generations. Over countless generations, this selection process weeded out
individuals who lacked these predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even
though these tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher
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environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors when
situational cues call forth ancient instincts
Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that increases survival
will eventually become genetically based. However, sociobiology has changed this view
slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goal is not mere survival, or even the
survival of its offspring. Rather, the fittest individual is the one that succeeds in passing the
maximum number of genes on to the next generation. Why, for example, do animals go to all
the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because having children is an extremely
effective means of ensuring the survival of one's genes in a future generation. Caring for
offspring may seem self-sacrificing, but these actions are prompted by the gene's selfish
tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the parent perishes protecting its young, its
genes will continue to flourish in its offspring. To Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can
survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest animal is the one that maximizes the survival of its
genes in future generations.
2. This perspective can explain motives such as competition, aggression, sexual activity, and
dominance.
3. It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For example:
In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked strangers of the
opposite sex one of the following questions: "I have been noticing you around campus. I find
you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the following questions, depending on
the group the subject had been assigned to: (a) "Would you go out with me tonight"; (b)
"Would you come over to my apartment tonight?" (c) "Would you go to bed with me tonight?"
The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the 75% hit rate for
men. Is it possible that the differences were due to instincts or do you think they must be due
to something else?
In another example: Studies have shown that women are more likely to engage in extramarital
affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely to get pregnant (the studies did NOT state
or even insinuate that the women were making conscious efforts to get pregnant from a male
other than their spouse or boyfriend, only that women were indeed more likely to be ovulating
during the time they decided to have the extramarital affairs).
4. Seems Selfish - this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain seemingly altruistic
behaviors:
For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a predator) is nearby?
In so doing, the Blackbird increases its chance of getting killed, but also increases the
chances of the other Blackbirds surviving and, therefore, increasing the odds that more genes
will be passed on.

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An organism will risk its own life to keep the possibility of passing on familial genes alive.
Others of the same genetic strain will survive and keep the gene pool going even if that
particular bird does not.
So this may be a selfish perspective, but it has the potential to produce remarkably unselfish
behavior.
C. Drive Theories
1. A Drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that
should (hopefully) reduce this tension.
2. Most organisms seem to try and maintain Homeostasis - a state of physiological equilibrium.
For example, we have a homeostatic temperature of 98.6 degrees Farenheight. If this

temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic responses: if
temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you shiver.
So, when you experience a drive, you are motivated to reduce this state of tension and pursue
actions that will lead to a drive reduction (reduce the state of tension).
For Example - hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension - drive), which leads to the
motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a reduction in physical tension
(drive reduction), which finally leads to the restoration of equilibrium.
3. There are some problems
a. Homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives - "thirst for knowledge"...what

the heck is that?
b. Motivation may exist without a drive arousal. For example, humans do not eat only
when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice dinner, eat enough to
be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate desert anyway? I thought so.
D. Incentive Theory
An incentive may be defined as an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior. This
does not mean that it will always motivate behavior, only that it can.
Now, we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories:
Drive theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction. However, incentive theory
acts when an external stimulus pulls you in a certain direction.

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This is directly related to Skinner. Here we can see a move away from biological influence toward the
environment and its influence on behavior. You attend class not because you were biologically
programmed to become a student, but rather, because there is something external that is rewarding
to you. Is it the grade you seek? Is it the desire to avoid going into the job market? Is it the desire to
obtain a better job with a degree than possible without one? Regardless which it is, the idea is that
the motivation is something external, not internal.
E. Maslow's Need Hierarchy
This Humanistic perspective is a blend of biological and social needs and is a sweeping overview of
human motivation. Because Maslow believed that all needs vary in strength, he arranged them in a
pyramidal form to indicate which have more strength. The most basic needs (like shelter and food)
are vital to daily survival, and are at the bottom, while needs that are less important to staying alive
are higher on the pyramid.
We may define the Need Hierarchy as - a systematic arrangement of needs according to priority,
which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused. Thus, like stage
theories, we must meet one need before we move on to the next.
Levels
1. Physiological - these include the need for food, water, and other vital components of life. If
these needs are not met, the organism can't survive. Thus, these are the most basic and
important.
2. Safety and security - these needs refer more to the long-term survival than day-to-day needs.
Humans tend to seek out order and have a desire to live in a world that is not filled with chaos
and danger. As a result, they seek out stable lives with careers, homes, insurance, etc.
3. Belongingness and love - after obtaining a safe environment to live and establishing some
long-term plans, people seek out love and affection from family members, friends, and lovers.
4. Esteem - at this level, people become concerned with self-esteem, which may be based on
achievements that they earn, recognition from others for jobs they do, etc.
5. Cognitive - needs at this level are based on acquiring knowledge and understanding of the
world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a degree) then you
are attempting to fulfill your cognitive needs.
6. Aesthetic - aesthetic needs include beauty and order in life. Getting your life in order may
provide a sense of comfort that people often lack. In addition, spending time finding and
observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not have to
struggle and fight to stay alive. Remember the episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in
which people from our century who had been frozen are found and thawed? These people
could not understand that money was no longer important, that starvation had been abolished

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on Earth, and that people now had the opportunity and will to better themselves through
learning about art, music, etc. Picard was preaching the aesthetic level of Maslow's hierarchy.
7. Self-actualization - this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact, according to
Maslow, very few people actually reach this level. Self-actualization is the need to fulfill one's
own potential. As Maslow stated, "What a man can be, he must be." Interestingly, Maslow
indicated that people would be frustrated if they can't pursue their true loves and talents. For
example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they become a doctor, they will be forever
frustrated because the need for self-actualization will be hindered.
II. EMOTIONS
We all have them, and yet most of us can't explain them. Do people really know why they have them,
when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many other aspects of our psychological
makeup, emotions are comprised of several components. We will discuss emotions in terms of the
cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components.
A. Cognitive Level (this is the label or name associated with the emotion)
1. One key aspect of emotions, according to Woodworth & Sehlesberg, is that we have
perceptions of them that usually ranges from:
Pleasantness - unpleasantness & weak-strong (this is the level of activation)
So, we perceive our emotions as having some level of pleasantness and strength. For example,
if your boyfriend or girlfriend breaks up with you, you experience some type of emotion, like
sadness. Then, you experience this emotion along the pleasantness and strength dimensions -
if you loved this person, you may experience sadness that is very unpleasant and intense
(strength).
2. Usually, research on emotions involves a person's subjective report or experience of an

experience. Aside from all of the normal problems associated with self-report data, there are a
few others that occur with self report measures of emotions:
a. There are over 400 words in the English language that refer to emotions. So how do we
know exactly what is meant (how do we operationalize) when someone says, for example,
they feel "sad"? What does that mean compared to all the other words?
b. People can't turn emotions on and off so control over these for study is very difficult.
c. As we know, emotions involve some type of personal evaluations that normally ranges
from pleasant-unpleasant. However, we may have experiences that involve both. For
example - getting a promotion = more money, but also more responsibility and more time
away from others activities. So there are both pleasant and unpleasant emotions
associated with this one experience.
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B. Physiological Level
Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic level

(involuntary/automatic).
For example - have you ever had the experience of being in a car when it spins out of control on an
icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you experience an increase in heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing, your pupils dilate, etc. This occurs, at some level, with all emotions. The
systems involved with this activity are:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): limbic system and cortex
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic and autonomic, sympathetic and parasympathetic
But, very often physiological changes are too small to notice. In these cases, we rely on:
1. Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) - measures fluctuations in electrical conductivity of the skin
that occur when sweat glands increase activity.
2. Polygraph - "lie detector" - used to measure the subtle variations in muscle tension, heart
rate, etc., associated with emotion that occur very subtly.
C. Behavioral Level: Nonverbal Expression
Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling, frowning, clenching
their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate emotions nonverbally; through body
language.
One of the most influential and important researchers in the field of emotion is Ekman. Here are a
couple of examples from Ekman's work:
Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion was being expressed in
those photos. He found that people from different cultures could recognize common facial features
(people from different cultures all identified, for example, smiling as a sign of happiness).
He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial expressions: happiness,
sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt.
He also indicated that the use of facial expressions to communicate seems to be innate - people
who have been blind from birth make many similar facial expressions.

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III. THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
A. JAMES-LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION
1. Background
James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of emotion at about
same time - thus the theory was named for both of them.
2. A common sense idea about emotion would be:
Environmental influence (some event) ---> Psychological experience ---> Physiological state
changes (emotion)
BUT: the James-Lange theory states:
Environmental influence (event) --> Physiological change --> Psychological experience
In other words, James and Lange would say, "I feel afraid because I tremble". If a person sees
a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest that the person
would tremble and then realize that, because they are trembling, they are afraid.
3. James stated
"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and
that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Common sense says, we
lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted
by a rival, and angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of
sequence is incorrect ... and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we
cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble ... Without the bodily states following
on the perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of
emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and
deem it right to strike, but we should not actually feel afraid or angry."
4. Problems
Later studies separated the internal organs that James said caused arousal from the CNS, but
this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily changes could not be
the only factor involved in emotions.

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B. The Cannon-Bard Theory
1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time (although
Cannon was considered to be the more influential one). This theory made use of information
about physiological structures not available to James and Lange.
2. Cannon's critique (1929) of James-Lange Theory - He indicated that some of the problems
with the James-Lange theory were:
a. People who show different emotions may have the same physiological (visceral) state
Example: cry when happy & sad
b. Visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the experience to
be used as cues
c. Visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions, which erupt very
quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry before
you feel sad? Or can you feel sad before crying?
d. Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of an emotion:
For example: exercise --> increased heart rate --> no emotional significance
3. Back to Common Sense Theory
Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to BOTH the cortex (which produces
conscious experience of emotion) and autonomic nervous system (visceral arousal) at the
same time.
BUT - as we already know, the thalamus is not the only player involved in emotion. The limbic
system, hypothalamus and others are all involved. So, this leads us to the Cognitive view.
C. Cognitive View: Schachter and Singer Two Factor Theory
1. Schachter and Singer maintain that we don't automatically know when we are happy, angry,
or jealous. Instead, we label our emotions by considering situational cues. We feel some
emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that particular time, we use the
cues in the environment at the time to help us determine the current emotion. This labeling
process depends on two factors:
a. Some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific arousal marked by
increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid breathing.

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b. People search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what has caused the
emotion.
The infamous Schachter-Singer study of emotion:
a. Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they were studying a vitamin
supplement called Suproxin. The men were asked if they were willing to take the drug,
and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine,
which is also called adrenaline, is released by our hormonal system whenever we face
a stressful situation, and generally increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration.
Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than
those who received the inert placebo.
b. Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical

sensations. They told some of the epinephrine-injected subjects that even though the
drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their
hands might shake, and their hearts might pound. The other subjects, in contrast, were
given no information at all about the effects of the drug. Schachter and Singer
reasoned that once the epinephrine kicked in, their subjects would begin to search for
the cause of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them
should have assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and their heart to
pound. But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more
likely to interpret their arousal as an emotion.
c. What kind of emotion would these uninformed subjects experience? Schachter and
Singer believed that their reaction would depend on the available situational cues. They
therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to wait for
the Suproxin's effects in a small room with another person. This individual was one of
Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained to behave in either a euphoric
or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20 minutes,
doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up balls of
paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower out of file folders, and
playing with a Hula Hoop. The angry confederate, in contrast, became increasingly
agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires
that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing
questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and
family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the
question "How many times each week do you have sexual intercourse?"
d. Schachter and Singer observed and coded the actions taken by each subject, and also
asked them to describe their emotion state. As they had predicted, the physiologically
aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's side effects responded with
emotions that matched the confederate's actions. If they were aroused and hadn't
been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellow subject was happy,
but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and unaroused
subjects who received a placebo, however, did not display any pronounced emotion.
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Also, the subjects in a special control condition--people who had been given
epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect -- also displayed the
emotions enacted by a euphoric confederate
Additional Support -- Dutton & Aaron (1974)
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Personality
What is more important in determining your behavior - your personality or the siltation in which you
are in (the environment)? Are you a "nice" person? If you said yes, are you always nice? The answer,
if you are being honest, is no.
The question then is, if you are a "nice" person (and thus that is part of your personality), why aren't
you nice all the time; how can you be every not be nice if that is your personality? According to
personality theorists, the human personality is enduring and the determining factor in human
behavior. But, as you will see in the Social Psychology section (later in the semester), this may not be
exactly the case. For now, let's take a look at what Personality is according to Personality theorists.
Personality can be defined as an individuals’ unique, relatively consistent pattern of thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors.
I. The Psychobiological approach (the perspective that personality is determined by biological

factors).
Temperament -- a person's characteristic emotional state, first apparent in early infancy and possibly
inborn.
A. Hippocrates' view - According to Hippocrates, temperament is determined by a person's level of

4 different body fluids, called humors.
1. Blood was associated with a cheerful, or sanguine temperament.

2. Phlegm assoc. with a calm, or phlegmatic temperament.
3. Black bile was associated with a depressed, or melancholic temperament.
4. Yellow bile was assoc. w/ an irritable, or choleric temperament.
B. Phrenology and Physiognomy
1. Phrenology - the study of bumps on the skull (believed in the 19th century to be associated
with particular personality and intellectual characteristics).
2. Physiognomy - the study of the face (based on the belief that personality was revealed by
facial features.
C. Physique and Personality - Somatotypes (body types) - Constitutional theory of personality -

William Sheldon. According to this view, there is al ink between a person's body type and
personality.
1. Ectomorph - thin, frail body; believed by Sheldon to reveal a shy, restrained, and introspective
temperament called cerebrotonia.

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2. Mesomorph - muscular, strong body; believed to display a bold, assertive, and energetic
temperament called somatotonia.
3. Endomorph -- large, soft body; believed to display a relaxed, sociable and easygoing
temperament called viscerotonia.
D. Heredity and Personality
Behavioral Genetics - the study of the relationship between heredity and behavior.
Support for this perspective is demonstrated by the differences found in infants. At that early age,
personality theorists say that the baby has not had time to learn how to behave, but is behaving
according to their innate personalities.
Bouchard studies of identical twins reared apart. These studies demonstrate that identical twins that
grow up in different homes often exhibit many similar behaviors and characteristics.
II. The Psychoanalytic Approach (rooted in the psychobiological approach) - this theory is
extremely popular, and was developed by Freud.
A. Psychosexual Theory of the Structure of Personality
1. Id (Latin for "it") - contains innate biological drives, seeks immediate gratification, and
operates by the pleasure principle (seeking gratification of impulses).
2. Ego (Latin for "I") - helps the individual adapt to external reality by making compromises
between the id, the superego, and the environment. Operates by the "reality principle" --
directs the individual to express sexual and aggressive impulses in socially acceptable ways.
3. Superego (Latin for "over the I") - acts as our moral guide; contains the conscience, which
makes us feel guilty for doing or thinking something wrong; also contains the ego ideal, which
makes us feel good for wanting or doing something good.
4. Defense Mechanisms - distort reality to protect the ego from anxiety caused by id impulses.
There are many different types of defense mechanisms:
a. Repression - this is the most often used and central main defense mechanism; it is
common to all the others. Repression can be defined as the banishment of threatening
thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind.
b. Denial - refusal to admit a particular aspect of reality.
c. Regression - individual displays immature behaviors that have relieved anxiety in the past
d. Rationalization - providing socially acceptable reasons for our inappropriate behavior

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e. Intellectualization -- reducing anxiety by reacting to emotional situations in a detached,
unemotional way.
f. Projection - attributing our undesirable feelings to others.
g. Displacement - expressing feelings toward something or someone besides the target

person, because they are perceived as less threatening.
h. Reaction Formation - acting in a manner opposite our true feelings.
i. Compensation - reacting to a personal deficiency by developing another talent.
j. Sublimation - expression of sexual or aggressive impulses through indirect, socially

acceptable ones.
B. Analytic Psychology - Carl Jung
Unlike the Psychosexual approach, the analytic approach de-emphasizes the sex motive
1. Personal Unconscious - the individuals own unconscious mind.

2. Collective Unconscious - the unconscious mind that is shared by all human beings and that
contains archetypal images passed down from our prehistoric ancestors.
3. Archetypes - inherited images, which are passed down from our prehistoric ancestors and
reveal themselves as universal symbols in art, dreams, and religion.
4. Extrovert - a person who tend to focus on the external world and people. People often
associate being socially outgoing with extroversion, but that is a little too simplistic. Extroverts
may be more outgoing in that they gain energy from the other people and the external
environment, and usually prefer to be with others.
5. Introvert - a person who is focused on (often preoccupied) with his or her private mental
experiences, feelings, and thoughts.
III. The Dispositional Approach
A. Type Theories (Eysenck)
1. Unstable/Stable
2. Introverted/ Extroverted
B. Trait Theories - (Allport, Cattell) - a trait is a relatively enduring, cross-situationally consistent

personality characteristic that is inferred from a person’s behavior.
Allport -- indicated that there is a hierarchy of 3 basic trait types:
1. Cardinal (similar to types) - this is the big one. Cardinal traits are dominant traits that
characterize most of (or almost all) of a person's behavior. Cardinal traits completely dominate a
person's sense of self. For example, Charles Manson's evilness could be identified as a cardinal

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trait or Mother Teresa's altruism. It is important to note that cardinal traits are not common.
Most people do not have these traits...people with cardinal traits are considered rare.
2. Central (humorous, kind) - these traits are central, prominent traits that everyone has (unlike
cardinal traits). Our personalities are built upon the central traits. They are influential, but don't
dominate like the cardinal traits.
3. Secondary (food preferences, etc.) - these are traits that are only exhibited in some situations.
For example, someone may be kind most of the time, but become very selfish in other
situations.
C. Cattell -- factor analysis; 16 traits (e.g., emotional stability, agreeableness)
D. Dispositional Assessment of Personality
1. Personality Types -- Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
2. Personality Traits -- MMPI, CPI
IV. The Behavioral Approach
This approach rejects the importance of biological factors in favor of the environmental forces. Instead
of traits, behavioral approach proponents believe that behavior is a function of environmental factors
and learning.
A. Operant Conditioning Theory
Since operant conditioning was already discussed in an earlier section, we won't go into much
detail.
B.F. Skinner was a major proponent of this perspective and believed that what most people
referred to as personality was simply a person's distinct behavior pattern that emerged in specific
situations. For example, you may think that your teacher is very timid and a straight arrow because
you see them only in a very specific situation (the classroom or in the school setting). However,
your teacher may behave very differently in another situation that contradicts your perception of
their "personality".
B. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
This perspective is quite similar to the behavioral perspective, but here cognitive factors are also
considered important in determining behavior (remember that cognitive factors are ignored in strict
behavioral theory). So, according to the Social Cognitive Perspective, the environment/learning and
cognition are the determining factors in behavior. In addition, there are two important concepts you
need to be familiar with the following:

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1. Reciprocal Determinism - Bandura’s belief that personality traits, environmental factors, and overt
behavior don't determine behavior in isolation. Rather, these factors affect each other to
determine our behaviors. Reciprocal determinism also relies on a person's self-efficacy.
2. Self - Efficacy - a person’s belief that he or she can perform behaviors that are necessary to
produce a desired outcome. Self-efficacy influences what choices we make in different situations,
the situations we enter, and the outcomes. For example, do you think a person with low self-
efficacy would enter a situation in which they must perform a difficult task in front of a large
crowd of people?
C. Behavioral Assessment - to measure a person's personality, there are several tools Psychologists
with a behavioral perspective may use:
1. Behavioral Observation
2. Experience Sampling
3. Situational Interview
4. Behavioral Checklists
5. Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment (Rotter’s Internal/External Locus of Control Scale)
V. The Cognitive Approach
A. Personal Construct Theory (George Kelly) - Human beings are lay scientists who continually test
hypotheses about social reality (these hypotheses are personal constructs).
1. Constructive Alternativism - the ability to apply different personal constructs to a given

situation.
B. Cognitive Assessment - Role Construct Repertory Test (Kelly) -- three persons; how are the first
two similar and different from the third? How many constructs does the individual use to
distinguish between people? Are they too inflexible or flexible (stereotypes vs. ability to predict
behavior)?
VII. The Humanistic Approach
A. Self-Actualization Theory (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)
B. Self-Theory - incongruence between the self and personal experience. Healthy people have
congruence between the self and the ideal self.
C. Humanistic Assessment
1. Personal Orientation Inventory - measures the degree to which a person’s values and
attitudes agree with those of Maslow’s description of self-actualized people.
2. Q-Sort - Measures the degree of congruence between a person’s self and ideal self.

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Psychology Disorders (Abnormal Psychology)
Abnormal Psychology - Let's start with a question. NORMAL - what does it mean to you? This
word seems to mean very different things to different people and especially, in different situations.
How many of us here would say we are normal? What if asked to evaluate your own intelligence -
would you say your intelligence level or ability is "normal"?
Is normal average? Certainly the word average constitutes the majority, and isn't it the majority that
determines what is normal? Is normality simply fitting within the confines of the majority - in other
words, being average?
I. Basic Issues
A. What is "abnormal" behavior?
1. Contributes to maladaptiveness in an individual

2. Considered deviant by a culture (thus it is culture specific)
3. Leads to personal psychological distress
4. Unusual, rare, but not necessarily bizarre
B. What are some common myths about abnormality?
1. Bizarre
2. Different in kind
3. Dangerous
4. Shameful
5. Self-Induced
C. Let's take a closer Look at each component
1. Maladaptive Behavior
a. An inability to handle daily life events For example, many people drink, but when drinking
interferes with social and/or professional life it can be considered maladaptive.
b. This is a very important component in diagnosing problems such as drug abuse.
2. Deviant Behavior
a. Behavior that falls outside the boundaries deemed acceptable by a culture
For example: *men wear kilts in Scotland, *living arrangements in villages in Papua New
Guinea

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3. Personal Psychological Distress
a. Not necessarily overt behavior...reports of feelings of sadness, anxiety, etc., to friends

and/or family.
b. Important in determining and diagnosing psychological disorders
4. Unusual but not necessarily bizarre like deviant behavior, this is often governed by the culture.
But, now we also include personal history, experiences, race, religion, etc.
D. Behavior on a Continuum Many textbooks do good jobs of explaining how behavior can be
viewed on a continuum from normal to abnormal as opposed to ONLY normal or abnormal. WHY
this is important:
1. It is difficult to accurately distinguish normal from abnormal

On occasion don't we all have some personal distress?
2. We have ALL displayed some abnormal behavior at some point in our lives
** The key is how much of each and how often do they occur.
E. What causes abnormality? Models of Abnormality.
1. Medical Model: mental illness/also referred to as Biological Model
a. Illness idea (abnormal behavior, maladaptive behavior, mental disorder,

psychopathology, emotional disturbance, behavior disorder, mental illness, mental
disease, insanity
b. Organic, yes: alcoholics, senility, strokes
c. Functional, ?: no link to physical factors
2. Psychoanalytic - all disorders due to internal problems/turmoil. He related ALL neuroses

(abnormal behavior caused by anxiety) to the Oedipul Complex.
3. Learning Model stems from Bandura's social learning theory - behavior is the result of
observation and imitation of others.
4. Cognitive Model - Thought processes cause distress - follows the Psychosomatic Model

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5. Legal Model - If you break the rules or laws determined by society you may be considered
psychologically imbalanced. In fact, many say that the legal definition of "insanity" is being
incapable of standing trial.
F. How do psychologists identify disorders? The classification problem: disorders (problems not
clear cut)
1. DSM-IV of APA (uses a MULTIAXIAL system) *Axis = dimension
2. Axes I & II - used for diagnosis of disorders
a. Axis I - identification of major disorders
b. Axis II - identification of personality or developmental disorders (often comorbidity exists)
3. Remaining Axes are then used for supplemental information
a. Axis III - physical problems
b. Axis IV - severity of stress
c. Axis V - current level of adaptive functioning The multiaxial system is a good thing - it
attempts to show the BIG PICTURE of the person and not just focus on one "abnormal" or
"unusual" factor, symptom, behavior, etc.
II. DISORDERS
A. Anxiety Disorders - All characterized by high (very high) apprehension and anxiety, tension, and
nervousness.
1. Generalized anxiety disorder and panic consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained but intense
fears that do not seem to be attached to any particular object.
a. Very much like regular fears, but no actual danger
b. Objective anxiety vs. free-floating anxiety
c. Tense, apprehensive (concerns about future), difficulty concentrating, irritable, worried,

can't concentrate
d. Headaches, insomnia, upset stomach, aching muscles, need too much sleep, sweating,
dizziness, etc.

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e. Hyper-vigilance - always scanning the area for danger although none usually exists.
f. GAD - anxiety persists for at least 1 month (usually longer) and is not attributable to recent
life experiences (although they may play a role)
2. Panic Disorder
a. Severe anxiety moments
b. "Nervous breakdown," a case of the nerves
3. Phobias: an intense, recurrent, unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation which leads
to avoidance of the object or situation
a. Simple Phobias (relatively rare) - an isolated fear of a single object or situation that results
in avoidance
b. Miscellaneous category comprising irrational fears that don't fall under any other category.
For example - claustrophobia
c. Social Phobias - characterized by fear and embarrassment in dealings with others. Often
the fear is that their anxiety will be seen by others.
d. Examples: public speaking, eating in public, interpersonal relationship fears (asserting

one's self, criticism, making a mistake, etc.).
4. Obsessive-Compulsive
a. Obsessions: persistent, irrational thought that presses itself into awareness at odd times,
idea that keeps returning
* Often involve doubt, hesitation, fear of contamination, or fear of one's own aggressions
b. Compulsion: action that is continually repeated, e.g., mother with obsession seeing herself
stabbing kids, leads to counting up knives, keeping them locked
c. Most common compulsive behaviors: counting, ordering, checking, touching, and washing
d. Some are purely mental rituals like reciting a series of magical numbers to ward off
obsessive thoughts
* Most Common Features
• obsession or compulsion keeps getting into awareness

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• feelings of anxiety or dread occurs if the act/thought is thwarted
• seen as a separate being, not part of one's self, and is uncontrollable
• person realizes how irrational their behavior is but can't stop
• person feels the need to resist
e. Variety of rituals is endless, but there are 4 main types of preoccupations
1) checking - doors, stoves, etc.
2) cleaning - refuse to use public phones, restrooms, etc., vacuum all day long
3) slowness - can't get through other tasks - preoccupied with compulsion
4) doubting OR conscientiousness - even when something is done carefully they feel it

was inadequate.
* Twin studies have indicated some support for the genetic basis
B. Somatoform Disorders
1. Hypochondriasis: incessant worrying over health (not actual, physical illness as in stress-
induced illness like ulcers)
2. Conversion (loss of sensory functions): not psychosomatic illness, real loss e.g., glove
anesthesia, "hysterical blindness"
C. Dissociative: several varieties, all ways to keep information about self out, lock things away, loss
of identity
1. Amnesia: forgetting past

2. Fugue states: flight away from life, self: sometimes short, sometimes long
3. Multiple personality not same as a split personality, three faces of Eve
D. Affective/Mood Disorders
Definition - disturbances in mood or emotionality not due to any physical or mental disorder (no
bereavement, anxiety disorder, etc.).
There are essentially 2 types: Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder

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1. Depressive Disorder (unipolar)- persistent feelings of sadness and despair, and a loss of
interest in previously enjoyable activities/events. Also may include: marked weight loss, sleep
problems, unclear thinking, etc.
A depressive episode must last for at least 2 weeks for classification. Then, if there are 2
episodes of at least 2 week episodes, the person is diagnosed with Major Depression:
a. Major Depression
1) extreme unhappiness, may be attributed to some specific factor, but prolonged

2) some changes from normal to depressed
Normal Depressed
friends antisocial
revulsion & loss of

affection feelings
favorite activity gives

pleasure boredom
humor/amusement loss of humor
self-‐care self-‐neglect
success/achievement withdrawal
self-‐preservation suicidal thoughts
good sleep disturbed sleep
energy fatigued
If the depressive episode lasts for an extended period, person may be classified as having:
b. Dysthymia: affect is not so negative, but very long-term
* like depression, except continuous, chronic state that has lasted for as much as two
years (one year for adolescents) - almost like a "depressive personality disorder", with
depression being a fundamental part of the individual's personality

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2. Bipolar Disorder (Manic-depressive)
a. Shifts back and forth in emotion, from depression (as described above to mania: extremely
high amounts of energy, excited
b. Nature of the manic phase
c. Distinct period in which the predominant mood is quite elevated, it may look euphoric and
cheerful to an uninvolved observer, but to those who know the person well it is clearly
excessive
d. Mania is usually accompanied by a decreased need for sleep, person has lots of energy
e. You see a dramatic impairment in the person's functioning - they are bouncing off the
walls, agitated
f. It's the opposite of depression in that you see the manic excessively involved in
pleasurable activities, shopping sprees, hyper-sexuality
g. Their speech may be loud, rapid, difficult to interrupt, and full of jokes and puns
h. Symptoms
1) depressed and pessimistic to uninhibited, delusions of grandeur, wild ideas
2) slow, tired, no energy to enthusiasm, excitement, energetic
3) speech slow to mile a minute talking, joking
4) sleeps a lot to little sleep
5) euphoric, happy to sadness
6) thinking is blocked, no ideas to wild
7) thoughts, ideas, bizarre behavior
E. Schizophrenia - actually part of a category of mental disorders known as psychoses
Definition: psychosis is a disorder that involves alterations of perceptions, thought, or

consciousness. A psychotic person is said to be detached from reality (not necessarily
continuously) but believes their perceptions to be true.

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1. Most serious, 1 in 50 in U.S. (1% of population), 25% of hospitalized mentally ill, high
return rate, usually under 35 when first admitted
2. Characterized by psychotic symptoms, which means a loss of contact with reality
3. The individual detaches from reality and develops an elaborate inner world which is
illogical and fantastic
4. Also characterized by thought disorder, which involves a kind of unraveling of thinking
processes, the person's associations become loose, and language and communication
become disturbed, what they say makes no sense (WORD SALAD)
5. Why called split personality: split from reality, doesn't react right; also, the self is split into
fragments (but this is NOT the same as multiple personality)
6. Symptoms: best considered to be a group of psychotic reactions
a. Deterioration of behavior - the person declines from a previous level of functioning, "not
himself" e.g., example of Fred who went from being an honor student in school, to failing
grades, getting into trouble, and using drugs over a two year period until finally having
psychotic breakdown at age 16
b. Irrational, disordered thought (delusions), incoherence in ideas Delusions are beliefs or a

belief system that a person has which are almost certainly not true; thoughts being
broadcast from one's head often these have religious content or the conviction that one is
being controlled by outside forces, e.g.,
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Research Methods
I. Why Are Research Methods Important?
Science, at a basic level attempts to answer questions (such as "why are we aggressive) through
careful observation and collection of data. These answers can then (at a more complex or higher
level) be used to further our knowledge of our world, and us as well as help us predict subsequent
events and behavior.
But, this requires a systematic/universal way of collecting and understanding data -- otherwise there
is chaos.
At a Practical level, methodology helps US understand and evaluate the merit of all the information
we're confronted with everyday. For example, do you believe in the following studies?
1. Study indicated that the life span of left-handed people is significantly shorter than those who
are right hand dominant.
2. Study demonstrated a link between smoking and poor grades.
There are many aspects of these studies that are necessary before one can evaluate the validity of
the results. However, most people do not bother to find out the details (which are the keys to
understanding the studies) but only pay attention to the findings, even if the findings are completely
erroneous.
They are also practical in the work place:
1. Mental Health Profession - relies on research to develop new therapies, and learn which
therapies are appropriate and effective for different types of problems and people.
2. Business World - marketing strategies, hiring, employee productivity, etc.
II. Different Types of Research Methods
A. Basic Research
Answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Not done for application, but rather to
gain knowledge for sake of knowledge.
For Example, look at the titles of these publications:

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1. Short and long-term memory retrieval: A comparison of effects of information overload and
relatedness.
2. Electrophysiological activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala: Emotionality and stress
ulcers in rats.
Some people erroneously believe that basic research is useless. In reality, basic research is the
foundation upon which others can develop applications and solutions. So while basic research may
not appear to be helpful in the real world, it can direct us toward practical applications such as, but
definitely not limited to:
1. Skinner - trained animals to work for reinforcement - lead to work schedules and applications
in I/O psychology, therapy, and education.
2. All those therapeutic techniques that clinical psychologists and other therapists use to help
people must study to determine which are most effective for which situations, people, and
problems.
B. Applied Research
Concerned with finding solutions to practical problems and putting these solutions to work in order
to help others.
Some examples of publication titles:
1. Effects of exercise, relaxation, and management skills training on physiological stress

indicators.
2. Promoting automobile safety belt use by young children.
Today, there is a push to more applied research. This is no small part due to the perspective in the
United States where we want solutions and we want them now! BUT, we still need to keep our
perspective on the need for basic research.
C. Program Evaluation
Look at existing programs in such areas as government, education, criminal justice, etc., and
determine the effectiveness of these programs. DOES THE PROGRAM WORK?
For example - Does capital punishment work? Think of all the issues surrounding this program and
how hard it is to examine its effectiveness. The most immediate issue, how do you define the
purpose and "effectiveness" of capital punishment? If the purpose is to prevent convicted criminals
from ever committing that same crime or any other crime, than capital punishment is an absolute -
100% effective. However, if the point of capital punishment is to deter would-be criminals from
committing crimes, then it is a completely different story.
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III. How Do Non-Scientists Gather Information?
We all observe our world and make conclusions. HOW de we do this:
A. Seek an authority figure - teacher tells you facts...you believe them. Is this a good idea?
For example, if your teacher tells you that there is a strong body of evidence suggesting that
larger brains = greater intelligence.
B. Intuition - discussed in previous chapter.
Are women are more romantic then men?
Is cramming for an exam is the best way to study?
Whatever you opinion, do you have data to support your OPINIONS about these questions???
Luckily, there is a much better path toward the TRUTH...the Scientific Method.
IV. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
How do we find scientific truth? The scientific method is NOT perfect, but it is the best method
available today.
To use the scientific method, all topics of study must have the following criteria:
§ Must be testable (e.g., can you test the existence of god?)
§ Must be falsifiable - easy to prove anything true (depends on situation), but systematically
demonstrating a subject matter to be false is quite difficult (e.g., can you prove that god does
not exist?)
A. Goals of the Scientific Method
Describe, Predict, Select Method, Control, Collect Data, Analyze, Explanation
1. Description - the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or individual.

Helps us to be systematic and consistent. This stage sets the stage for more formal stages -
here we acquire our topic of study and begin to transform it from a general concept or idea
into a specific, testable construct.
a. Operational Definitions - the definition of behaviors or qualities in terms of how they are to
be measured. Some books define it as the description of...the actions or operations that
will be made to measure or control a variable.

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Examples:
How can you define "life change"? One possibility is the score on the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale.
How do you define obesity, abnormality, etc. in a way that is testable and falsifiable?
2. Prediction - here we formulate testable predictions or HYPOTHESES about behavior

(specifically, about our variables). Thus, we may define a hypothesis as a tentative statement
about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, one may hypothesize that
as alcohol consumption increases driving ability decreases.
Hypotheses are usually based on THEORIES - statements that summarize and explain
research findings.
3. Select Methodology & Design - chose the most appropriate research strategy for empirically
addressing your hypotheses.
4. Control - method of eliminating all unwanted factors that may affect what we are attempting
to study (we will address in more detail later).
5. Collect Data - although the book is a little redundant and does not differentiate well between
this stage and selecting the design and method, data collection is simply the execution and
implementation of your research design.
6. Analyze & Interpret the Data - use of statistical procedures to determine the mathematical and
scientific importance (not the "actual" importance or meaningfulness) of the data. Were the
differences between the groups/conditions large enough to be meaningful (not due to
chance)?
Then, you must indicate what those differences actually mean...discovery of the causes of
behavior, cognition, and physiological processes.
7. Report/Communicate the Findings - Psychology is a science that is based on sharing - finding

answers to questions is meaningless (to everyone except the scientist) unless that information
can be shared with others. We do this through publications in scientific journals, books,
presentations, lectures, etc.
B. Ways of Conducting Scientific Research
1. Naturalistic Observation - allow behavior to occur without interference or intervention by the

researcher. We all do this - people watch.
Weaknesses: often not easy to observe without being intrusive.
Strengths: study behavior in real setting - not lab.

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2. Case Study - in depth investigation of an individual's life, used to reconstruct major aspects of
a person's life. Attempt to see what events led up to current situation.
Usually involves: interview, observation, examine records, & psych. testing.
Weaknesses: very subjective. Like piecing together a puzzle, often there are gaps - relies on
memory of the individual, medical records, etc.
Strengths: good for assessing psychological disorders - can see history and development.
3. Survey - either a written questionnaire, verbal interview, or combination of the two, used to
gather information about specific aspects of behavior.
Weaknesses: self-report data (honesty is questionable).
Strengths: gather a lot of information in a short time.
Gather information on issues that are not easily observable.
4. Psychological Testing - provide a test and then score the answers to draw conclusions from.
Examples. - I.Q. tests, personality inventories, S.A.T., G.R.E., etc...
Weaknesses: validity is always a question; honesty of answers.
Strengths: can be very predictive and useful if valid.
5. Experimental Research (only way to approach Cause & Effect) - method of controlling all
variables except the variable of interest, which is manipulated by the investigator to determine
if it affects another variable.
V. KEY TERMS (you will need to get very familiar with these terms to succeed in Psychology. You
can also look in the glossary of terms we have provided for these and other important terms)
A. Variable - any measurable condition, event, characteristic, or behavior that can be controlled or
observed in a study.
Independent Variable (IV) - the variable that is manipulated by the researcher to see how it affects
the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable (DV) - the behavior or response outcome that the researcher measures,
which is hoped to have been affected by the IV.
B. Control - any method for dealing with extraneous variable that may affect your study.

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Extraneous variable - any variable other than the IV that may influence the DV in a specific way.
Example - how quickly can rats learn a maze (2 groups)? What to control?
C. Groups (of subjects/participants) in an Experiment - experimental vs control
Experimental Group - group exposed to the IV in an experiment.
Control Group - group not exposed to IV. This does not mean that this group is not exposed to
anything, though. For example, in a drug study, it is wise to have an experimental group (gets the
drug), a placebo control group (receives a drug exactly like the experimental drug, but without
any active ingredients), and a no-placebo control group (they get no drug...nothing)
Both groups must be treated EXACTLY the same except for the IV.
D. Confound - occurs when any other variable except the IV affects the DV (extraneous variable) in a
systematic way. In this case, what is causing the effect on the DV? Unsure.
Example - Vitamin X vs Vitamin Y. Group 1 run in morning, group 2 in afternoon. Do you see a
problem with this? (I hope so)
E. Experimenter Bias - if the researcher (or anyone on the research team) acts differently towards
those in one group it may influence participants' behaviors and thus alter the findings. This is
usually not done on purpose, but just knowing what group a participant is in may be enough to
change the way we behave toward our participants.
F. Participant Bias (Demand Characteristics) - participants may act in ways they believe correspond
to what the researcher is looking for. Thus, the participant may not act in a natural way.
G. Types of Experimental Designs: true experiment, quasi-experiment, & correlation.
The True Experiment: Attempts to establish cause & effect
To be a True Experiment, you must have BOTH - manipulation of the IV & Random Assignment
(RA) of subjects/participants to groups.
1. Manipulation of the IV - manipulation of the IV occurs when the researcher has control over
the variable itself and can make adjustments to that variable.
For example, if I examine the effects of Advil on headaches, I can manipulate the doses given,
the strength of each pill, the time given, etc... But if I want to determine the effect of Advil on
headaches in males vs females, can I manipulate gender? Is gender a true IV?
2. Random Assignment - randomly placing participants into groups/conditions so that all

participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any condition.

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3. Quasi-Experimental Designs: same as the true experiment, but now there is no random
assignment of subjects to groups. Still have one group which gets the IV and one that does
not, but subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.
There are many types of quasi designs (actually, too many to go into detail here). What is
vital to know is that in all of them, there's a lack of RA.
4. Correlation: attempts to determine how much of a relationship exists between variables. It

cannot establish cause & effect. To show strength of a relationship we use the Correlation
Coefficient (r)…
The coefficient ranges from -1.0 to +1.0:
-1.0 = perfect negative/inverse correlation
+1.0 = perfect positive correlation
0.0 = no relationship
Positive Correlation - as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other. Example -
studying & test scores.
Negative Correlation - as one variable increases or decreases, the other moves in the
opposite direction. Example - as food intake decreases, hunger increases.
THE BETWEEN vs WITHIN SUBJECTS DESIGN
a) Between-subjects design: in this type of design, each participant participates in one

and only one group. The results from each group are then compared to each other to
examine differences, and thus, effective of the IV. For example, in a study examining
the effect of Bayer aspirin vs Tylenol on headaches, we can have 2 groups (those
getting Bayer and those getting Tylenol). Participants get either Bayer OR Tylenol, but
they do NOT get both.
b) Within-subjects design: in this design, participants get all of the

treatments/conditions. For example, in the study presented above (Bayer vs Tylenol),
each participant would get the Bayer, the effectiveness measured, and then each
would get Tylenol, then the effectiveness measured. See the differences?
VALIDITY vs RELIABILITY
Validity - does the test measure what we want it to measure? If yes, then it is valid.
For Example - does a stress inventory/test actually measure the amount of stress in a
person's life and not something else?

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Reliability - is the test consistent? If we get same results over and over, then reliable.
For Example - an IQ test - probably won't change if you take it several times. Thus, if it produces the
same (or very, very similar) results each time it is taken, then it is reliable.
However, a test can be reliable without being valid, so we must be careful.
For Example - the heavier your head, the smarter you are. If I weighed your head at the same time
each day, once a day, for a week, it would be virtually the same weight each day. This means that
the test is reliable. But, do you think this test is valid (that is indeed measures your level of
"smartness")? Probably NOT, and therefore, it is not valid.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/methods.html#ixzz1OsqzxNBA

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Sensation & Perception
Sensation & Perception - When we smell a fragrant flower, are we experiencing a sensation or a
perception? In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and "perception' are often used
interchangeably.
However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet complementary processes. In this section,
we will discuss some concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and then move on to
discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible in the scope of these notes to discuss all
the senses).
I. Sensations and Perceptions
Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into
the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously
engaging in a "sensing" process. Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting,
organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses.
A. How They Work Together
1. Sensation occurs
a. Sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment.
b. Sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain.
2. Perception follows
a. The brain organizes the information and translates it into something meaningful.
B. But what does "meaningful" mean? How do we know what information is important and should
be focused on?
1. Selective Attention - process of discriminating between what is important & is irrelevant

(Seems redundant: selective-attention?), and is influenced by motivation.
For example - students in class should focus on what the teachers are saying and the
overheads being presented. Students walking by the classroom may focus on people in the
room, who is the teacher, etc., and not the same thing the students in the class.
2. Perceptual Expectancy - how we perceive the world is a function of our past experiences,
culture, and biological makeup. For example, as an American, when I look at a highway, I
expect to see cars, trucks, etc…NOT airplanes. But someone from a different country with

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different experiences and history may not have any idea what to expect and thus be surprised
when they see cars go driving by.
Another example - you may look at a painting and not really understand the message the artist is
trying to convey. But, if someone tells you about it, you might begin to see things in the painting
that you were unable to see before.
ALL OF THIS IS CALLED Psychophysics
C. Psychophysics can be defined as, the study of how physical stimuli are translated into
psychological experience. In order to measure these events, psychologists use THRESHOLDS.
1. Threshold - a dividing line between what has detectable energy and what does not.
For example - many classrooms have automatic light sensors. When people have not been in
a room for a while, the lights go out. However, once someone walks into the room, the lights
go back on. For this to happen, the sensor has a threshold for motion that must be crossed
before it turns the lights back on. So, dust floating in the room should not make the lights go
on, but a person walking in should.
2. Difference Threshold - the minimum amount of stimulus intensity change needed to produce a
noticeable change. The greater the intensity (ie, weight) of a stimulus, the greater the change
needed to produce a noticeable change.
For example, when you pick up a 5 lb. weight, and then a 10 pound weight, you can feel a big
difference between the two. However, when you pick up 100 lbs., and then 105 lbs., it is much
more difficult to feel the difference.
3. Signal-Detection Theory - detection of a stimulus involves some decision making process as

well as a sensory process. Additionally, both sensory and decision-making processes are
influenced by many more factors than just intensity.
a) Noise - how much outside interference exists.
b) Criterion - the level of assurance that you decide must be met before you take action.
Involves higher mental processes. You set criterion based on expectations and
consequences of inaccuracy.
For example - at a party, you order a pizza...you need to pay attention so that you will be
able to detect the appropriate signal (doorbell), especially since there is a lot of noise at the
party. But when you first order the pizza, you know it won't be there in 2 minutes, so you
don't really pay attention for the doorbell. As the time for the pizza to arrive approaches,
however, your criterion changes...you become more focused on the doorbell and less on
extraneous noise.

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II. SIGHT/VISION
A. The visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length
and amplitude
1. Wave Length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it
occurs) - affects color perception (ie, red=approximately 700, yellow approximately 600)
2. Wave Amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave) - affects brightness perception.
B. Structure of The EYE
1. Cornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to pass into the eye.
2. Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.
3. Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives information about light using rods and
cones. The functioning of the retina is similar to the spinal cord - both act as a highway for
information to travel on.
4. Pupil - opening at the center of the iris, which controls the amount of light entering the eye.
Dilates and Constricts.
5. Rods & Cones - many more rods (approximately 120 million) than cones (approximately 6.4
million).
a) Cones - visual receptor cells that are important in daylight vision and color vision.
The cones work well in daylight, but not in dim lighting. This is why it is more difficult to
see colors in low light.
Most are located in the center of the retina...called the FOVEA, which is a tiny spot in the
center of the retina that contains ONLY cones...visual acuity is best here.
SO...when you need to focus on something you attempt to bring the image into the fovea.
b) Rods - visual receptor cells that are important for night vision and peripheral vision.
The rods are better for night vision because they are much more sensitive than cones.
In addition, the rods are better for peripheral vision because there are many more on the
periphery of the retina. The cones are mostly in and around the fovea but decrease as you
go out.

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to see best at night, look just above or below the object...this keeps the image on the rods.
C. Seeing In Color - we can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive
information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue.
Color Vision Theories
1. Trichromatic Theory - this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors (red, green, and
blue) and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (Like a projection T.V.). The ratio of each
color to the other then determines the exact color that we see.
2. Opponent-Process Theory - color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist

colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color in the pair is
blocked out. Pairs = red-green, blue-yellow, black- white (light-dark).
Note: Most every Introductory Psychology book has a demonstration on the Opponent-Process
theory. Please look for the one in your book and give it a try.
DOES COLOR EXIST? People just assume that because we see colors that they actually exist in the
world. In other words, that when they see the color red, that red is a real, physical, tangible, "thing".
But is it, or is color just a matter of our perception? If we had different types of nervous systems, we
would see things differently (literally) and so wouldn't we think those other things we saw were the
real "things"? Let's examine this question of perception a bit further.
III. PERCEPTION
Much of our understanding of how and why we perceive things comes from Gestalt Psychology
For example - one of the most well known Gestalt principles is the Phi Phenomenon, which is the
illusion of movement from presenting stimuli in rapid succession. When you see a cartoon or
running Christmas lights, you see movement (although none actually exists) because of this
principle.
A. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
1. Figure-Ground - this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions. When we look at
an object, we see that object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits. For example,
when I see a picture of a friend, I see my friends face (figure) and the beautiful Sears brand
backdrop behind my friend (ground).
2. Simplicity/Pragnanz (good form) - we group elements that make a good form. However, the
idea of "good form" is a little vague and subjective. Most psychologists think good form is what
ever is easiest or most simple. For example, what do you see here: : > ) Do you see a smiling
face? There are simply 3 elements from my keyboard next to each other, but it is "easy" to
organize the elements into a shape that we are familiar with.
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3. Proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are close to each other in physical space are
often perceived as belonging together.
4. Similarity - do I really need to explain this one? As you probably guessed, this one states that
objects that are similar are perceived as going together. For example, if I ask you to group the
following objects: (* * # * # # #) into groups, you would probably place the asterisks and the
pound signs into distinct groups.
5. Continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led. Dots in a smooth curve appear to go
together more than jagged angles. This principle really gets at just how lazy humans are when it
comes to perception.
6. Common Fate - elements that move together tend to be grouped together. For example, when
you see geese flying south for the winter, they often appear to be in a "V" shape.
7. Closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.
B. Illusions - an incorrect perception caused by a distortion of visual sensations.
1. Muller-Luyer Illusion
2. Reversible Figures - ambiguous sensory information that creates more than 1 good form. For
example, the picture of two faces looking toward each other that is also a vase. I am sure
most every Introductory Psychology book has this example.
3. Impossible Figures - objects that can be represented in 2-dimensional pictures but cannot
exist in 3-dimensional space despite our perceptions. You know the artist, Escher who draws
the pictures like...the hands drawing each other, the waterfall that goes down and stays level
at the same time, etc...
C. The Perception of Pain
Pain is an unpleasant yet important function for survival: warning system (but not all pain is needed
for survival).
There are two different pathways to the brain on which pain can travel - information brought from
free nerve endings in the skin to the brain via two different systems:
1. Fast Pathways - registers localized pain (usually sharp pain) and sends the information to the
cortex in a fraction of a second. EX. - cut your finger with a knife.
2. Slow Pathways - sends information through the limbic system which takes about 1-2 seconds
longer than directly to the cortex (longer lasting, aching/burning).

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Factors in Pain Perception - not an automatic result of stimulation:
1. Expectations - research shown that our expectations about how much something will hurt can
effect our perception.
Melzack - indicated that believing that something will be very painful helps us prepare for it.
For example - childbirth: Lamaze method falsely leads us to believe it won't be painful. Maybe
if we know it will be bad we can adequately prepare to handle it.
Another example - placebo effect - if we believe pain has stopped, it may.
2. Personality - people with negative types of personalities often have more pain. E
For example - a very uptight person may experience muscle pains, back pains, etc.
3. Mood - bad moods, angry, unhappy, etc., can lead to the experience of increased pain.
For example - study manipulated moods of subjects then asked them to complete
questionnaires of pain perception. Those in negative mood group reported significantly more
pain than other subjects.
So, it seems that our brains can regulate, control, determine, and even produce pain.
Theories of Pain Perception
1. Gate Control Theory (Melzack & Walls, 1965) - incoming pain must pass through a "gate"
located in the spinal cord which determines what information about pain will be sent to the
brain. So, it can be opened to allow pain through or closed to prevent pain from being
perceived.
The Gate - actually a neural network controlled by the brain. Located in an area of the spinal
cord called the Substansia Gelatinosa. There are two types of nerve fibers in this area:
a. large - sends fast signals and can prevent pain by closing the gate.
b. small - sends slower signals, which open the gate. So - when pain occurs it is because
the large fibers are off and the small are on, opening the gate.
Since the brain controls the gate, he factors discussed earlier (expectations, mood,
personality) influence the functioning of the gate.
Contradiction to Gate Control Theory:

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1. Endorphins - the body's own pain killers (morphine-like). May explain acupuncture,
acupressure, pain tolerance during last two weeks of pregnancy, etc.
BUT- endorphins may work with the gate control theory - maybe pain is perceived,
endorphins are released, so the brain no longer needs the signals and closes the gate.
Phantom Limbs
Ability to feel pain, pressure, temperature, and many other types of sensations including pain
in a limb that does not exist (either amputated or born without).
The feelings and the pain are sometimes so life-like that person attempts to pick things up
with phantom hand, step with phantom foot or leg, etc. Often person feels phantom moving in
perfect coordination with the rest of the body - some report a missing arm extending outward
at a 90 degree angle so they turn sideways when going through a doorway.
May occur right after amputation or not until years later.
Often felt as part of the body (belonging to the rest of the body). Example - with a missing leg,
some report having a phantom foot but not the rest of the leg. Still, the foot feels as though it
is part of the body.
Go to Phantom Limb Pages - includes case studies -

http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/phantom1.html
Explanations:
1. The neuroma explanation - remaining nerves in the stump grow into nodules
(neuromas) at the end of the stump continue to fire signals. Signals follow the same
pathways the brain as when the appendage existed.
2. The spinal cord explanation - neurons in the spinal cord that are no longer receiving
information from the lost appendage continue to send information to the brain.
Problem - studies have shown that when areas in the spinal cord are severed often
feelings still being perceived from areas that meet the spinal cord in lower areas (below
separation in spinal cord).
3. The brain explanation - signals in the somatosensory circuits of the brain change when
the limb is lost which produce the phantom...the brain compensates for the loss or
altered signals. This has been expanded - brain contains a network of fibers that not
only respond to stimulation but also continually generates a pattern of impulses that
indicate that the body is intact and functioning. Thus, the brain creates the impression
that the limb exists and is al right. This system may be prewired.

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4. The hardwired explanation - we may have a biological makeup to be born with all of our
appendages. So, when we are born w/o one or lose one, the nerves are still there and
are still going to send the information.
Please note that we can not cover ALL the senses in class so make sure you read about taste, touch,
hearing, and smell in the book.
Muller-Lyer Explained
Although many theories exist for this illusion, there is no certain explanation. One theory is
based on eye movement. When the arrows point inwards, our gaze rests inside the angles
formed by the arrows. When they point outwards, our eyes demarcate the entire perspective
and our gaze rests outside the angles. The outward pointing arrows make the figure more
open and so the horizontal line appears longer.
The illusion takes its name from Franz Carl Müller-Lyer (1857-1916), who studied medicine in
Strasbourg and served as assistant director of the city's psychiatric clinic. Müller-Lyer's main
works were in the field of sociology. He himself attempted to explain the illusion he had
discovered as follows: "the judgment not only takes the lines themselves into consideration,
but also, unintentionally, some part of the space on either side." He published two articles on
the illusion bearing his name. ('Optical Illusions' 1889, and 'Concerning the Theory of Optical
Illusions: on Contrast and Confluxion' 1896)
Favreau (1977) studied a number of textbooks in which Müller-Lyer presented and measured
the figures. He noticed that in many cases, the figure had been drawn the wrong way round
so that the illusion appeared more forceful!
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/s&p.html#ixzz1OsrFJAHG


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Social Psychology
I. Introduction
Ours is a social world. It’s awash with some 5.8 billion people, and these billions of people are
busily interacting with one another. How many people, on this particular day, are meeting
one another for the first time, shaking hands, exchanging bows, and forming first
impressions? How many times today will two people be drawn to one another, and share the
thought that they might become friends or lovers? How many times today will someone
convince someone else to change their politics, to donate a few dollars to a charity, or hire
him or her to do a job? How many groups will form today, how many will dissolve, how many
will make excellent decisions, and how many will draw ill-founded conclusions? How many
people will hurt each other, help each other, love each other, and kill each other?
These billions of social encounters are the subject matter of social psychology. Like
meteorologists predicting the weather, economists charting changes in wages and prices over
decades, and physicists identifying the fundamental elements of matter, social psychologists
study complex, ever-changing phenomena. These phenomena, however, are social ones:
they originate in the countless interactions that take place between people each day. Some
of these processes are disturbing; people harming others; people isolated and alone; people
failing to reach their potential. Others, though, are uplifting, for they highlight the positive side
of human action: loving others, helping people, and working together to achieve important
goals. Some are routine and mundane whereas others are extraordinary and exciting. Social
psychologists study such everyday actions as getting to know another person or making a
decision in a group, but they also investigate events with far-reaching ramifications for our
society and the world-at-large: Violence, cooperation, prejudice, sexism, and helping.
Social Psychology is the study of the way individuals are influenced by others.
A. Topics
Social psychologists, like sociologists, are interested in social values, culture, and groups.
They focus, however, on the individual in the social context rather than the social context per
se. Social psychologists, like psychologists, are also interested in personal processes,
including personality, perception, memory, and learning. They prefer, however, to focus on the
way the social context and psychological processes influence each other. Their approach,
then, is two-fold, for they focus on:
1. Intrapersonal Processes: psychological processes acting at the individual level
Examples: attitudes, perception of people, etc.
2. Interpersonal Processes: Social, Interactional Processes, Operating Between People
* Conformity
* Group Behavior
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II. Obedience: An Example
A. Milgram's Studies of Obedience
Milgram's paradigm: In the early 1960s Stanley Milgram, a social psychologist at Yale
University, carried out a series of studies of obedience.
1. Rigged Drawing (teacher, learner)

2. Shock Machine
3. Basic Condition: series of errors, pounding on the wall at 300 volts, refused to answer at
315 volts
4. Prods: "The experiment requires that you continue," "It is absolutely essential that you
continue," "You have no other choice, you must go on" (Milgram, 1974, p. 21)
B. Results: 65% obedience (most of those who disobeyed did so at the 300-315 volt level).
Variations on the theme basic condition:
65% Touch: 30%

Heart Condition: 50%
Bridgeport: 48%
Voice-Feedback: .5%
Obedient Others: 72%
Same Room: 40%
Disobedient Others: 10%
III. The Perspective: Why Obedience?
A. To hurt the learner?
1. Aggressive Impulse
2. Frustration – Aggression
But unlikely causes of Milgram's subjects behaviors
B. Strange, abnormal subjects?
1. Authoritarian Personality
2. Immoral, Weak Personalities
C. Social influence?
Yes: caught up in a powerful social situation, they acted in accordance with basic norms,
requirements)

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1. Conformity Pressure
2. Social Roles
3. Diffusion of Responsibility
IV. Beyond Obedience
A. Attribution and Person Perception
1. Attribution
a. Perceiving
b. Causes of behaviors
2. F.A.E.
Several biases systematically distort our causal inferences. When we make attributions about
other people we under-estimate how much that person's behavior is influenced by the situation
and overestimate the causal influence of dispositional factors. Because of this fundamental
attribution error, we often assume that people mean what they say, even when their verbal
declarations are heavily constrained by the situation (the correspondence bias) and observers
frequently emphasize personal causes more than actors do (the actor-observer difference).
B. Attitude Change
1. Festinger's
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance argues that cognitive inconsistency creates a state
of psychological tension that we are motivated to reduce. When we engage in counter-
attitudinal behavior we reduce the ensuing dissonance by changing our attitude to match our
behavior. Dissonance offers an explanation for a number of tendencies for actions to
influence our attitudes, including change following counter-attitudinal advocacy, spreading of
alternatives and selective exposure after making choices, the tendency to justify the effort we
expend to reach our goals, and reactions to information that disconfirms our beliefs.
2. Example: Joining a Group
C. Altruism
Kitty Genovese Incident in Queens, New York
Winston Moseley stabbed Kitty Genovese outside of her apartment in the Kew Gardens section
of Queens, New York. When one of her neighbors shouted at him Moseley retreated to his car.
But no one called the police, and Moseley returned 20 minutes later to renew his attack. He
found Genovese hiding in the stairwell of her apartment building. He raped her and stabbed
her to death. The police receive the first call from a witness at 3:50. They are on the scene in

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two minutes, but 37 minutes after the first attack. Journalists who described the incident
claimed that as many as 38 people witnessed the murder, yet no one helped
1. How many helped the learner?
2. Bystander intervention: Latanï¿½ and Darley had succeeded in documenting the bystander
effect: people are less likely to help in groups than when they are alone.
Note: Beware of the "Anti-social" Bias
Social psychological causes can be invisible to the untrained eye (e.g., explaining Milgram
study)
§ Psychogenicism: look first to internal processes

§ Sociogenicism: look first at the situation (behaviorism)
§ Interactionism: look at interaction of both
[Are your choices based on your personal values, or do they reflect social pressures?]
Social psychological explanations are consistent, in many cases, with common sense, but
common sense is not a reliable guide for explaining social behavior.
§ Common sense is contradictory, vague.

§ People don't test commonsensical ideas.
§ A commonsense conclusion that is true in one situation may be false in another.
§ Common sense is sometimes inaccurate.
§ Common sense doesn't explain why things happen.
V. Festinger & Carlsmith Study (1959)
VI. Interpersonal Attraction

§ Positive feelings toward another person
§ The psychological investigation of liking and loving
A. 3 Key Aspects
1. Cognitive - how we mentally view others; our thoughts about them, both positive and
negative
2. Emotional - our feelings about others, both positive and negative
3. Behavioral - how we act towards others
B. The Factors that Influence Liking and Loving
1. Proximity - geographical nearness. Very powerful predictor of liking, loving, and hostility

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Studies have shown that most people marry someone who lives in the same neighborhood,
works in the same location, or sits in the same classroom
2. Festinger, Schachter, & Back (1950)
a. Randomly assigned married couples at MIT to apartments in one building for

1 semester
b. Two thirds or wives reported that their best friends were those in the same
building
c. Two thirds of "best friends" were on the same floor of the building
d. Forty-one percent of participants indicated that their best friends lived next door
e. Replicated many times
3. Although proximity is important, INTERACTION may be more telling - how often do people
cross paths?
What is your "functional distance" with another person - this may be the key
4. But WHY?
a. Availability
b. Anticipation of Interaction
1) Creates feeling of belonging to a group (in-group bias)

2) We want to view those we spend time with as compatible and friendly...maximizes
chance of forming a relationship
5. Mere Exposure Effect: tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more after repeated exposures.
"They grow on us"
6. Physical Attractiveness: no matter how sophisticated a society we may think we live in,
physical attractiveness has been shown to be a very powerful predictor of attraction.
a. Dating - a woman's physical appearance is strong predictor of dating frequency; slightly

less for men, but almost identical
1) Subjects told they were matched by computer to another person based on

personality, aptitude scores, etc...but actually they were randomly assigned to
another individual (couples).
Had a 2.5 hour "dance", then completed rating scales. Only one factor appeared
from all data - the more physically attractive the person was rated by their match, the
more likely they were liked and wanted to be seen again by their match (FOR BOTH
GENDERS)

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b. Matching Phenomenon - people tend to pair with someone they believe is similar in
terms of physical attractiveness. We may tend or try to date someone that is maximally
attractive, but we tend to marry someone more similar to us. "In our own league"
1) This phenomenon includes intelligence

2) Those unusual couples - usually some other factor present...bring something of value
to the relationship. For example, Prince Charles and Princess Diana
7. Similarity vs. Complementary
Was Tolstoy correct, that "love depends...on frequent meeting, and on the style in which the
hair is done up, and on the color and cut of the dress"? To a point, YES.
But, as people become more familiar, other factors become important:
a. Do birds of a feather flock together?
1) YES - friends, married, engaged all tend to remain happier the more similar they are
2) Similarity of attitudes, beliefs, and values
3) But, does similarity lead to liking, or does liking lead to similarity?
b. Likeness Begets Liking
1) Many studies have shown that people rate others (even a complete stranger) higher
in terms of liking the more similar the other person's attitudes are to their own.
2) How often does a radical feminist marry a conservative republican?
3) How often do we remain friends with someone whose values and attitudes are very
different from our own?
4) This does NOT mean we need a mirror image of ourselves, but someone who
compliments us
c. Liking Begets Perceived Likeness
1) The more we like someone, the more apt we are to perceive us as similar
d. Do opposites attract?
1) NO - despite the myth (they may "lust", but not like or love - generally...there are
exceptions)
2) We may be attracted to someone whose needs are different from ours, but often in
ways that compliment our own.
3) David Buss "the tendency of opposites to marry, or mate...has never been reliably
demonstrated, with a single exception of sex (males and females)"
VII. GROUPS

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Despite our desire to BE INDIVIDUALS, is it possible that we are actually all simply followers? Do
we stay within the boundaries dictated by our societies? Even those who define themselves as
RADICAL, don't they still remain within the confines of societal rules - maybe at one end of the
spectrum, but still within the spectrum.
Is it possible that there are no wolves, but that we are all just sheep?
Some quotes about groups:
1) Emerson wrote "there need be but one wise man in a company and all are wise, so
a blockhead makes a blockhead of his companions"
2) Samuel Johnsßon wrote "I live in the crowd of jollity, not so much to enjoy company
as to shun myself."
3) "Every crowd has a silver lining:" P. T. Barnum
4) Was Charles de Gaulle correct when he said that "The French will only be united
under the threat of danger. Nobody can simply bring together a country that has
265 kinds of cheese"?
5) Samuel Clemens wrote "we are discreet sheep; we wait to see how the drove is
going, and then go with the drove."
6) Cicero: "The mob has no judgment, no discretion, no direction, no discrimination,
no consistency."
7) Leonardo da Vinci: "While you are alone you are entirely your own master and if you
have one companion you are but half your own and the less so in proportion to the
indiscretion of his behavior."
8) Psychologist Carl Jung: whenever "a 100 clever heads join a group, one big
nincompoop is the result."
9) Nietzsche: "madness is the exception in individuals but the rule in groups."
A. The Case of Heaven’s Gate: Is it so hard to understand?
Other people influence our thoughts, our emotions, and our behaviors. This assumption,
axiomatic in social psychology and group dynamics, is inarguable. But does it explain why
39 people would make so permanent a decision of committing suicide?
A social psychological analysis of the Heaven's Gate incident requires (at least) three parts.
First, why is the public, in general, so intrigued by the incident, and why do most people
misunderstand it?
Second, what group level processes operate in such groups? Are these processes so
powerful that they could induce a sane person into taking what appears to be an insane
action?
Third, why would a group of people make such a horrific decision, with such drastic
consequences?
B. Why Are People Fascinated by the Heaven’s Gate Group?

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The Heaven's Gate group is news--big news. Newspapers around the world showed the
special morgue truck needed to carry the multiple suicides. The groups' web page was
flooded with Internet hits. The media flocked to the site. Other news--wars, weather, and the
basketball playoffs--took a backseat to suicide.
Why are people intrigued by groups that commit mass suicide? The intrigue stems, in part,
from their unusualness. But the intrigue also derives from misunderstanding.
1. First, we explain away the suicide of an individual by blaming illness, pain, and
depression, but these explanations don't work very well when a group takes its life.
a. We can understand (although perhaps not condone the actions of) people who,
suffering incredible pain with a fatal disease, ending their lives.
b. We can also understand that people suffering from psychological problems-- such as
deep, unrelenting depression--may become so confused, so negative, so distressed
over who they are that they escape their own existence. But the Heaven's Gate
group wasn't fatally ill. The members weren't depressed and confused. So the
assumptions that we usually rely on to explain away a suicide don't help us explain
their actions. If they weren't suffering, if they weren't depressed, then why would
they commit suicide? We are puzzled.
2. Second, we think of suicide as the most irrational of behavior. Except in cases of extreme
pain when the person is terminally ill, we assume that the person is dazed, confused, not
thinking clearly- -and, indeed, people who commit suicide often are dazed, confused, and
not thinking clearly.
a. BUT A GROUP, by its very nature, cannot be as irrational as an individual. Thirty-nine

people had to discuss how they would die. They had make plans: How would they
do it? Who would be in charge of removing the plastic bags and shrouding the
bodies? Who would go first, who would go last? How could a group discuss such
things? The very idea of group suicide is paradoxical, because we assume that
suicide is irrational, and that groups are rational. We understand when groups make
bad decisions or work ineffectively, but to commit suicide? Unlikely. We realize that
individuals commit suicide regularly--so frequently that only a movie or rock star's
self-immolation is newsworthy. But a suicidal group is a rarity.
3. Third, because suicide is such horrible outcome--the ending of a life and any opportunity
for further development--we intuitively seek a dramatic explanation.
A 1978 a representative sample of Americans were asked "Why do you think people become
involved in cults?" (Gallup, 1978, p.275). Most people blamed the personality characteristics
and flaws of the cult members. They were seeking:
A "father figure;" they were "unhappy" or "gullible" or "searching for a deeper meaning to
life;" they were "mentally disturbed," "escapists," or addicted to drugs." And now people are
arguing that its the Internet that did it: The WEB is to blame for the spread of bizarre ideas
about UFOs and Christianity.

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These explanations are all simplistic ones--they demean the group members, blaming their
personalities or their weaknesses since their actions make no sense to us.
When we read about the individuals in Heaven's Gate we assume they are weak, gullible
people who are easily influenced by others. When we read that 39 people committed suicide,
we immediately assume that some leader brainwashed them. That they were tortured, forced
to watch indoctrination videos, injected with mind-altering drugs, or deprived of sleep for
days. Yet they weren't.
C. Why Do People Let Groups Influence Them So Dramatically?
Picture in your mind a member of Heaven's Gate. Who do you see? A brainwashed devotee
mumbling her prayers mindlessly. A weak-kneed follower who blindly follows Elder
Jonathan's orders? A truthseeker who is so desperate to understand the meaning of life that
she will accept an odd version replete with allusions to spaceships and UFOs?
These images of people who take part in nontraditional religious and social groups are unfair
exaggerations. Although the word cult summons up thoughts of brainwashed automatons so
intimidated by a charismatic leader that they can't stand up for their rights, this stereotype is
naive and incomplete. Everyone's actions are controlled, in part, by social factors, and the
actions of members of so-called cults require no reference to the "magical powers" of a
leader or the "twisted" personalities of the followers.
1. What are these group-level processes?
a. INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE occurs when other people provide us with

information that we then use to make decisions and form opinions. If we spend years
and years in the company of people who explain things in terms of UFOs and out-of-
the-body experiences, we will in time begin to explain things in that way as well.
b. NORMATIVE INFLUENCE occurs when we tailor our actions to fit the social norms of
the situation. We take such norms as "Do not tell lies" and "Help other people when
they are in need" for granted, but some societies and some groups have different
norms which are equally powerful and taken-for-granted. Normative influence
accounts for the transmission of religious, economic, moral, political, and
interpersonal beliefs across generations.
c. Interpersonal influence is used in those rare instances when someone violates the
group's norms. The individual who publicly violates a group's norm will likely meet
with reproach or even be ostracized from the group.
Three Factors: INFORMATIONAL, NORMATIVE, and INTERPERSONAL INFLUENCE
First: Information Influence
One member of a religious group describes his first meeting with a cult as: It

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Was strange, but the intensity of the two days left me much clearer about why I had been so
uncertain, and where I might head for the future; it was as if a haze had been lifted. I began to
understand things that had made no sense before, why most people rushed around for no
reason, without any lasting sense of purpose. I had a sense that I could look for direction to
my friends in the One-World Crusade.(quoted in M. Gallanter, 1989, p. 61, Cults: Faith,
Healing, and Coercion, Oxford University Press).
Second: Normative Influence
Members feel obligated to conform to group norms that encouraged friendliness, cooperation,
and total acceptance of the principles of the group. Self-reports of conversions are very
similar in that people begin as skeptics, recognizing that the ideas are possibly bizarre and
"kooky." But over time they accept them as the their own. One writes:
I "went along in all the activities because they were sincere people doing things for a good
cause, even though sometimes it seemed silly."Eventually, though, he internalized the group's
norms.
Third: Interpersonal Influence
Cult members won't take no for an answers. Such groups are often isolated, intensely
cohesive, and led by an individual who brooks no disagreement. Nearly everyone recognizes
that there is danger in "falling in" with the members of cult, for even though we believe that we
are individualists who make up our own minds, we intuitively realize that such a group could
change us from who were are now into one of "them."
Studies of radical religious groups describe very similar dynamics across all the groups:
intense cohesiveness, public statements of principles, pressure placed on anyone who
dissents, ostracism from the group for disagreement, strong rewards for agreement with the
group's ideals.
As Dr. Forsyth States:
I am the first to admit that an explanation that stress normal, everyday sorts of determinants
of behavior seems inadequate to explain such abnormal, unusual behavior as mass suicide.
Yet the law of parsimony requires nothing more if this basic account is sufficient.
Informational, normative, and interpersonal influence processes guide us constantly. In
ambiguous situations, other people's actions provide us with the social proof we need to
make our own choices. If it's OK for them, we assume it must be OK for us. And should we fail
to match the expectations of those around us, they will be pleased to guide us back to the
right path. We may feel the need to dehumanize the group for its actions by calling them crazy
or hypothesizing weird social forces that constrained them, but in the end their actions stem
from the same processes that guide the behavior of the accountant crunching numbers for a
client, the gang member facing down a rival, the soldier readying for another patrol, or the frat
boy drinking to heavily at keg party.
D. Why did Heaven’s group make the mistake they made?

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When people must make important decisions, they turn to groups.
1. Groups can draw on more resources than a lone individual.

2. Groups can also generate more ideas and possible solutions by discussing the
problem.
3. Groups can also pressure individual members to accept the solution, even if they
have doubts.
4. People generally feel that a group's decision will be superior to an individual's
decisions.
Groups, however, don't always make good decisions. JURIES sometimes render verdicts that
run counter to the evidence presented. COMMUNITY GROUPS take radical stances on issues
before thinking through all the ramifications. MILITARY STRATEGISTS concoct plans that
seem, in retrospect, ill-conceived and short-sighted.
But such a disastrous decision requires special explanation.
1. One such explanation is GROUPTHINK: a distorted style of thinking that renders

group members incapable of making a rational decision (Forsyth, 1995, Our Social
World, Brooks/Cole).
Groupthink, which was coined by Irving Janis in his classic book Victims of
Groupthink, is considered a disease that infects healthy groups, rendering them
inefficient, unproductive, and irrational.
Did Heaven's Gate suffer from groupthink? Janis has identified a number of causes
of groupthink, and many were likely operating in the Heaven's Gate group.
2. Cohesiveness. Groupthink only occurs in cohesive groups. Such groups have many
advantages over groups that lack unity. People enjoy their membership much more
in cohesive groups, they less likely to abandon the group, and they work harder in
pursuit of the group's goals.
But extreme cohesiveness can be dangerous. When cohesiveness intensifies, members

become more likely to accept the goals, decisions, and norms of the group without
reservation. Conformity pressures also rise as members become reluctant to say or do
anything that goes against the grain of the group, and the number of internal disagreements--
so necessary for good decision making - decreases.
1. Isolation. Groupthink groups work in secret. They isolate themselves from outsiders,
and refuse to modify their beliefs to bring them into line with society's beliefs. They
avoid leaks by maintaining strict confidentiality and working only with people who are
members of their group.
2. Biased Leadership. A biased leader who exerts too much authority over the group
members can increase conformity pressures and railroad decisions. In groupthink

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groups the leader determines the agenda for each meeting, sets limits on discussion,
and can even decide who will be heard.
3. Decisional Stress. Groupthink becomes more likely when the group is stressed,
particularly by time pressures. The Heaven's Gate group experienced such stress, as
the arrival of the comment Hale-Bopp and the Christian holy days forced them to
come to a decision regarding their assumed transportation. When groups are
stressed they minimize their discomfort by quickly choosing a plan of action, with
little argument or dissension. Then, through collective discussion, the group
members can rationalize their choice by exaggerating the positive consequences,
minimizing the possibility of negative outcomes, concentrating on minor details, and
overlooking larger issues.
E. Symptoms of Groupthink
1. Overestimation of the Group. Groups that have fallen into the trap of groupthink are
actually planning fiascoes and making all the wrong choices. Yet the members
usually assume that everything is working perfectly. They are happy and confident.
2. Biased Perceptions. During groupthink members respond to people who oppose

their plan with suspicion. They often adopt ideas that are completely inconsistent
with reality, and yet they rationalize their beliefs.
3. Conformity Pressures. In groupthink situations, pressures to conform become

overwhelming. Each individual member of the group experiences a personal
reluctance to disagree. Through self-censorship, pressuring dissenters, and mind-
guarding, the group develops an atmosphere of unanimity. Every person may
privately disagree with what is occurring in the group, yet publicly everyone
expresses total agreement with the group's policies. The fact that the Heaven's Gate
members dressed similarly and looked so identical that the first officers on the scene
assumed that all of the members were men speaks to the magnitude of the
pressures to seek uniformity.
4. Defective Decision-Making Strategies. Groups usually make decisions by sharing

information, weighing alternatives, discussing costs and benefits, and seeking new
information. When a group experiences groupthink, it locks into a plan of action and
does not waiver from it. It experiences tunnel vision, and no longer uses effective
decision-making strategies.
Bottom Line
1. Heaven's Gate is a tragedy.
2. Thirty-nine people took their own lives, leaving behind family and friends.

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3. Yet, we should not rush to demean the group with simplistic explanations that call
them "crazy."
4. Studies of groupthink have traced such decisions as the invasion of the Bay of Pigs,
the mission to rescue the hostages held in Tehran, the launching of the space shuttle
Challenger, and the defense of Pearl Harbor back too much cohesion, isolation,
biased leaders, and too much stress. Rather than dismiss the Heaven's Gate group
as insane, we consider them to be a group that made a bad decision.
The area in the brain which plays a major part in touch, pressure and temperature.
The parietal lobe would inform you the temperature of a hard boiled egg and would
allow you to pick up that egg with just enough pressure to hold it and not crush it.

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Stress & Health
STRESS - We all have it, we all feel, but just how important is it?
How much does stress influence our daily lives?
How much does stress influence our lives long-term?
Can stress kill us?
Is it all bad?
In this section, we will explore stress - what it is, how it progresses, and the type of damage it can
cause.
I. Background
In 1925 a second year medical student named Hans Selye observed that people suffering from a
wide variety of somatic (physical) disorders all seemed to have the same or similar symptoms. For
example, many of these people reported:
Decreased appetite, decreased muscular strength and endurance, and lowered levels of ambition or
drive.
Selye, unable to find a common disease or disorder to explain these behaviors, called this group of
symptoms, the SYNDROME OF JUST BEING SICK.
In addition, he found that these symptoms occurred whenever: the human organism needed to adapt
to a changing internal or external environment.
This was the first observation and identification that eventually led to the term STRESS. At first,
Selye defined STRESS as, a nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Even
this initial definition implies that not all stress is a result of "bad" things happening to us. Later, his
JUST BEING SICK syndrome evolved into the GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME, which he
defined as, the physiological processes and results of stress.
From this, we get a modern, more comprehensive definition of STRESS:
A psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we must adapt to
changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived.

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II. Stress and Illness
Stress has powerful effects on mental functioning, mental and physical performance, interpersonal
encounters, and physical well being.
In the Principles of Internal Medicine (Harrison) it was reported that 50-80% of all physical disorders
have psychosomatic or stress related origins.
A. Psychosomatic Illness
Many people assume erroneously that a psychosomatic illness is a fake illness or something that
someone is simply imagining. That is NOT true. Definition - a Psychosomatic Illness is a condition in
which the state of mind (psyche) either causes or mediates a condition of actual, measurable damage
in the body (soma).
Examples include: ulcers, asthma, migraine headaches, arthritis, and even cancer.
We discussed the differences between distress & eustress, but there is an additional "type" of stress
called PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS (it is not a category like distress...) that can be defined
as mental upset that triggers a physiological stress response. Thus, it is stress that leads to
psychosomatic illness.
In our culture, psychophysiological stress is the most common type of stress AND is the major factor
in the onset of psychosomatic illness.
Since we have been discussing the fact that stress can lead to illness via the psychosomatic model,
we now need to discuss what this model is and what steps are involved.
B. The Psychosomatic Model
The idea behind creating and understanding a model of stress related illness is that by knowing the
steps that lead to illness, we can intervene at any of these steps to break the cycle and thwart the
onset of illness. The model works like a stage theory - you must progress from one stage (or step) to
the next in the proper order for the model to work. The steps in the Model are:
1. Sensory Stimulus - is also referred to as the STRESSOR, which can be any mental or physical
demand put upon our body our mind. This can be anything from a loud noise to an exam or
workload to physical activity or the in-laws coming into town.
For example, if you are stuck in a traffic jam, what is the stress and what is the stressor?
Stressor = traffic jam

Stress = mental and physical response to the stressor
2. Perception - the active process of bringing an external stimulus to the CNS (especially the
brain) for interpretation.
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A stressor is often an external event...but for a stressor to affect a human it must get into the
mind-body system. It is through perception that this occurs.
3. Cognitive Appraisal - process of analyzing and processing information as well as categorizing

and organizing it. Recall the section on memory - at the cognitive appraisal level we put labels
on things - good, bad, dangerous, pleasant, etc.
Thus, for most situations, it is the LABEL that we give to the information that determines
whether it will be deemed stressful and trigger a physiological response.
In addition, appraisal is influenced by personal history, personal beliefs, morals, etc.
*** I will claim that it is this labeling process that is the key component. We all make personal
appraisals of situations and it is these labels that determine our stress level and stress
response. For example, my father becomes outraged while sitting in traffic while I have no
problem with it. He labels traffic as a very bad and, in his words "infuriating". I think traffic is
simply a part of driving in a city...I can't do anything about it, so why label it as a "bad" thing?
4. Emotional Arousal - If we classify/label something as stressful, it then produces a

bodily/physiological response. Remember, anytime a subjective experience of emotion
occurs, it is followed by a change in autonomic physiology. So, at this stage, we simply
experience an emotion...nothing else at this point, just the production (or beginning) of an
emotion.
So, any emotion we experience, be it joy, fear, excitement, anger, etc., will elicit a stress
response in the body.
At a physiological level, we cannot differentiate between positive and negative emotions.
5. Mind-Body Connection - here the emotional arousal is changed into a bodily change so that
you may adapt to the situation and respond appropriately. Now, the emotional arousal
BEGINS TO BE CONVERTED into that bodily response or change we have addressed.
This change will/can occur at two levels:
a. nervous system - sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Short-term changes occur

and work on an electrical level.
For example: you are afraid and your bodily response is to tremble.
b. endocrine system - produces slower, longer lasting responses using chemicals, hormones,
and glands.
*Emotional arousal stimulates the hypothalamus, which sends messages through the
sympathetic nervous system to the appropriate organ.

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*In addition the pituitary gland is stimulated and results in hormone production
6. Physical Arousal - Once the mind-body connection has been made and the bodily changes
occur, these changes are called physical arousal.
7. Physical Effects - Now the internal organs begin to be affected by the physical arousal. For
example, increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilation of the pupils, etc., Sound familiar???
Like the Fight-or-flight response.
8. Disease - If the physical effects continue for a sustained period of time (this varies) the
imbalance of functioning can result in disease. One or more organ can become exhausted and
work inefficiently or not at all.
At this point, we would say that the person has a psychosomatic disease. But, we give them a
specific name: PSYCHOGENIC DISEASE - physical disease that has a change in mental state
as the major cause. Other diseases which may be influenced by stress/the mind, but do not
have them as the MAJOR CAUSE are not psychogenic (e.g., cancer, diabetes, etc.).
*This model is an EXACERBATION CYCLE - arousal, tension, and disease can breed further
stress responses and thus become even more intense. For example, how would you respond
if a doctor told you today that you have cancer?
III. MAJOR TYPES/SOURCES OF STRESS
Although we know that almost anything can be a source of stress, we have 4 major classifications
or types of stress:
A. FRUSTRATION - stress due to any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted.
Frustration is usually short-lived, but some frustrations can be source of major stress:
1. Failures - we all fail. But, if we set unrealistic goals, or place too much emphasis on obtaining
certain successes, failure can be devastating.
2. Losses - deprivation of something that you once had and considered a "part" of your life. Can
result in tremendous stress.
B. CONFLICT - two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for

expression. When faced with multiple motivations or goals, you must chose and this is where the
problems/conflict arise. Studies have indicated that the more conflict a person experiences, the
greater the likelihood for anxiety, depression, and physical symptoms. There are 3 major types of
conflicts:
1. Approach-Approach: a choice must be made between two attractive goals. You may want
both, but can only have one. For example, "Since I don't have to work today, should I play
basketball or golf? Do I go out for pizza or Chinese food?" Mmmmm...pizza!
This type of conflict is the least demanding and least damaging. You rarely collapse at a
restaurant because you can't decide between the lobster and the steak.

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2. Avoidance-Avoidance: a choice must be made between two unattractive goals. "Caught
between a rock and a hard place." These conflicts are usually very unpleasant and highly
stressful.
3. Approach-Avoidance: choice must be made to pursue a single goal that has both positive
and negative aspects. For example, asking someone on a date. This type of conflict often
produces VACILLATION: going and back and forth in decision-making.
Studies have shown that even animals vacillate.
Miller (1959) concluded, "in trying to resolve an approach-avoidance conflict, one should
focus more on decreasing avoidance motivation than on increasing approach motivation."
So, if you have a friend who is vacillating over whether to ask someone on a date, you
should downplay the negative aspects of possible rejection rather than dwelling on how
much fun the date could be if only...
C. Change - life changes are noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require
adjustment.
1. Holmes & Rahe (1967) - developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to
measure life changes. They found that, after interviewing thousands of people, while BIG
changes like death of a loved one are very stressful, small life changes have tremendous
effects.
Studies using the SRRS have indicated that people with higher scores tend to be more
vulnerable to many different physical and psychological illnesses.
Further studies have found that the scale measures a wide range of experiences that may
result in stress as opposed to just measuring "life-changes".
D. Pressure - expectations or demands that one must behave in a certain way. For example, I am
under pressure to perform in very specific ways when I am in front of a class as the "teacher".
Surprisingly, pressure has only recently been examined in terms of psychological and physical
effects due to stress. Studies have found the Pressure inventory (created in the 80's) is more
highly correlated with psychological problems than the SRRS.
IV. STRESS & PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING
A. IMPAIRED TASK PERFORMANCE - Baumeister (1984) found that stress interferes with attention
and therefore, performance.
1. Increased Stress = increased distractibility
2. Increased Stress = over thinking on tasks that should be "automatic".

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For example: a free throw at "crunch time"
B. Burnout - physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion due to work-related stress. Cause is not
sudden, but prolonged exposure to stress. Increases the more "jobs/tasks" placed upon you.
For example, having multiple roles such as parent, student, spouse, etc.
C. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - disturbed behavior that is attributed to a major stressful event,
but emerges after the event has ended (often years later). Very common in the 70's - Vietnam
war veterans had symptom usually 9-60 months later.
Occurs in general population as well:
1. Most common – rape
2. Seeing someone die or severely injured
3. Close brush with death
Symptoms include - nightmares, sleep disturbances, jumpiness, etc.
D. Psychological Problems/Disorders - usually the result of prolonged stress:
Insomnia, nightmares, poor academic performance, sexual dysfunctions, anxiety,

schizophrenia, depression, eating disorders, and lots more.
What can you do about it???
There are many techniques to reduce stress and the progression through the Psychosomatic
Model. For example, there are relaxation techniques such as Meditation, Progressive
Neuromuscular Relaxation, exercise, biofeedback, and Selective Awareness, just to name a
few.
Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/stress&health.html#ixzz1Oss6faNx

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Therapy
Anyone who has tried to help a friend, family member, or anyone in need has played the role of
therapist. Does this mean that anyone can be a "therapist" or that we ARE all "therapists"? No, it
means that we understand, at least at a very basic level, the underlying premise of being a therapist.
Trained, qualified therapists, however, have some advantages since they learn precisely how to help
those in need.
In addition, there is not one type of therapeutic approach that is appropriate for all situations; there
are many different types of therapies, therapeutic styles, theoretical perspectives, etc. that go into
therapy, and a trained therapist should know many different styles and which is appropriate for
which situation.
We will look at several of these as we explore the topic of psychotherapy.
I. Introduction
Not so long ago, it was believed that demons or possession were the causes of psychological
dysfunction. This perspective held for centuries, and there are still those whose understanding and
beliefs of mental illness are founded in these archaic views.
Others took this perspective one step further, believing that people became mentally ill as a result
of sins they committed or from witchcraft.
The early forms of mental facilities were basically prisons, in which patients/prisoners were
restrained with chains, restraint jackets, and padded cells. It seems that the idea was not to cure
these sick people, but to confine them and keep them out of the public eye.
However, in 1905 it was discovered that General Paresis was caused by a physical infection
(syphilis), rather than by witchcraft or demonic possession. This finding gave rise to the belief that
mental illness was more like physical illness in the sense that there were organic causes.
1940s began the era of utilizing drugs for treatment of mental illness. These drugs were somewhat
successful and were used more regularly as time passed. Drug therapy is still a huge part of
therapy.
Today, treatment is a very diverse, very complex process with many issues. Drugs have become an
integral part of therapy, but we now have talk therapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and
others, which can be used, in combination or in the place of drug therapies.
A. Why seek "treatment?"

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There are many reasons why people do or should seek out therapy. Mental problems vary in type
and severity, but when something begins to alter a person's life in a negative way, is something that
is on the mind quite often, etc., it may be time to seek therapy. Here are just a few issues that
prompt people to seek therapy:
suicidal, depression, hallucinating, etc.
problems with life choices, marital conflict
picking a major, test anxiety
time management problems, social skill training
People often think that you must be really mentally ill or "out of it" to seek help from a psychologist
or other expert, but this is not true. Therapists can provide assistance with all sorts of problems from
the struggles of "regular" daily life, to parenting, relationships, to the more extreme psychological
illnesses such as schizophrenia, agoraphobia, and more. Therapists are there to help with problems
of varying levels, not just with the extreme.
There are also times when people need assistance but not necessarily the help of a professional. For
example, what if you must make a big decision (e.g., career choice, divorce, marriage, and you are
distressed by the magnitude?). What if you have tried to solve a personal problem for several
months, and think that now is the time to see if others can help? These "others" can be people such
as friends and loved ones, but you may also need to seek professional help. If so, you may seek out
Psychotherapy.
B. What Exactly is psychotherapy? As is often the case in psychology, there isn't agreement on a
single definition, but there are some common elements:
1. All psychotherapies involve a helping relationship between a professional and a person in

need of help.
a. Helping relationship = Treatment

b. Professional = Therapist
c. Person in need = Client
C. What types of treatment are available?
1. Insight or Talk Therapy: these are the classic psychotherapeutic approaches that most people
think of automatically when they think of therapy. These therapeutic approaches were
pioneered by Freud and involve the following:
a. client engages in lengthy, complex interactions with the therapist

b. the goal is to increase insight into the nature or causes of the client's difficulties. Then, and
only then, can the therapist look at possible solutions. (can be done on individual or group

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level) It is important to note that the focus here is on determining the causes of the
problems.
2. Behavior Therapy: much more direct and problem solving oriented than talk or insight
a. The focus is on finding a solution to the problem, not gaining insight into causes. So, for
example, a behavioral therapist is not concerned with what type of childhood you had, or
why you smoke, just figuring out a way to get you to stop smoking (if that is why you are
seeing the therapist, that is).
b. The primary goal is to alter problematic responses (e.g., phobias) and maladaptive habits
(e.g., drug use, smoking).
c. There are many different procedures used in behavior therapy, such as classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning. As you can see, all the
approaches have some element of "associations" - meaning the therapist tries to change
negative associations into more positive ones. For example, a person who is afraid of
going over bridges has made the association between going over a bridge and fear. The
therapist attempts to change the association so that now the client associates going over
bridges with feelings of relaxation. We'll discuss how this is done a little later.
3. Biomedical Therapy: seek a medical cause for a problem and medical remedy to this problem
a. most common approach is to find the drugs that create the proper chemical change in the
client. For example, manic depression is a chemical imbalance in the brain that causes a
person to swing from states of euphoria to states of depression. Using drugs, a therapist
can correct the chemical imbalance so that the mood swings do not occur as often. In
cases such as this, other types of therapy may be less effective or ineffective.
D. Who provides treatment?
1. Psychologists - clinical psychologists and counseling psychologists are the ones whom most
often provide therapy to clients; at least most common from the field of psychology.
2. Psychiatrists and physicians - in order for drugs to be prescribed for use in drug therapy, a
psychiatrist or physician must be involved. Recently there has been a push to allow clinical
psychologists to prescribe drugs, but for now, a person must have a medical degree to
prescribe drugs.
3. Others - social workers, guidance counselors, etc.
II. Psychotherapies
A. Insight Therapies

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1. Psychoanalysis: often called "Freudian therapy", psychoanalysis is the classic lie on the
couch and tell me about your childhood approach. The main idea behind psychoanalysis is
that there is a constant struggle between the conscious and unconscious, which often
results in maladaptive behaviors, problematic, conscious thoughts, etc. Any observable
symptoms of an illness or problem are signs of conflict between different aspects of
personality (i.e., struggle between the id, ego, and superego). For example, a person may
feel stress due conflict between the id which may want to pursue some attractive person for
sexual pleasure, and the superego which reminds the person that they are married and it
would be wrong to do such a thing. In addition, there are many techniques that a
psychoanalyst may use to help identify the underlying issues, including:
a. Free Association - the therapist will present a word or phrase to which the client is to just
say anything and everything that comes to mind without any filtering of thoughts. The
therapist then tries to identify the problems from the associations made. For example, if a
therapist says, "mother" and the client responds with "overbearing, caring, disciplinarian,
tells me I can don’t anything right, etc..." it would be fairly easy to identify a problem.
b. Dream Analysis - Freud believed that dreams were the windows to the unconscious. To
understand what is going on in the unconscious mind and what could be causing conflict
with the conscious mind, one could examine the content (both latent and manifest) of the
dreams.
c. Interpretation - once a therapist has acquired lots of information from the client using the
techniques above, the therapist can then begin to try to make sense of it all and figure out
what the causes of the problems may be. Thus, the therapist attempts to "interpret" the
information.
d. Transference - often a client begins to relate to the therapist in ways that mimic critical
relationships in the client's own life. The client may begin to "transfer" anger toward
spouse onto the therapist and act angrily toward the therapist. This is actually a good sign,
indicating that the therapist is on the right track and making progress toward the true
problems. If the therapist were not getting close to the real problem, then the unconscious
would have no reason to react.
e. Resistance: client's unconscious defense to hinder the progress. This is somewhat similar
to resistance in that both are methods used by the unconscious to block progress. But
WHY? The main reason is that it is difficult to confront painful ideas, feelings, etc., so the
unconscious, in its efforts to avoid pain and to protect itself will block the progress of the
therapy.
2. Roger’s Person Centered Therapy (client-centered)
a. The emphasis here is to provide a supportive, emotional climate for the client who plays a
major role in determining the pace and direction of therapy. Instead of the therapist
dictating the pace and direction, Rogerian therapy assumes that since the client is the one
with the problematic thoughts, behaviors, etc., then it is also the client that has the
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answers. As such the client is given the lead in determining how quickly they move from
one topic to another, what topics to address, etc.
b. Rogers stated the following:
It is the client who knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial,
what experiences have been deeply buried. It began to occur to me that unless I had a
need to demonstrate my own cleverness and learning, I would do better to rely upon the
client for the direction of the movement in the process.
c. Rogers believed that personal distress is due to inconsistency or incongruence between a

person's self-concept and reality. For example: you think you are a hard working person
(self concept), but people tell you that they think you don't work hard enough. Thus, you
get contradictory feedback from others. This inconsistency is what causes problems.
d. Rogers believed it is vital to create a positive therapeutic climate so that the client feels
comfortable enough to open up and explore personal issues. To do this, Rogers indicated
that the following things are necessary:
1) genuineness - the therapist must be genuine and honest with the client. No "noble
lies" (lying to the client for a "good" reason or to get the client to feel comfortable
enough to open up).
2) unconditional positive regard - the therapist also needs to show that they are
nonjudgmental & accepting of client. This does NOT mean that the therapist has to
agree with everything the client says, only that the therapist indicates that he/she
does not view the clients feelings, thoughts, and behaviors as wrong, bad, silly, etc.
3) empathy - the therapist needs to try and understand the client's world and client's
point of view. Also it is not enough just to do this, the therapist must also be able to
communicate this understanding to the client. For example, a therapist treating a
physical abuser, may despise the actions of the client and have no personal
experience with abuse, but the therapist must be able to try and understand the
views of the client from the client's own perspective. The therapist can't always
view things from their own perspective or the client may feel that the therapist is
judging them and looking down on them.
e. Role of the Therapist
1) rephrasing (paraphrasing), mirror, positive regard, acceptance - the therapist does

not tell the client what is right or wrong, but tries to take what the client says and
say it back to them in a slightly different, more clear and focused way. This does
several things, such as showing the client that the therapist understands what the
client is saying and feeling, and helps the client hear some of their own thoughts
from someone else's mouth, which can have a clarifying effect.
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2) some of the phrases therapists use are: "I hear you saying...", "In other words...",
"You feel that...".
B. Behavior Therapy
Behavior therapy applies Skinnerian and/or Pavlovian conditioning to treat maladaptive

behaviors. The primary goal is to change unwanted behavior and solve the problem....NOT get
insight into the causes or underlying foundation of the problem.
1. Assumptions
a. Behavior is the product of learning (past conditioning). If a person is engaging in some

maladaptive behavior (like smoking) then they had to learn that behavior somewhere
along the way.
b. What has been learned can be unlearned. If a person learned to smoke all the time, they
can unlearn to smoke all the time.
2. Systematic Desensitization (founded by Wolpe)
The premise of systematic desensitization is to reduce the client's anxiety responses

through counterconditioning; a person who learned to be afraid of something is associating
fear with that object or behavior, and the way to eliminate this is to teach the person to
associate feelings of relaxation with the object or behavior. This approach is based on
conditioning relaxation with feared object, object of anxiety. Let's look at an example:
a. the fear - fear of dating women
b. the client is asked to create a hierarchy of anxiety (what makes the client afraid, from
least fear producing to most fear producing)
1) sitting next to a woman in class (least)
2) talking to a woman in class
3) walking with a woman on campus
4) calling a woman on the phone
5) eating a meal with a woman
6) going out on a date with a woman (most)
c. The therapist then teaches the client some relaxation technique and then has the client
use the relaxation technique when encountering (or just thinking about) the first level
(sitting next to a woman in class). Once the client is comfortable with this, they move on
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to the next level, and so on until the client becomes relaxed and is able to go out on a
date with a woman.
3. Aversion Therapy
This therapeutic technique involves having the client associate an aversive stimulus with a
stimulus that elicits an undesirable response or action. For example, let's say a person
smokes but wants to stop. (smoking is the undesirable response) The therapist may have
the client go through their normal smoking routine (getting the pack of cigarettes, getting
one out, tapping it on a table, etc...) and then presenting an aversive stimulus along with the
smoking (e.g., presenting a vomit smell as the client goes through the routing). In this way,
the client begins to associate this horrible smell of vomit with smoking until the very thought
of lighting a cigarette becomes aversive. If you have ever seen the movie "A Clockwork
Orange" this may sound familiar.
D. Cognitive (behavior) Therapy - many books say this is an insight therapy, but we will give it it's
own classification since it employs both cognitive (insight) and behavioral aspects.
For example - Rational Emotive Therapy attempts to rid individuals of irrational beliefs. Most
problems caused by irrational thoughts that lead to emotional turmoil. For example:
#1: You must have sincere love and approval almost all the time from all the people you find
significant.
#2: You must prove yourself thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving, or you must at
least have real competence or talent at something important.
#3: You have to view life as awful, terrible, horrible, or catastrophic when things do not go the
way you would like them to go.
Solutions focus on changing cognitions.
The client must learn to monitor the way they talk to themselves, their thoughts, and to develop
self-control
Must learn to replace irrational beliefs with ones that are more rational
Must learn to avoid "errors" in thinking, such as blaming self for failure, focusing on negative not
positive, pessimism
Must identify positive goals, and means to achieve them

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III. Deinstitutionalization and the Revolving Door
In the 1960s, there was a change in the treatment of mentally ill patients. The locations for
treatment of mentally ill patients changed from inpatient institutions to community-based
facilities that emphasize outpatient care. On the surface, this sounded like a great idea - bring
ill patients colder to the community, help them learn to function in society, don't treat them as
though they are "ill", open up beds in hospitals for physically ill people, etc. But how good
was this change?
This type of shift was made possible by:
1. Emergence of effective drug therapies
2. Development of community based mental health centers
The shift has been tremendous.
1955: approximately 1/3 of all hospital patients were mentally ill
Today: approximately 1/4
This does NOT mean that hospitalization is a thing of the past. More focus on local and
community based centers.
A. HAS THIS BEEN GOOD???
1. Positives
a. Many have avoided unnecessary hospitalization

b. Institution treatment has improved
c. Rates in institutions have been reduced
2. Negatives
a. Many severely ill patients released with nowhere to go

b. Those released supposed to get help from halfway houses and shelters - but most of
these were never built.
c. Federal funding has diminished....no services
B. Revolving Door Problem
Refers to patients being released from institutions, then return, then released again. WHY?
1. While in institutions patient may respond well to medication

2. Once stabilized, they no longer qualify for financial assistance....released
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3. Community-based services not provided adequate funding, so these patients don't get
enough assistance....thus, they digress and end up back in institution
Some facts:
* Studies have indicated that approximately 50% of those released from public mental
hospitals were readmitted in 1 year
* Over 2/3 of all psychiatric inpatients are former patients
* One result has been massive homelessness of those suffering from mental illnesses
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AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

2. Specialization - soon, specialization begins occurring (some movement, some sensitivity to

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

B. Structure of the Neuron

a. Dendrites - specialized branch-like structures used to receive information from other

a. Axon Hillock - area where the axon connects to the soma.

II. The Neural Impulse

1. Have the information to pass on to the next neuron

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

In Brain - ACh is involved in breathing, attention, arousal, motivation, etc.

Problems occur if ACH functioning is hindered.

IV. The Two Nervous Systems

c. Forebrain - the largest and most complex region of the brain.

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

V. Genetics (this is going to be covered very, very, briefly)

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Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/biopsych.html#ixzz1OpmzMmXG

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

Physical Development - motor skills, bone structure, weight, etc.

Cognitive Development - thought patterns and skills, problem solving, etc.

Social Development - emotional changes, personality, etc.

The Developmental Psychologist does the following:

Examines past experiences and influences in order to understand current behavior.

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II. Infancy (from age 0 - 2)

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b. Behavioral Development - includes reflexes such as rooting, Moro, etc.

a) Attachment - process of forming close emotional bonds of affection that develop

§ avoidant attachment - infant avoids mother when reunited.

2. Language - are we more capable to learn language at a younger age?

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B. Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development)

One of the most important Figures in Psychological understanding of Childhood development in

a. assimilation - incorporate new information with previous schemas.

b. accommodation - alter an existing schema to compensate for new information.

2. Stages of Piagetian Development

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c. Seriation - putting items in order according to size.

d. Temporal Relations - concept of first, second, last, before, after, etc.

6. Some Problems with Piaget's Theory

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B. Why is adolescence so much more difficult than other stages?

1. Erik Erikson (7 parts of identity – sub-stages of Identity vs. Identity/Role Confusion)

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f. Leadership & Followership vs. Authority Confusion -- do we become leaders or followers,

g. Ideological Commitment vs. Confusion of Values -- "search for fidelity" - find

Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/birthtoadol.html#ixzz1OsmOO75Y

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Consciousness & Sleep

sleep, drugs, hypnosis, meditation, sensory deprivation, sensory confusion

BUT - we will focus on sleep from this point on.

A. Measuring Sleep - Scientists measure sleep with the following:

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4. Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) -- as you most likely know, the electrocardiogram is a

Take a look at an image of EEG recording.

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AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

AlleyDog.com Psychology Class Notes

a. dreaming - mostly occurs in REM, approximately 80%, although, as mentioned, we do

II. Sleep and Age

A. Infancy - lots of SWS, REM, and total sleep time.

D. The Restorative (restoration) Perspective

IV. Sleep Deprivation