Histology Cartilage and Bone

AY 2017-2018 Diaz, Dizon and Felix

1st Shifting Exam 08/30/2017

OUTLINE
I. Cartilage IV. Bone
A. Composition A. Function
1.Extracellular Matrix B. Composition
2.Fibers V. Bone Matrix
3.Cells VI. Bone Cells
4.Perichondrium VII. Periosteum, Endosteum
5.Lacunae VIII. Types of Bone
B. Cartilage as a connective A. Shape
tissue
B. Microscopic observation
C. Histogenesis of Cartilage
C. Bone Tissue
D. Cartilage Growth IX. Bone Remodeling
E. Cartilage Repair X. Osteogenesis
II. Types of Cartilage A. Intramembranous
A. Hyaline B. Endochondral
B. Elastic XI. Bone Growth: Width
C. Fibrocartilage XII. Joints
III. Distribution XIII. Bone Fracture and Repair

I. CARTILAGE
• Specialized form of connective tissue in which the firm Figure 1. Territorial & Inter territorial Matrix
consistency of the extracellular matrix (ECM) allows the tissue to Fibers
bear mechanical stresses 
 • Can be solely collagenous or combination of collagenous and
• Tough, flexible, semi-rigid support tissue 
 elastic
 Type I collagen fibers
• Generally avascular to very few vascularization 

 Type II collagen fibers
• Forms the supporting framework of certain organs, 
the
 Elastic fibers
articulating surfaces of bones, and the greater part 
of the fetal
skeleton. 
 Cells
• Provides a shock-absorbing and sliding area for joints 
and • Chondrocytes
facilitates bone movements 
  Mature cartilage cells that maintain the integrity of the cartilage
• Three types of cartilage have evolved in the body: 
hyaline, matrix
elastic, and fibrocartilage  Synthesize and maintain all extracellular matrix (ECM)
• Structurally supports certain soft tissues (i.e. respiratory tract) components
• Provides cushioned, low-friction surfaces in joints  Located in matrix cavities called lacunae
 Synthesize and secrete ECM components and are located
A. COMPOSITION OF CARTILAGE and housed in matrix cavities called lacunae. 

Extracellular Matrix  Deeper in the cartilage, they are round and may appear in
• Surrounds chondrocyte-embedded lacunae groups of up to eight cells that originate from mitotic divisions
• Predominantly composed of proteoglycans, which bind a large of a single chondrocyte and are called isogenous
amount of water aggregates. 

 Allows cartilage to serve as shock absorber  young→elliptical; old→rounded (due to fat droplets) 

• Also composed of collagens, non-collagenous glycoproteins, and  Under EM: 

hyaluronan ▪ surface with characteristic folding and projections
• Two components define its mechano-physical properties: the ▪ well-developed Golgi (where GAGs are assembled and
collagenous network, responsible for the tensile strength of the sulfated)
cartilage matrix, and the proteoglycans (mainly aggrecan), ▪ rER (collagen synthesis)

responsible for the osmotic swelling and the elastic properties of • Chondroblasts & chondrogenic cells
the cartilage tissue.  Both of which are located in the perichondrium 

Table 1. Territorial & Inter territorial Matrix  At the periphery of the cartilage, young chondrocytes 
(or
Territorial Matrix Inter territorial Matrix chondroblasts) have an elliptic shape, with the long axis
Nearer the chondrocytes Farther away from parallel to the surface 

chondrocytes  Mature chondroblasts are rounded cartilage precursor cells
Stains more basophilic due to Lighter stain from mesenchyme
larger amounts of
proteoglycans

S1 T3 Group 1 : Abad, Hernandez, Monasterio, Santos 1 of

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  due to water bound to proteoglycans
 allows the tissue to bear mechanical stresses without
permanent distortion
• Lacks blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
 exhibit low metabolic activity; usually surrounded by
perichondrium that is vascularized
• Smooth, lubricated surface
 provides cushioning and sliding regions within skeletal joints;
facilitates bone movements
• Guides development and growth of long bones, both before and
after birth

C. HISTOGENESIS OF CARTILAGE
• Chondrogenesis  Cartilages form from embryonic
Figure 2. Chondroblast & chondrocytes mesenchyme
• Process:
Perichondrium 1. All cartilage derived from embryonic mesenchyme. First
• Dense, irregular collagenous connective tissue membrane indication of cell differentiation: rounding up of the
• Harbors the blood supply serving the cartilage and a small neural mesenchymal cells (chondrogenic cells), which retract their
component extensions, multiply rapidly, and become more densely
• NOT FOUND in fibrocartilage and articular cartilage  sustained packed together.
by the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from the synovial fluid 2. The dividing cells are typically called chondroblasts and
• Plays a role in regeneration after injury 
 chondrocytes when proliferation has ceased; both have
• Has an outer fibrous layer and an inner chondrogenic layer 
 basophilic cytoplasm rich in RER for collagen synthesis.
• Outer layer (fibrogenous layer): 
 3. Production of the ECM encloses the cells in their lacunae
 poor in cells
 and then gradually separates chondroblasts from one
 composed mainly of fibroblasts and collagen fibers another.
• Inner layer (chondrogenous layer): 4. Once initially formed, the cartilage tissue enlarges both by:
 composed of chondroblasts (responsible for secreting the - interstitial growth - resulting from the mitotic division of
cartilage matrix and matures into chondrocytes) and preexisting chondroblasts - appositional growth - which
chondrogenic cells (gives rise to chondroblasts) involves differentiation of new chondroblasts from the
 forms an interface between the cartilage and the tissues perichondrium.
supported by the cartilage 5. Mature cartilage cells are called chondrocytes and maintain
 From this layer, the cartilage may grow appositionally. the integrity of the cartilage matrix
• “Chondroblasts” and “chondrocytes” refer to the cartilage cells
during and after the period of rapid proliferation
 During proliferation: chondroblasts
 After proliferation: chondrocytes

Figure 4. Major stages by which embryonic cartilage is formed:

(a) Mesenchyme is the precursor for all types of cartilage.

(b) Mitosis and initial cell differentiation produces a tissue with
Figure 3. Slide of trachea showing perichondrium and hyaline cartilage condensations of rounded cells called chondroblasts.
(c) Chondroblasts are then separated from one another again by their
Lacunae production of the various matrix components, which collectively swell with
• Space where a chondrocyte (or an isogenous group of water and form the very extensive ECM.
chondrocytes) is found 
 (d) Multiplication of chondroblasts within the matrix gives rise to isogenous
cell aggregates surrounded by a condensation of territorial matrix. In mature
• Visible only after cell’s death or after shrinkage during tissue cartilage, this interstitial mitotic activity ceases and all chondrocytes typically
processing become more widely separated by their production of matrix.

B. CARTILAGE AS CONNECTIVE TISSUE D. CARTILAGE GROWTH

• Physical properties depend on electrostatic bonds on densely • Interstitial Growth
packed proteoglycans between:  Cartilage tissues grow by mitosis of preexisting chondrocytes
 Type II collagen fibrils in lacunae; important in increasing the length of long bones
 Hyaluronic acid  Less important, occurs during early phases of cartilage
 Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), mainly chondroitin formation when it increases tissue mass by expanding
sulfate and keratan sulfate cartilage matrix from within
• Semi-rigid consistency  Epiphyseal plates of long bones: increase in length
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• Appositional Growth
 Formation of new chondroblasts peripherally from progenitor
cells in the perichondrium, proliferate and become
chondrocytes when surrounded with cartilaginous matrix;
more important during postnatal development
 Cartilage increase in growth
 Found elsewhere in the body

E. CARTILAGE REPAIR
• Repair or replacement of injured cartilage
 Very slow and ineffective, often incomplete (except in young
children) due to avascularity and low metabolic rate
• Cells in the perichondrium invade the injured area and generate
new cartilage 

• If extensively damaged, perichondrium produces a scar of dense
connective tissue instead of forming new cartilage

II. TYPES OF CARTILAGE

As a consequence of different functional requirements, three forms
of cartilage have evolved each exhibiting variation in matrix
composition.
A. HYALINE CARTILAGE
• Most common type of cartilage
• Homogeneous and semitransparent in the fresh state
• Perichondrium is usually present, but not at the hyaline cartilage
of articular surfaces or the epiphyses of growing long bones
• Surrounded by a well-defined perichondrium except in the
articular cartilage of joints 
 the process of enlarging, dividing and synthesizing new cartilage matrix.
• The type II collagen fibers of the matrix of this cartilage are
mostly very fine, giving the matrix a smooth glassy appearance
“hyalos” 
 • Most pliable and flexible
• Bluish-white in color due to ground substance 
 • Usually appear as dark bundles distributed unevenly through the
• In the embryo, it serves as a temporary skeleton until it is
gradually replaced by bone. In adult mammals, it can be found in
the epiphyseal plate, 
 where it is responsible for growth of
bone.
• The proteoglycans cause the matrix to be generally basophilic.
• Location:
 Nasal septum, larynx, tracheal rings, most articular surfaces
and the sternal ends of the ribs
 Forms the precursor of bone in the developing skeleton
• Structure (ECM and fiber):
 Small aggregates of chondrocytes embedded in an
amorphous matrix of ground substance, reinforced by type II
collagen and aggrecan complexes
 Homogenous and glassy ECM; appears structureless
because the collagen fibers are too fine to be resolved by light
microscopy
• Histogenesis and Growth:
 Chondroblasts that have differentiated from mesenchymal
cells mature into chondrocytes – these occur singly or in small,
mitotically derived isogenous groups
 Growth occurs by both interstial and appositional growth
Figure 5. Hyaline Cartilage: Human intervertebral disc
Chondrocytes (Cc) of the formed cartilage are arranged in clusters,
usually of 2 to 4 cells, each cluster being separated from its neighbors by
amorphous cartilage matrix (M).
Perichondrium (P) is composed of parallel collagen fibers containing a
few spindle-shaped nuclei of inactive fibrocytes but, on its inner surface,
these cells are transforming into small chondroblasts (Cb) which are in
B. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
matrix
• Provides flexible support for the external ear as well as certain
structures of the middle ear and larynx; it is always surrounded
by perichondrium.
• Structure (ECM and fiber):
 Bundles of branching elastin fibers in the cartilage matrix,
particularly dense in the immediate vicinity of the
chondrocytes
 Collagen is also a major constituent of the cartilage matrix
and makes up the bulk of the perichondrium, intermingled with
a few elastic fibers
• Location in the body:
 External ear and external auditory canal, the epiglottis, parts
of the upper respiratory tract (laryngeal cartilages) and in the
walls of the Eustachian tubes
• Histogenesis and Growth:
 Development and growth of elastic cartilage occurs by both
interstitial and appositional growth, in the same manner as for
hyaline cartilage

Histology Cartilage and Bones 3 of 11

 • Structure (ECM and fiber):
 consists of small chondrocytes in a hyaline matrix, usually
layered with larger areas of bundled type I collagen with
scattered fibroblasts
• Location in the body:
 intervertebral discs, some articular cartilages, the pubic
symphysis, in association with dense collagenous tissue in
joint capsules, in ligaments and in tendon insertions to bone
• Histogenesis and Growth:
 develops from dense regular connective tissue through the
transformation of fibroblasts or fibroblast-like stem cells into
chondrocytes

• The matrix of this cartilage contains a large number of thick type
I collagen fiber bundles between the rows of chondrocytes. 

• The relative scarcity of proteoglycans makes the matrix of
fibrocartilage more acidophilic 


Figure 6. Elastic Cartilage: Human epiglottis x132

Chondrocytes (C), which are housed in lacunae (arrow), have shrunk

away from the walls, giving the appearance of empty spaces. Occasional
lacunae display two chondrocytes (asterisk), indicative of interstitial
growth
Matrix has a rich elastic fiber (E) component that gives elastic cartilage
its characteristic appearance as well as contributing to its elasticity
Enveloped by a perichondrium (P)

Figure 8. Fibrocartilage: Human intervertebral disc

Chondrocytes (C) are aligned in parallel rows, lying singly in individual

lacunae. The nuclei of these chondrocytes are easily observed, whereas
their cytoplasm is not as evident (arrow).
Matrix contains thick bundles of collagen fibers (CF), which are arranged
in a more or less regular fashion between the rows of cartilage cells.
NO perichondrium

III. DISTRIBUTION OF CARTILAGE

Hyaline Cartilage
• Articular surfaces of movable joints
• Walls of larger respiratory passages (nose, larynx, trachea,
bronchi)
• Ventral ends of ribs where they articulate with the sternum
• Epiphyseal plates of long bones where it makes possible
longitudinal bone growth

Elastic Cartilage
• Auricle of the ear
 provides flexible support for the external ear
Figure 7. Elastic Cartilage: Human epiglottis x540
• Walls of the external auditory canals
Chondrocytes (C) are large, oval to round cells with acentric nuclei (N). • Auditory (Eustachian) tubes
The cells accumulate lipids in their cytoplasm, often in the form of lipid • Epiglottis
droplets, thus imparting to the cell a “vacuolated” appearance. • Cuneiform cartilage in the larynx
Elastic fibers (E) mask the matrix in some areas and that the fibers are • NOTE: Always surrounded by perichondrium
of various thicknesses, especially evident in cross-sections (arrows).
Fibrocartilage
C. FIBROCARTILAGE
• Intervertebral discs
• Has features intermediate between cartilage and dense
connective tissue  Act as lubricated cushions and shock absorbers preventing
adjacent vertebrae from being damaged by abrasive forces
• Provides very tough, strong, yet cushioning support at tendon
or impacts.
insertions and in intervertebral discs and certain other joints

Histology Cartilage and Bones 4 of 11

 ▪ Held in place by ligaments, each disc has two major IV. BONE CELLS
components: A. OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
 the peripheral annulus fibrosus rich in bundles of • Previously known as Osteogenic cells
type I collagen • Functions for bone growth and repair
 Central nucleus pulposus with a gel-like matrix rich in • Produce same cells which have different factors under different
hyaluronic acid. oxygen tensions
• Attachments of certain ligaments  Normally, give rise to osteoblasts when stimulated by:
• Pubic symphysis ▪ Transforming growth factor-β
• Strong support at tendon insertions ▪ Bone morphogenic protein
 Give rise to chondrogenic cells under HYPOXIC
(see appendix for a summary of the types of cartilage) CONDITIONS

IV. BONE B. OSTEOBLASTS

• Vascular connective tissue • Synthesize the organic components of the bone matrix
• Bone is in a dynamic state of flux, continuously gaining and • Become surrounded by the matrix when synthesized
losing inorganic ions to maintain the body’s calcium and • Calcify the matrix via MATRIX VESICLES they release
phosphate homeostasis • Location: Bound to the surfaces of bone matrix by integrin,
forming a single layer of cuboidal cells joined by adherent and
A. FUNCTIONS gap junctions
1. Main constituent of the adult skeleton • Abundant endoplasmic reticulum and numerous ribosomes,
2. Provides solid support for the body prominent Golgi apparatus and mitochondria
3. Protects vital organs • Specialized membrane modifications:
4. Encloses internal cavities containing bone marrow where  Parathyroid receptors on CM :
blood cells are formed ▪ In the presence of Parathormone, they release
5. Reservoir for calcium, phosphate, and other inorganic ions Macrophage-Colony stimulating Factor (M-CSF) which
6. Transform the contractions of the skeletal muscles into bodily induces formation of osteoclast precursors
movements  Receptor for Activation of Nuclear factor Kappa B Ligand
• Permits articulation or movement (RANKL)
7. Hematopoiesis ▪ When contacted by preosteoclasts’ surface bound RANK,
it induces preosteoclasts to differentiate into
B. BONE COMPOSITION osteoclasts
1. Bone matrix : calcified extracellular materials
• 65% minerals – mostly calcium hydroxyapatite crystals Cell Morphology
• 35% organic matter • Quiescent osteoblasts lose much of their protein synthetic
 Type 1 collagen machinery and resemble osteoprogenitor cells.
 Sulfated glycoproteins • When actively engaged in matrix synthesis, osteoblasts have
 Proteoglycans cuboidal or columnar shape and basophilic cytoplasm.
• When their synthesizing activity declines, they flatten and
 Bound water
basophilia is reduced
2. Bone cells
 Inactive osteoblasts: bone lining cells in both endosteum and
3. Periosteum and endosteum
periosteum
III. BONE MATRIX
Functions
NICE TO KNOW! • Active in protein synthesis and secretion
• Produce the organic components of the bone matrix (type I
• For lab preparation, bone matrix is softened by immersion in
collagen, proteoglycans, matricellular glycoproteins such as
a decalcifying solution before paraffin embedding or
osteonectin) called osteoid
embedded in plastic after fixation and sectioned with a
specialized microtome.  Osteoblasts are polarized cells
▪ Matrix components are secreted at cell surface in contact
with existing bone matrix: producing osteoid.
A. INORGANIC COMPOSITION ▪ This process of bone apposition growth is completed by
• Composed of about 50% inorganic materials: deposition of calcium salts into new matrix.
 Calcium hydroxyapatite : most abundant • Control the deposition of inorganic components (calcium salts)
 Bicarbonate of the bone into the newly formed matrix
 Citrate • Formation, recruitment, and maintenance of osteoclasts
 Magnesium • Initiation of bone resorption
 Potassium
 Sodium Secretions
 Non-crystalline calcium phosphate 1. Osteoclast-stimulating factor
• Activates osteoclasts to begin bone resorption
B. ORGANIC COMPOSITION 2. Osteopontin
• Organic composition • Allows osteoclast to form sealing zones on the bone surface
 Type I collagen 3. Osteocalcin
 Small proteoglycans
• Non Collagen protein
 Multiadhesive glycoproteins (e.g. osteonectin)
• Small, vitamin K dependent polypeptide
 Calcium-binding proteins (e.g. osteocalcin, phosphatases)
• Binds calcium ions and concentrates them locally
 Water
4. Membrane-enclosed matrix vesicles rich in alkaline
• Its high collagen content makes the bone matrix acidophilic
phosphatase
• The minerals provide the hardness and resistance of the bone
• Raises the local concentration of Phosphate ions

Histology Cartilage and Bones 5 of 11


NICE TO KNOW!
• With high concentrations of both calcium and phosphate
ions, these vesicles serve as foci for the formation of
hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] crystals, the first visible
step in calcification.
Fate
When their activity is completed,
• Some differentiate as osteocytes entrapped in matrix-bound
lacunae
• Some flatten and cover the matrix surface as bone lining cells
• Majority undergo apoptosis
Matrix mineralization
• Osteocalcin
• Membrane-enclosed matrix vesicles
NICE TO KNOW!
Process of bone mineralization
From their ends adjacent to the matrix, osteoblasts secrete type
I collagen, several glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. Some of
these factors, notably osteocalcin and certain glycoproteins,
bind Ca2+ with high affinity, thus raising the local concentration
of these ions. Osteoblasts also release very small membrane-
enclosed matrix vesicles with which alkaline phosphatase and
other enzymes are associated. These enzymes hydrolyze
PO4− ions from various macromolecules, creating a high
concentration of these ions locally.
The high ion concentrations cause calcified nanocrystals to
form in and around the matrix vesicles. The crystals grow and
mineralize further with formation of small growing masses of
calcium hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], which surround the
collagen fibers and all other macromolecules. Eventually the
masses of hydroxyapatite merge as a confluent solid bony
matrix as calcification of the matrix is completed.
C. OSTEOCYTES
• Most abundant type of cell in the bone
• Flat, almond-shaped
• In comparison to osteoblasts,
 Less RER
 Smaller Golgi apparatus
 More condensed nuclear chromatin
 Different array of genes
• Derived from osteoblasts trapped in the matrix that they have
synthesized
• 2 transcription factors:
 Cbfa1/Runx2 (core-binding factor subunit alpha-1)
 Osterix
• No longer express membrane-bound alkaline phosphatase
• Enclosed within the lacunae
 Lenticular-shaped spaces
 Lacunae are found between bone matrix layers: Lamellae
 Canaliculi: interconnects lacuna
▪ Also responsible for metabolite exchange between
osteocyte and blood capillaries
• During transition, many long dendritic processes extend from
the cells and become surrounded by calcifying matrix, forming
canaliculi radiating from the lacuna
• Cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes connect and form gap
junctions within the canaliculi
 Form a communication network
• Respond to blood calcium levels as well as to Calcitonin and
Parathormone levels
Functions
• Maintains the calcified matrix
• Maintenance of Bone
• Helps regulate bone remodeling
Histology Cartilage and Bones
 Through products such as protein sclerostin and cytokines
• Serves as sensitive detectors of stress- or fatigue-induced micro
damage in bone
• Triggers remedial activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• Responsible for short-term calcium and phosphate homeostasis
in the body
D. OSTEOCLAST
• Very large, motile cells with multiple nuclei
• Derived from MONOCYTE precursors
• Contain numerous non-membrane-associated ribosomes and
mitochondria
• Function:
 Matrix resorption during bone growth and remodeling
 BONE RESORPTION
• Development of osteoclast requires two polypeptides expressed
by osteoblasts:
 Macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)
 the receptor for activation of nuclear kappa B ligand (RANKL)
• During resorption: osteoclasts occupy a shallow cavity called
Resorption lacunae or Howship lacunae (subosteoclastic
compartment)
4 Regions:
1. Sealing zone – Clear zone: binds the cell tightly to the bone
matrix, isolated subosteoclastic compartment from the external
milieu
2. Basal zone – houses nuclei and organelles of the cell
3. Ruffled border
• Area in the membrane of osteoclast that has many surface
projections
• Surrounded by cytoplasmic zone rich in actin filaments
• Site of adhesion to matrix
• Possess many proton pumps: deliver hydrogen ions from
osteoclast into the subosteoclastic compartment
• Aquapores and chloride channels: deliver water and
chloride ions, forming a concentrated HCl solution in the
subosteoclastic compartment in order to decalcify bone
• Enzymes: delivered via vesicles, degrade organic
components of bone
• By-products of degradation: endocytosed by vesicles to be
used by osteoclasts or exocytosed into extracellular space
where they enter vascular system
• Osteoclast secretes collagenase, cathepsin K and other
enzymes and pumps to produce acidic environment to
dissolve hydroxyapatite and digest matrix proteins
4. Vesicular zone – houses numerous vesicles that carry material
into and out of the cell from the subosteoclastic compartment
Calcitonin Receptors on cell membrane
1. Calcitonin inhibits bone resorption
2. Osteoclast leaves bone surface
3. Dissociates or disintegrates
4. Eliminated by macrophages
Bone Resorption
• In the Howship lacuna, protons are pumped by the osteoclast to
acidify and promote dissolution of the hydroxyapatite
• Matrix metalloproteinases and other hydrolytic enzymes are
secreted by the lysosome-related secretory vesicles within the
osteoclast to digest matrix proteins
V. PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM
• Made up of connective tissue
A. PERIOSTEUM
• Covers outer surface of compact bone
• Dense connective tissue
 Composed of :
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 ▪ Outer fibrous layer: mostly type I collagen fibers and B. ACCORDING TO MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATION
populated by fibroblasts and blood vessels 1. Primary (Woven/Immature) Bone
▪ Inner osteogenic layer: some collagen fibers, mostly • Characterized by irregular and random arrangement of cells
osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts and bone lining cells and collagen
• Organized much like the perichondrium • Lightly calcified – less mineralized compared to secondary
• Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers – collagenous bundles of bone
periosteal collagen that penetrate the bone matrix during • Contain more osteocytes than secondary bone
ossification and bind the periosteum to the bone
• First bone to be formed in embryonic development and
• Periosteal blood vessels branch and penetrate the bone to carry fracture repair
metabolites to and from bone cells
• Replaced later by secondary bone
• Functions:
• Found in developing and growing bones and in hard callus of
 Nourishment of osseus tissue
bone structures
 Provide continuous supply of new osteoblasts for
appositional bone growth or repair 2. Secondary (Lamellar/Mature) Bone
• Multiple layers of calcified matrix (3 to 7 μm thick) organized
B. ENDOSTEUM into parallel sheets or concentric layers around a central
• Very thin, covers the trabeculae canal
• Contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts and bone lining • Stronger than primary bone – secondary bone is more
cells, sparse delicate matric of collagen fibers calcified
• In each lamella, collagen fibers are aligned and running in a
certain angle, with the fibers of the next lamella in an angle
VIII. TYPES OF BONE of 90 degrees from those of the lamella before it
A. ACCORDING TO SHAPE (orthogonally)
1. Long bone • Appears to have alternating light and dark layers under
• Has a cylindrical part called diaphysis with bulbous ends polarizing light microscopy due to the shifting orientation of
called epiphyses (singular: epiphysis) collagen fibers in each lamella
• Diaphysis almost totally dense compact bone with cancellous
bone around the central marrow cavity
• E.g. femur, humerus
2. Short bone
• Cancellous bone surrounded by a thin region of compact
bone
• Roughly cube-shaped
• E.g. carpal and tarsal bones
3. Flat bone
• Two layers of compact bone (tables) separated by a thick
layer of cancellous bone (diploë)
• E.g. sternum, ribs, most bones of the skull
4. Irregular bone
• No definitive morphology
• Thin compact bone enclosing cancellous bone
• E.g. mandible, vertebrae
5. Sesamoid bone Figure 10. Secondary bone (left) and primary bone (right)
• Small bones embedded to a tendon
• Its free surface is covered with cartilage • Osteon / Haversian System
• E.g. patella  A complex of 5 to 20 concentric lamellae, 100 to 250 μm
in diameter
 Surrounds the central canal which houses the artery,
vein, and nerve that perforate the bone
 Several lacunae scattered between each lamella at
regular intervals
 Each is bounded by a cement line
 Cylindrical, parallel to the long axis of the bone
 Volkmann Canals
▪ Also called perforating canals
▪ Used in communication of canals
▪ Have few concentric lamellae
 Interstitial Lamellae
▪ Irregularly shaped groups of parallel lamellae
remaining from old osteons that have been partially
destroyed by osteoclasts during growth and bone
remodeling

Figure 9. Types of bone according to shape

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Figure 11. Haversian system and the Volkmann canal
Figure 12. A closer look at the haversian system
C. ACCORDING TO BONE TISSUE
1. Compact (Cortical) Bone
• 80% of total bone mass
• Always covered and lined by soft connective tissue
• Lamellar arrangement of diaphysis – enclose and strengthen
the middle region containing vascularized osteons
 External Circumferential Lamellar System
▪ Parallel lamellae present immediately beneath the
periosteum
 Inner Circumferential Lamellar System
▪ Parallel lamellae present around the marrow cavity
Figure 13. External and inner circumferential lamellar system
 Osteon
▪ Most abundant form of lamellar system in the compact
bone
Histology Cartilage and Bones
2. Cancellous (Trabecular/Spongy) Bone
• 20% of the total bone mass
• Interconnected thin trabeculae covered by endosteum
• Marrow spaces
• Always surrounded by compact bone
Figure 14. Cancellous bone
IX. BONE REMODELING
• In response to tension or pressure
• Remodeling resorbs parts of old osteons, producing new
ones
• Osteoclasts form small tunnel-like cavities in old bones
• Osteoprogenitor cells quickly invade these tunnels and develop
into osteoblasts
• Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, forming a new osteon
X. BONE FORMATION
A. INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
• Process by which most flat bones begin to form
• Takes place within condensed sheets (membranes) of
embryonic mesenchymal tissue
• Ossification center
 Area in which osteoprogenitor cells arise, proliferate, and
form incomplete osteoblast layers around a network of
developing capillaries
• Small irregular areas of woven bone form from calcification of
osteoid secreted by osteoblasts
• Continuous matrix secretion and calcification leads to fusion of
several ossification centers
• Woven bone is replaced by compact bone (table) that encloses
a region of cancellous bone (diploë) with marrow and blood
vessels
• Mesenchymal regions that do not participate in ossification give
rise to endosteum and periosteum
• Examples: cranial flat bones, scapula, clavicle, mandible
Figure 15. Stages of intramembranous ossification
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 B. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
• Observed in developing long bones
• Process in which preexisting matrix of hyaline cartilage is
eroded and invaded by osteoblasts, which then begin osteoid
production
• Bone Collar
 Created by osteoblasts within the perichondrium surrounding
the diaphysis of cartilage model which will become
periosteum
 Impedes the oxygen and nutrient diffusion to underlying
cartilage, causing hypertrophy of the local chondrocytes
Formation of Primary Ossification Center
• Formation of bone collar during the first trimester
• Hypertrophy of local chondrocytes will then initiate the release
of osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase
• Hypertrophic chondrocytes eventually die and leave empty
spaces inside the calcified matrix
• Periosteal bud invades the porous central
• Newly formed osteoblasts move into the spaces and produce
woven bone
• Secondary ossification center develops later in epiphyses in
a modified fashion around the time of birth
• Epiphyseal plate
 Separates the two ossification centers
 Responsible for bone elongation
Figure 16. Stages of endochondral ossification
 Regions of cellular activity in epiphyseal plate
▪ Zone of reserve (resting zone) – composed of typical
hyaline cartilage
▪ Proliferative zone
- Chondrocytes repeatedly divide and enlarge then
secrete matrix components
- Becomes arranged in columns parallel to the long axis
of bone
▪ Zone of hypertrophy – hypertrophic chondrocytes
secrete type X collagen which limits diffusion in the
matrix and promotes vascularization from the adjacent
primary ossification center
▪ Zone of calcified cartilage – cells about to undergo
apoptosis release matric vesicles and osteocalcin
(calcification
▪ Zone of ossification – capillaries and osteoprogenitor
cells invade the cavities to begin formation of woven bone
Histology Cartilage and Bones
Figure 17. Zones of cellular activity in epiphyseal plate
• Two cartilaginous regions maintained in long bones
 Articular cartilage – found within joints between long bones
 Epiphyseal plate
XI. BONE GROWTH WIDTH
• aka Appositional Growth – the formation of new bone on the
surface of an older bone or cartilage
 Process by which an old bone that lines the medullary cavity
is reabsorbed and new bone tissue is grown beneath the
periosteum, increasing bone diameter
 An interplay of osteoblast and osteoclasts
 Bones can increase in diameter even after longitudinal
growth has stopped
• Overview of bone width growth
1: Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum
lay down to form ridges around the blood
vessels
2: The blood vessel lies in a round groove
between the ridges
3: Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix
4: The groove turns into a tunnel when
the bone built on the adjacent ridges
meet
5: The periosteum groove becomes the
endosteum of the tunnel
6: Osteoblasts continue secreting bone
matrix to narrow the canal
7: Osteoblasts from the endosteum lay
down bone to form a new concentric
lamella
8: Production of additional concentric
lamella fills in the tunnel and completes
formations of a new osteon.
Figure 17. Bone Width Growth
Osteoblasts are found beneath the periosteum, where they build
new bone. Osteoclasts are found in the medullary cavity, and the
materials that they resorb will be used to form the new bone. The
medullary cavity gets bigger as the compact bone gets bigger.
XII. JOINTS
• Regions where adjacent bones are capped and held together
firmly by connective tissue
• Points of articulation between two bones
• aka Articular System
• Functions:
 Weight-bearing
 Motion
 Stability
 Lubrication
9 of 11
Joint Classification According to Degree of concavoconvex adduction,
Movement and resemble a rotation
saddle on a
 Synarthroses
horse’s back
▪ very limited or no movement
Ball and Ball-shaped Free Shoulder and hip
▪ Synostoses – bones united only by bone tissue; socket head of one movement; joints
immovable (ex. skull sutures) Joints bone fits into a flexion,
▪ Syndesmoses – bones united by dense connective socket-like extension,
tissue; slightly movable (ex. Inter osseous ligament of concavity of abduction,
tibiofibular joints) another adduction,
▪ Symphyses – bones with a pad of fibrocartilage between medial
the articular cartilage covering the ends of the bone; all rotation, lateral
occur in the midline of the body (ex. pubic symphysis and rotation, and
mental symphysis) circumduction

 Diarthroses XIII. BONE FRACTURE AND REPAIR

▪ Permit fee movement between bones articulating them • Bone fracture – medical term for a broken bone
▪ Ligaments and a capsule of dense connective tissue  May be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal
maintain proper alignment of bones trauma injury due to certain medical conditions that weaken
 Capsule encloses a sealed joint cavity which contains the bones (ex. osteoporosis, bone cancer)
synovial fluid • Bone repair
 Synovial membrane is the capsule  1: Inflammation
▪ Include synovial joints ▪ Hematoma formation – results when the surrounding
blood vessels of the broken bone rupture, and form a
Figure 18. Illustration of a synovial joint
blood clot (hematoma) at the site of the break
 Severed blood vessels of the broken ends of the bone
are sealed by clotting
 Bone cells surrounding this are deprived of nutrients
since there are no more blood vessels
▪ Macrophages and leukocytes move to the damaged
area to produce pro-inflammatory agents that initiate
healing
 2: Soft Callus
▪ Capillaries grow into the hematoma, while phagocytic cells
begin to clear away dead cells through fragments of the
blood clot
▪ Fibroblasts and osteoblasts enter the area to begin
reformation of bone
 Fibroblasts for collagen and osteoblasts for spongy
layer
▪ Fibrocartilagenous callus – composed of hyaline and
fibrocartilage—is formed
 3: Hard Callus
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape ▪ Fibrocartilagenous callus is converted into a bony callus of
Joint Description Motion Example spongy bone
Plane/Flat Articular Short sliding Sterno clavicular ▪ Takes about 2 months
Joints surfaces are and gliding Acromio ▪ Bones are firmly joined together
flat or almost clavicular ▪ Process is similar to endochondral ossification
flat Intercarpal ▪ Osteoblast and osteoclasts are present in the hard callus
Intertarsal  4: Bone Remodeling
Hinge Cylindrical Flexion and Knee ▪ Hard callus converted into bone by osteoclasts and
Joints projection of extension Elbow osteoblasts
one bone fits Ankle joints
into a trough-
shaped
process
REFERENCES
Pivot Rounded end Rotation Atlanto-axial Google Images
Joints of one bone Superior Lecture PPT
protrudes into radioulnar joints 2020 1C Trans
a ring Gartner, L. P., & Hiatt, J. L. (2014). Color Atlas and Text of
Condyloid Two convex Flexion, Metcarpo Histology, Sixth Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams
Joints surfaces that extension, phalangeal & Wilkins.
articular with abduction, (knuckle joints) Mescher, A. L. (2016). Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas,
two concave adduction, Fourteenth Edition. USA: McGraw-Hill Education.
surfaces small amount Young, B., O’Dowd, G., & Woodford, P. (2014). Wheater’s
of rotation Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas, Sixth
Saddle Articular Flexion, Carpometacarpal Edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier - Churchill Livingstone
Joints surfaces are extension, joint of the thumb
reciprocally abduction,

Histology Cartilage and Bones 10 of 11

 APPENDIX

Figure 19. Phases of Bone Repair

Figure 20. Cartilage Types

Figure 21. Cartilage Types

Histology Cartilage and Bones 11 of 11