Finite wings

Infinite wing (2d) versus finite wing (3d)

– Definition of aspect ratio:

b2 b
AR ≡ AR = For rectangular platform
S c
– Symbol changes:

Cl → CL Cd → CD Cm → CM

Vortices and wings

What the third dimension does
– Difference between upper and lower pressure results in
circulatory motion about the wingtips
LOWER PRESSURE
VORTEX VORTEX
HIGHER PRESSURE

– Vortices develop V∞

– Causing downwash

V∞ WINGTIP VORTEX
V∞ CAUSES DOWNWASH, w

LOCAL FLOW
w

– Drag is increased by this induced downwash

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Origin of induced drag
Wingtip vortices alter flow field
– Resulting pressure distribution increases drag
– Rotational kinetic energy is added to the 2-D flow
– Lift vector is tilted back
AOA is effectively reduced
Component of force in drag direction is generated

Induced drag

– The sketch shows Di = L sin α i

– For small angles of attack sin α i ≈ α i
– The value of αi for a given section of a finite wing depends on the
distribution of downwash along the span of the wing

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Lift per unit span

Lift per unit span varies

– Chord may vary in length along the wing span
– Twist may be added so that each airfoil section is
at a different geometric angle of attack
– The shape of the airfoil section may change along
the wing span Lift per unit span as a function of distance
along the span -- also called the lift distribution

b
The downwash distribution, w,
which results from the lift distribution

Elliptical lift distribution

An elliptical lift distribution

– Produces a uniform downwash distribution

– For a uniform downwash distribution, incompressible theory
predicts that C
αi = L
πAR
Where CL is the finite wing (3d) lift coefficient
b 2 Aspect Ratio
AR =
S

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Lift curve slope
A finite wing’s lift curve slope is different from its 2D
lift curve slope

C
– For an elliptical spanwise lift distribution αi = L
πAR
– Extending this definition to a general platform

αi =
CL
πe1 AR
(in rad ) = 180
2
CL
π e1 AR
( )
in

Finite Wing Corrections

All reference coefficients are not C L 0 = Cl 0

corrected C D 0 = Cd 0
Moment coefficients are not corrected C M 0 = Cm 0
Lift coefficient due to angle of attack is
C Mα = Cmα
corrected
AR is the aspect ratio of the wing Clα
–
CLα =
e is the Oswald Efficiency Factor C
–
1 + lα
π eAR

Note: do not forget 57.3 deg/rad conversion factor

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 Finite Wing Corrections – High Aspect Ratio
Wings (lifting line theory)
a0
a= High-aspect-ratio straight wing (incompressible)
a
1+ 0
π eAR Prandtl’s lifting line theory
Incompressible lift curve slope
a0 Compressibility correction (subsonic flowfield)
a0,comp = Prandtl-Glauert rule (thin airfoil 2D)
1 − M ∞2

a0, comp a0
acomp = = High-aspect-ratio straight wing
a0, comp a (subsonic compressible)
1+ 1 − M ∞2 + 0
π eAR π eAR

4 High-aspect-ratio straight wing

acomp =
M ∞2 − 1 (supersonic compressible)
(obtained from supersonic linear theory)

Effect of Mach Number on the Lift Slope

a0, comp a0
acomp = =
a0,comp 2 a
1+ 1− M∞ + 0
π eAR π eAR
4
acomp =
M ∞2 − 1

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 Finite Wing Corrections – Low Aspect Ratio
Wings (lifting surface theory)
a0
a= Low-aspect-ratio straight wing (incompressible)
2
a0 a0
1+ + Helmbold’s Equation
π AR π AR

a0
acomp = Low-aspect-ratio straight wing
2
a0 a (subsonic compressible)
1− M + 2
∞ + 0
π AR π AR

4 1 Low-aspect-ratio straight wing

acomp = 1− (supersonic compressible)
M −12
∞ 2 AR M − 1 2
∞ (Hoerner and Borst)

Swept wings
Subsonically,
The purpose of swept wings is to
delay the drag rise associated
with wave drag
w=0

For a straight wing

w≠0
Λ
Now, sweep the
Wing by 30°
u = V∞ cos Λ

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 Swept and Delta wings

Supersonically,
The goal is to keep wing surfaces inside the mach
cone to reduce wave drag

LEADS TO LOW AR WINGS

AND TO HIGH LANDING SPEEDS

µ = arcsin (1/ M ∞ )

Computational
Fluid Dynamics
Flow separation from forebody
chine and wing leading-edge and
roll up to form free vortices
AGARD WING 445.6

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Finite Wing Corrections
a0 Lift curve slope airfoil section perpendicular to the
leading edge
Lift curve slope for an infinite swept wing
a0 cos Λ Swept wing (incompressible)
a=
2
a cos Λ a cos Λ Kuchemann approach
1+ 0 + 0
π AR π AR

a0 a0 / β M ∞, n = M ∞ cos Λ

β = 1 − M ∞2 , n = 1 − M ∞2 cos 2 Λ

a0 cos Λ
acomp = Swept wing (subsonic
2
a cos Λ a cos Λ compressible)
1 − M cos Λ + 0
2
∞
2
+ 0
π AR π AR

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Computational Fluid Dynamics for
Wing - Body combinations

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Flaps

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 Effect of flaps on lift
Medium angle of attack

High angle of attack

Slat opened at high

angle of attack
With slats 24
degree angle of
attack
Without slats
15 degree angle
of attack

Angle of attack

High lift devices

Flaps are the most common high lift device

A PLAIN FLAP DOES

NOT CHANGE SLOPE
APPRECIABLY
STALL ANGLE OF
ATTACK DECREASES
WITH FLAP ANGLE

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High lift devices
1
The lift equation L = q ∞SCL = ρ∞V∞2 SCL
2
Solving for V∞ gives the true airspeed in unaccelerated level
flight for a particular CL
2L 2W
V∞ = =
ρ∞SCL ρ∞SCL

In level unaccelerated flight stall speed occurs when

maximum CL occurs
2W
Vstall =
ρ∞SCLmax

Flaps are not the only high lift device

High lift devices

Other high lift devices include

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