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BRIEF HISTORY OF AMERICA

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CULTURE AND REGIONAL ECONOMUY OF AMERICA
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AUTOR: Luis Armando Malo Peniche / Johana Paola Hoyos Jiménez
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INDEX&

1. Background!and!evolution!of!the!economy!in!the!US!society!
1.1. Development!and!industrialization!
1.2. The!economy!in!the!world!and!in!the!United!States!
1.3. Us!role!as!global!economic!hegemony!
2. The!Washington!consensus.!
3. Evolution of the continent in the 20th century!

THEMATIC&DEVELOPMENT&&

Through!culture!and!the!historical!evolution!very!specific!areas!such!as!economic!development!
of!a!country!can!be!known.!The!history!of!the!United!States!began!as!a!British!colony,!which!had!
to!learn!to!live!with!a!range!of!cultures,!which!in!turn!provided!the!political,!industrial,!social!and!
cultural!leaders!that!made!the!difference!and!revolutionized!the!way!of!doing!things!worldwide,!
and!overcome!all!adversities!that!it!had!to!go.!

These! events! undoubtedly! marked! economic! growth! in! the! United! States! and! placed! it! at! the!
forefront!as!a!world!power.!This!power!has!been!shown!not!only!economically,!but!in!areas!such!
as!scientific,!technological,!military,!academic!and!cultural.!The!area!of!influence!of!the!United!
States!by!nature!has!been!Latin!America,!which!by!the!end!of!the!twentieth!century,!through!the!
processes!of!regional!economic!integration!has!been!impacted.!

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1. Background!and!evolution!of!the!economy!in!american!society!

1.1!Development!and!industrialization!

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Figure 1. Industrialization

Source: Renjith Krishnan (s.f)

Between!1870!and!1914!the!United!States!established!itself!as!an!industrial!nation!to!complement!
the!structural!transformations!driven!since!1780.!This!led!the!country!to!have!the!highest!per!
capita! income! in! the! world! by! the! beginning! of! World! War! I,! with! industrial! production! that!
represented!30!%!of!the!world!total,!above!countries!like!Britain!and!Germany.!

In!the!early!nineteenth!century,!the!cost!of!land!transport!was!very!high!for!the!long!distances!to!
cover,!the!reason!why!river!transport!was!more!important.!However,!in!the!1830s!they!began!to!
build!railroads!in!those!cities!that!had!few!channels!of!communication!and!trying!to!expand!their!
markets.!

The!transport!system!(canals!and!railways)!was!important!to!develop!the!metallurgical!industry!
and! manufacture! of! machinery,! absorbing! a! lot! of! labor;! the! development! of! the! modern!
enterprise! (separation! of! owners,! managers! and! workers)! and! the! expansion! of! markets! from!
stock!purchase!and!bonds!by!small!investors!were!also!presented.!

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Internal!growth!was!significantly!expanded!in!the!US!due!to!increased!urban!population!that!rise!
sevenfold!between!1860!and!1910!making!it!one!of!the!largest!countries!in!the!world.!It!may!be!
added!that!in!this!period!was!presented!a!strong!immigration!where!about!28!million!foreigners!
arrived!in!the!country!contributing!to!the!emergence!of!mass!market!that!was!complemented!by!
the!population!of!the!West,!the!extension!of!the!railway!network!and!use!of!the!telegraph.!

Changes!in!the!distribution!of!the!US!work!force!are!indicators!of!some!basic!changes!in!economic!
opportunities.!The!total!number!of!employees!during!this!period!grew!from!12.9!to!41.6!million!
workers.!In!particular,!the!manufacturing!sector!increased!its!shareholding!from!21%!to!32%!in!
the!economy.!Transport,!trade!and!finance!that!together!accounted!for!11%!of!the!workforce!in!
1870!to!22%!spent!half!a!century!later.!

Of!special!interest!was!the!expansion!of!government!employees,!which!increased!from!less!than!
1%!to!about!2.4%.!!

These!facts!described!above!show!the!growing!importance!of!industry,!transport!and!trade!with!
respect! to! agriculture.! The! increase! in! the! number! of! employees! of! government! reflected! the!
increased!complexity!of!the!economy!and!social!life.!In!addition,!implicitly!it!reflected!a!greater!
division! of! labor! and! specialization! combined! with! these! advances! achieved! a! considerable!
increase!in!the!production!of!goods!and!services.!

Also,!the!automotive!industry!significantly!influenced!the!development!of!industry!and!transport!
of!the!United!States.!One!of!the!pioneers!in!this!sector!was!Henry!Ford!who!introduced!the!Ford!
T,!and!the!industry!changed!forever.!

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Figure'2.'Henry'Ford'

Source:!John!Kropewnicki!(s.f)!

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“The!United!States!has!one!of!the!largest!automotive!markets!in!the!world!and!is!home!to!many!
global! vehicle! and! auto! parts! manufacturers.! After! vehicle! production! dipped! below! 6! million!
units! in! 2009,! production! more! than! doubled! to! over 12 million passenger vehicles in! the!
United! States! in! 2015.! The! United! States! is! the! second! largest! vehicle! producer! in! the! world,!
behind!only!China!in!2015”.!(Selectusa,!2016)!

The!automotive!industry,!including!dealerships,!historically!accounts!for!approximately!3!to!3.5!
percent!of!U.S.!gross!domestic!product.!Motor!vehicles!and!parts!manufacturers!employed,!on!
average, 909,700 people!in!2015.!

Once!had!presented!the!phenomenon!of!industrialization,!producers!of!capital!goods!began!to!
direct!the!growth!of!the!economy,!allowing!both!the!United!States!and!Germany!were!two!of!the!
most!important!centers!of!the!Second!Industrial!Revolution,!which!!was!certainly!different!from!
the!first,!and!which!saw!the!development!of!new!forms!of!energy!never!before!seen!or!used.!

1.2. The!economy!in!the!United!States!

Since!the!early!twentieth!century!the!United!States!has!been!the!leading!industrial!country!in!the!
world.! Before! World! War! II! (1939\1945)! the! export! of! manufactured! goods! exceeded! raw!
materials.! As! the! industry! grew,! agriculture! became! increasingly! mechanized! and! efficient,!
requiring!less!labor.!The!most!important!development!in!the!economy!since!1945!was!the!growth!
in!the!services,!trade!and!financial!activities!sector.!!

Regarding!the!main!economic!sectors,!the!American!agricultural!sector!is!undoubtedly!the!most!
important! in! the! world.! It! is! characterized! by! diversification! and! improvement! of! production!
methods,!achieved!through!scientific!research!and!the!use!of!modern!technologies.!The!US!is!one!
of! the! leading! producers! of! corn,! soybeans,! beef! and! cotton.! The! state! of! California! alone!
generates! more! than! 12%! of! agricultural! production! in! the! country.! However,! the! agriculture!
accounts!only!1%!of!US!GDP.!

There!are!cases!of!the!agricultural!industry,!such!as!the!Monsanto!Company,!which!dominate!the!
agricultural!biotechnology!sector,!primarily!through!genetic!modification!of!food!organisms.!This!
has!been!very!controversial,!because!it!allegedly!uses!GM,!which!significantly!affect!the!health!of!
people.!

Given!that!the!United!States!is!a!highly!industrialized!country,!the!industrial!sector!accounts!for!
almost! a! quarter! of! GDP! and! includes! a! variety! of! activities.! The! most! important! are! the!
manufacture!of!electrical!and!electronic!machinery,!chemicals!and!industrial!machinery,!as!well!
as!the!food!industry!and!automotive.!It!is!also!a!world!leader!in!aerospace!and!pharmaceutical!
industry.!The!abundance!of!natural!resources!has!made!the!country!a!leader!in!the!production!of!
various!minerals!and!allows!it!to!maintain!a!diversified!production.!Thus,!it!is!also!the!world's!
largest!producer!of!liquefied!natural!gas,!aluminum,!electricity!and!nuclear!energy!and!the!third!
largest!producer!of!oil,!and!for!several!years!the!extraction!develops!large\scale!shale!gas.!

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The!American!economy!is!also!based!on!services.!The!tertiary!sector!represents!more!than!three!
quarters!of!GDP!and!labor.!Among!the!most!representative!companies!in!the!sector!is!JP!Morgan,!
IBM,! a! business! consulting! and! technology,! and! Exxon! Mobil,! which! is! the! world's! largest! oil!
company.&

1.3. United!states:!hegemonic!power!

Since! the! dissolution! of! the! USSR,! the! United! States! has! become! the! leader! of! the! new! world!
order! with! its! economic! hegemony,! military! capacity! and! control! of! major! supranational!
institutions!(such!as!the!Security!Council!of!the!UN).!Even!regional!powers!such!as!the!European!
Union,!Japan,!China!or!Russia!can!be!considered!today!its!"rivals".!

The United States is!the!world's!largest!national!economy,!representing!22%!of!nominal global

GDP and! 17%! of gross world product (GWP).! The! United! States'! GDP! was! estimated! to! be!
$17.914!trillion!in!2015.!It!is!also!the!world's!largest!industrial!and!commercial!producer,!having!
as!main!trading!partners!China,!Canada!and!Mexico.!Its!huge!natural!resources!(United!States!
owns!one\third!of!the!world's!coal!reserves,!half!of!natural!gas!and!one\sixth!of!the!oil),!the!large!
domestic!market!and!large!official!aid!to!technological!innovation!process!are!some!of!the!reasons!
for!its!economic!hegemony.!

Currently,!most!of!the!economy!is!based!on!the!service!sector,!but!unlike!most!post\industrial!
countries,!still!maintains!an!important!and!competitive!industrial!sector,!specializing!in!high\tech!
and!tech!sectors,!representing!20%!global!manufacturing!output.!Of!the!500!largest!companies!
in!the!world,!133!are!based!in!the!United!States,!double!the!total!of!any!other!country!in!the!
world.!

Its powerful currency, the US dollar accounts for 60% of world reserves, it has the largest
financial market and is a country that is known for its influence on any decisions of
economic and political type internationally. Foreign investments were valued in 2011 at $
2.4 trillion, holding the first place. US investment in foreign countries totaled $ 3.3 trillion.
The U.S. dollar is!the currency most!used!in international transactions. (cia,!2016)

A! sign! of! the! importance! the! United! States! in! the! world! economy,! is! New! York:! financial,!
commercial! and! cultural! capital! of! the! world.! Many! multinationals! have! their! headquarters! in!
Manhattan.!The!movements!of!the!New!York!Stock!Exchange,!located!on!Wall!Street,!influence!
the!economy!of!the!entire!planet.!

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Figure 3. New York

Source: Inigo Cia (s.f)

However,! New! York! is! not! just! about! finances.! In! this! city! is! the! headquarters! of! the! United!
Nations,!therefore!it!is!an!important!center!for!international!affairs!is!also!widely!considered!the!
cultural!capital!of!the!world.!Up!to!800!languages!are!spoken!in!New!York,!making!it!the!most!
diverse!city!in!the!world,!linguistically!speaking.!It!also!has!monuments,!museums!and!parks!that!
are! known! worldwide,! such! as! Times! Square,! Broadway! theaters,! Wall! Street,! Chinatown,! the!
Empire!State!Building,!the!Statue!of!Liberty,!the!Metropolitan!Museum!of!Art,!the!zoo!and!an!
extensive!system!of!parks,!among!other!interest!points.!

It! is! essential! to! highlight! the! importance! of! the! financial! sector! in! the! US! economy.! Financial!
markets!in!the!United!States!are!the!largest!and!most!liquid!in!the!world.!In!2014,!finance!and!
insurance!represented!7.0!percent!(or $1.223 trillion)!of!U.S.!gross!domestic!product.!Leadership!
in! this! large,! high\growth! sector! translates! into! substantial! economic! activity! and! direct! and!
indirect!job!creation!in!the!United!States.!!

Financial!services!and!products!help!facilitate!and!finance!the!export!of!U.S.!manufactured!goods!
and!agricultural!products.!In!2014,!the!United!States!exported!$104.7!billion!in!financial!services!
and!had!a!$35.01!billion!surplus!in!financial!services!and!insurance!trade!(excluding!re\insurance,!
the!financial!services!and!insurance!sectors!had!a!surplus!of!$67.5!billion).!The!financial!services!

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and! insurance! sectors! employed 6.08 million people in! 2015.! The! securities! subsector! of! the!
industry!shows!great!potential!for!employment!growth,!with!a!12!percent!increase!expected!by!
2018. (Selectusa,!2016)

While,!for!more!than!two!centuries!the!US!economy!has!responded!to!new!opportunities!and!has!
been!rewarded!long\term!investment,!it!has!also!proved!vulnerable!to!booms!and!busts!in!the!
long!term.!An!example!of!this!is!the!financial!crisis!experienced!since!2008!and!is!still!affecting!the!
US!economy.!

This!financial!crisis!originated!in!the!United!States!is!one!of!the!most!serious!in!recent!decades.!
World!financial!giants!fell!and!large!economies!were!forced!to!make!major!interventions!known!
to!date!to!calm!markets!companies.!

Basically,!this!crisis!arises!because!US!banks!granted!countless!mortgages!to!people!with!unstable!
jobs!or!low!income!(what!is!known!as!subprime!mortgages),!confident!that!housing!prices!would!
never!come!down,!offsetting!the!possibility!that!these!people!stop!paying.!However,!the!housing!
bubble!bursts!and!start!rising!defaults!on!mortgages,!generating!that!property!prices!go!down!

However,!the!problem!was!not!just!real!estate.!In!recent!years!they!had!created!new!investment!
products!linked!to!these!subprime!mortgages!(which!are!also!the!most!profitable!because!the!
interests!and!benefits!are!higher).!But!with!the!fall!in!property!prices,!the!value!of!their!products!
also!collapses.!

US!banks!begin!to!have!heavy!losses!and!begin!to!distrust!each!other.!This!resulted!in!a!lack!of!
money!in!the!banks,!which!made!them!start!to!give!fewer!loans!to!companies!and!individuals.!
Without!these!loans,!companies!were!hurt!and!suffered!stoppages!in!activity,!which!made!the!
economy!stagnate.!Without!any!doubt,!this!crisis!affected!directly!or!indirectly!to!all!economies!
in!the!world,!not!just!the!stock!market,!but!also!generated!from!liquidity!crisis!to!food!crises.!
(Navas,!2016)!

2. Washington!Consensus!

The!Washington!Consensus!refers!to!a!set!of!broadly!free!market!economic!ideas,!supported!by!
prominent!economists!and!international!organisations,!such!as!the!IMF,!the!World!Bank,!the!EU!
and!the!US.!

Essentially,! the! Washington! consensus! advocates,! free! trade,! floating! exchange! rates,! free!
markets!and!macroeconomic!stability.!

The! ten! principles! originally! stated! by! John! Williamson! in! 1989,! includes! ten! sets! of! relatively!
specific!policy!recommendations.!

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1. Low!government!borrowing.!Avoidance!of!large!fiscal!deficits!relative!to!GDP;!
2. Redirection!of!public!spending!from!subsidies!(“especially!indiscriminate!subsidies”)!toward!
broad\based!provision!of!key!pro\growth,!pro\poor!services!like!primary!education,!primary!
health!care!and!infrastructure!investment.!
3. Tax!reform,!broadening!the!tax!base!and!adopting!moderate!marginal!tax!rates.!
4. Interest!rates!that!are!market!determined!and!positive!(but!moderate)!in!real!terms.!
5. Competitive!exchange!rates.!
6. Trade! liberalization:! liberalization! of! imports,! with! particular! emphasis! on! elimination! of!
quantitative! restrictions! (licensing,! etc.);! any! trade! protection! to! be! provided! by! low! and!
relatively!uniform!tariffs.!
7. Liberalization!of!inward!foreign!direct!investment.!
8. Privatization!of!state!enterprises.!
9. Deregulation:! abolition! of! regulations! that! impede! market! entry! or! restrict! competition,!
except!for!those!justified!on!safety,!environmental!and!consumer!protection!grounds,!and!
prudential!oversight!of!financial!institutions.!
10. !Legal!security!for!property!rights.!

The! Washington! consensus! was! important! for! determining! policy! towards! economic!
development! in! Latin! America,! South! East! Asia! and! other! countries.! Some! implications! of! the!
Washington!consensus.!

Implications!of!Washington!Consensus!

• Support!of!free!trade!through!WTO!and!NAFTA!–!North!Atlantic!Free!Trade!association!
reduce!tariff!barriers.!!
• IMF!bailouts!tended!to!involve!free!market!reforms!as!a!condition!of!receiving!money.!
• Belief!in!free!trade!suggests!countries,!should!specialise!in!goods!/!services!where!they!
have!a!comparative!advantage.!This!may!mean!developing!economies!need!to!stick!with!
producing!primary!products.!(Economics!Help,!2016)!

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3. Evolution!of!America!in!the!20th!century!

The!international!power!of!the!United!States!in!the!twentieth!century!has!been!grounded!in!its!
economic!strength.!In!1900,!even!before!the!US!had!much!of!an!army,!it!was!perceived!as!a!power!
and! a! future! great! power.! By! 1920! it! was! the! supreme! financial! power! in! the! world,! having!
displaced! Great! Britain! during! the! First! World! War.! By! 1945! it! was! virtually! the! only! financial!
power,!most!others!having!been!devastated!by!the!Second!World!War.!By!1985!it!had!lost!its!
position!as!supreme!financial!power,!with!Japan!succeeding!to!the!crown.!It!had!been!a!short!but!
action\packed!reign.!(Historytoday,!2016)!

The!advances!in!economic!growth!and!political!stabilization!that!were!evident!in!most!of!Latin!
America!by!the!early!20th!century!came!up!against!an!array!of!challenges!as!the!century!wore!on.!
The! forward! momentum! was! not! necessarily! lost—although! Mexico! experienced! negative!
economic! growth! along! with! great! political! turmoil! during! the! first! decade! of! the! Mexican!
Revolution!beginning!in!1910—but!some!partial!changes!of!direction!occurred,!and!new!problems!
kept!emerging.!!

The!recent!decades!have!seen!most!South!American!countries!stand!aloof!from!the!great!events!
of!the!20th!century.!Most!remained!neutral!during!World!War!I,!and!played!little!part!in!World!
War!2.!The!immediate!post\World!War!1!period!was!a!boom!time,!as!the!demand!for!consumer!
goods!in!Europe!and!America!fueled!exports.!The!notable!exception!to!this!was!Chile,!where!the!
nitrate!boom!came!to!a!sudden!end,!leading!to!severe!economic!contraction.!

The! Wall! Street! Crash! of! 1929! and! the! Great! Depression! which! followed! hit! South! American!
economies!hard.!This!led!to!the!rise!of!populist!figures!like!Colonel!Peron!in!Argentina!(president!
1946\55,! his! popularity! bolstered! by! that! of! his! wife,! Eva),! and! in! many! other! countries,!
dictatorships.! Some! of! these,! like! Brazil's,! presided! over! economic! recovery;! others,!
in!Peru!and!Colombia!for!example,!were!unable!to!establish!political!stability!and!the!conditions!
in!which!the!economic!and!social!problems!they!faced!could!be!dealt!with!properly.!Uruguay!has!
stood! out! as! a! country! admired! throughout! the! world! for! its! democracy! and! prosperity.!
(Timemaps,!2016)!

The! close! of World War II was! accompanied! by! expectations,! only! partly! fulfilled,! of! steady!
economic!development!and!democratic!consolidation.!Economies!grew,!but!at!a!slower!rate!than!
in!most!of!Europe!or!East!Asia,!so!that!Latin!America’s!relative!share!of!world!production!and!
trade!declined!and!the!gap!in!personal!income!per!capita!separating!it!from!the!leading!industrial!
democracies!increased.

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!

Figure 5.Eva Peron
Figure 4. Jhon f kennedy Figure 6. Ernesto Che
Source: neftali77 (1948) Guevara
Source: Yang Chao (1964)
Source: neftali77 (2002)

Figure 7. Fidel Castro

Figure 8. Gabriel García Márquez
Source: chickenhorse(s.f)
Source: Marcelo Rodriguez (s.f)

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Figure 9. Pablo&Neruda
Figure!10.!Alliance!for!progress!
Source: Lefteris Papaulakis (1974)
Source:!Borislav!Marinic!(1963)!
GLOSSARY

AFRO)DESCENDANT/ /

• Afro%Descendant.is.a.shortened.term.to.refer.to.a.person.of.African.descent..It.refers.to.
a.person.who.is.of.African.descent,.but.not.born.or.living.in.an.African.nation..The.term.
is.commonly.used.for.a.descendant.of.an.ancestor.brought.to.the.Western.Hemisphere.
in.the.Trans%Atlantic.slave.trade./

COLONIZATION/

• The.act.or.process.of.establishing.control.over.a.country.or.area.by.more.powerful.and.
often.distant.country.
The. establishment. of. a. population. in. a. place. formerly. unoccupied. by. that. species..
Colonization.implies.successful.reproduction.in.the.new.area,.not.simply.the.presence.
of.a.species.there..

COMMUNISM/

1. .a.form.of.socialism.that.abolishes.private.ownership.
2. a.political.theory.favoring.collectivism.in.a.classless.society.

A. set. of. political. ideas. associated. with. Marx,. as. developed. particularly. by. Lenin,. and.
institutionalized.in.China.and,.until.1990,.in.the.Soviet.Union.and.Eastern.Europe..

ECONOMIC/RECESSION/

• .A.temporary.slow%down.in.economic.growth..

HEGEMONY/

• The.dominance.or.leadership.of.one.social.group.or.nation.over.others;.`the.hegemony.
of.a.single.member.state.is.not.incompatible.with.a.genuine.confederation`.

IMMIGRANT/

• Someone.who.has.come.to.live.in.a.country.from.another.one..
• A.person.who.comes.to.a.country.where.they.were.not.born.in.order.to.settle.there.
.

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 .

SOVEREIGNTY/

The.power.a.country.has.to.govern.itself,.or.other.countries..

• government.free.from.external.control.
• royal.authority;.the.dominion.of.a.monarch.

CAPITAL/GOODS. .

• Capital.goods.consist.of.any.tangible.assets.that.an.organization.uses.to.produce.goods.
or.services.such.as.office.buildings,.equipment.and.machinery...

HOUSING/BUBBLE/

• Temporary.condition.caused.by.unjustified.speculation.in.the.housing.market.that.leads.
to.a.rapid.increase.in.real.estate.prices..As.with.most.economic.bubbles,.it.eventually.
bursts,. resulting. in. a. quick. decline. in. prices.. The. end. of. a. housing. bubble. is. hard. to.
predict. given. the. fact. that. economic. conditions. can. change. without. warning.. If. a.
housing.bubble.swells.to.an.extremely.high.level,.the.aftermath.of.a.burst.may.set.the.
housing.market.back.years..

LIQUIDITY/ /

• Liquidity.describes.the.degree.to.which.an.asset.or.security.can.be.quickly.bought.or.
sold.in.the.market.without.affecting.the.asset's.price..

MORTGAGE/ /

• A. legal. agreement. that. conveys. the. conditional. right. of. ownership. on. an. asset. or.
property.by.its.owner.(the.mortgagor).to.a.lender.(the.mortgagee).as.security.for.a.loan..
The.lender's.security.interest.is.recorded.in.the.register.of.title.documents.to.make.it.
public.information,.and.is.voided.when.the.loan.is.repaid.in.full..

NOMINAL/GDP/

• Nominal.GDP.is.gross.domestic.product.(GDP).evaluated.at.current.market.prices,.GDP.
being. the. monetary. value. of. all. the. finished. goods. and. services. produced. within. a.
country’s. borders. in. a. specific. time. period.. Nominal. differs. from. real. GDP. in. that. it.
includes.changes.in.prices.due.to.inflation.or.a.rise.in.the.overall.price.level..
.

14 . .

14 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
.

PUBLIC/DEBT/ /

1. The.total.financial.obligations.incurred.by.all.governmental.bodies.of.a.nation.
2. Another.name.for.national.debt.
.

PRIVATE/DEBT/

• Non%governmental.borrowings.
• Money.owed.by.Individuals.and.Organizations.other.than.Governments.

STOCK/MARKET/ /

• The.stock.market.is.the.market.in.which.shares.of.publicly.held.companies.are.issued.
and.traded.either.through.exchanges.or.over%the%counter.markets..Also.known.as.the.
equity.market,.the.stock.market.is.one.of.the.most.vital.components.of.a.free%market.
economy,. as. it. provides. companies. with. access. to. capital. in. exchange. for. giving.
investors.a.slice.of.ownership.in.the.company...

CULTURE AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF AMERICA 15

 .

REFERENCES/GLOSSARY//

History..(2016,.06.21)..History..Retrieved.from.AMERIGO.VESPUCCI:.
http://www.history.com/topics/exploration/amerigo%vespucci.

america.gov..(2016,.June.21)..america.gov..Retrieved.from.Colonial.Period:.
http://web.archive.org/web/20081115155301/http://www.america.gov/st/educ%
english/2008/June/20080610212607eaifas0.1059687.html.

Biography..(2016,.June.21)..Biography..Retrieved.from.George%washington:.
http://www.biography.com/people/george%washington%9524786#early%life%and%family.

Mapsofworld..(2016,.July.10)..Mapsofworld..Retrieved.from.South.American.Independence:.
http://www.mapsofworld.com/south%america/history/independence.html.

World.History..(2016,.June.22)..World8History.8Jonathan8Dresner,8Pittsburg8State8University..
Retrieved.from.Comparing.North.and.South.America:.
http://dresnerworld.edublogs.org/resources/handouts/19c%north%and%south%america/.

Urosario..(2016,.June.22)..Urosario..Retrieved.from.Cultura.en.Estados.Unidos:.
http://www.urosario.edu.co/Rosaristas%en%el%Mundo/Estados%Unidos/Cultura/.

Intef..(2016,.June.22)..Intef..Retrieved.from.
http://recursostic.educacion.es/kairos/web/ensenanzas/eso/actual/m_occidental_01_00.html.

Santander..(2016,.June.10)..Santander..Retrieved.from.United.States.General.presentation:.
https://en.portal.santandertrade.com/analyse%markets/united%states/general%presentation.

Huntington,.S..(1996)..El8choque8de8civilizaciones8y8la8reconfiguración8del8orden8mundial..Paidos.
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Historiaybiografias..(2016,.june.26)..Historiaybiografias..Retrieved.from.Estados.Unidos.La.
primera.potencia.munfdial:.http://historiaybiografias.com/paises_menu1/.

Encyclo..(2016,.June.30)..Encyclo..Retrieved.from.http://www.encyclo.co.uk/.

Selectusa..(2016,.June.28)..Selectusa..Retrieved.from.Selectusa:.
https://www.selectusa.gov/automotive%industry%united%states.

cia..(2016,.June.28)..cia..Retrieved.from.the%world.factbook:.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the%world%factbook/geos/us.html.

Navas,.J..A..(2016,.June.29)..el8mundo..Retrieved.from.¿Qué.está.pasando?:.
http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2008/10/economia/crisis2008/queestapasando/index.html.

16 . .

16 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
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Economics.Help..(2016,.June.29)..Economics8Help..Retrieved.from.Washington.consensus:.
http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/7387/economics/washington%consensus%definition%and%
criticism/.

Historytoday..(29.de.June.de.2016)..Historytoday..Obtenido.de.Historytoday:.
http://www.historytoday.com/kathleen%burk/money%and%power%america%and%europe%20th%
century.

Timemaps..(2016,.June.30)..Timemaps..Retrieved.from.South.America:.
http://www.timemaps.com/history/south%america%1960ad.

Santander..(2016,.June.10)..Santander..Retrieved.from.United.States.general%presentation:.
https://en.portal.santandertrade.com/analyse%markets/united%states/general%presentation.

Investopedia..(2016,.July.01)..Investopedia..Retrieved.from.Investopedia:.
http://www.investopedia.com/?ad=dirN&qo=serpSearchTopBox&qsrc=1&o=40186.

(n.d.)..

Renjith Krishnan (s.f) Concepto de industrialización global [Foto de archivo] Recuperado

de
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John Kropewnicki (s.f) Se trata de un Henry Ford Sello [Foto de archivo] recuperado de

http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=4496156&imgtype=0&t_word=4496156&t_lang=e
s&oriSearch=8368194&orderby=0&srch_lang=es

Inigo Cia (s.f) Herrmosa puesta de sol sobre el horizonte de Manhattan, Ciudad de
Nueva York [Foto de archivo] Recuperado de .

http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=31811428&imgtype=0&t_word=31811428&t_lang
=es&oriSearch=39727921&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=31811428.

Yang Chao (1964) BRASIL - CIRCA 1964: Un sello impreso en Brasil muestra el
presidente de Estados Unidos John F. Kennedy, serie, alrededor del año 1964 [Foto de

CULTURE AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF AMERICA 17

 .

archivo] Recuperado de
http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=35062762+&imgtype=0&t_word=35062762&t_lan
g=es&oriSearch=4496156&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=35062762.

Neftali77 (1948) ARGENTINA - CIRCA 1948: sello impreso en la Argentina muestra Eva
Perón, alrededor de 1948 [Foto de archivo] Recuperado de
http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=11277010++&imgtype=0&t_word=11277010&t_la
ng=es&oriSearch=35062762+&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=11277010.

Neftali77 (2002).CUBA - alrededor de 2002: Un sello impreso en cuba conmemora el 35

aniversario de la muerte de Ernesto Guevara, alrededor del año 2002[Foto de archivo]
Recuperado de
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g=es&oriSearch=11277010++&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=10948345

Chickenhorse(s.f). Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz [vectores]Recuperado de

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=es&oriSearch=10948345+&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=11138809.

Marcelo Rodriguez (s.f) Pared Homenaje a Gabriel García Márquez GABO [Foto de
archivo]Recuperado de
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ng=es&oriSearch=11138809&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=32911117.

Lefteris Papaulakis (1974) Checoslovaquia - alrededor de 1974: Un sello impreso en

Checoslovaquia muestra de Pablo Neruda, poeta chileno, 70 aniversario del nacimiento,
alrededor de 1974. [Foto de archivo]Recuperado de
http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=51661962++&imgtype=0&t_word=51661962&t_la
ng=es&oriSearch=32911117++&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=51661962.

Borislav Marinic (1963) ESTADOS UNIDOS DE AMERICA - CIRCA 1963: un sello

impreso en los Estados Unidos de América muestra la alianza emblema, Alianza para el
Progreso que tiene como objetivo estimular el crecimiento económico y el nivel en
América Latina, alrededor de 1963[Foto de archivo]Recuperado de

http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=10866322&imgtype=0&t_word=10866322&t_lang
=es&oriSearch=51661962++&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=10866322

18 . .

18 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
.

Complementary.sources.

Williamson John. (2004, January 13)The Washington Consensus as Policy Prescription

for Development, enior Fellow, Institute for International Economics

https://piie.com/publications/papers/williamson0204.pdf

CULTURE AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF AMERICA 19