UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS

Evolution of fiber optic system- Element of an Optical Fiber Transmission link– Total
internal reflection-Acceptance angle –Numerical aperture – Skew rays Ray Optics-
Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations -Mode theory of Circular Wave guides-
Overview of Modes-Key Modal concepts- Linearly Polarized Modes -Single Mode
Fibers-Graded Index fiber structure.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission Medium, or channel, is the actual physical path that data follows from
the transmitter to the receiver.

Copper cable is the oldest, cheapest, and the most common form of transmission
medium to date.

Optical Fiber is being used increasingly for high-speed applications.

INTRODUCTION: MAJOR MILESTONES IN
ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION
1838 – Samuel F.B. Morse invented Telegraphy
1866 – first transatlantic telegraph cable
1876 – Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone
1905 – Triode based Electronic amplifier
1940 – first coaxial-cable system (3 MHz –3,000 voice channels or ONE
television channel)
1948 – first microwave system (4 GHz)
1975 – the most advanced coaxial system with a bit rate of 274 Mb/s
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OF THE 20TH
CENTURY
Wire – Telegraphy (2 wires for telegraph transmission – simplex & duplex)
Wire – Telephony (2 wires for telephone transmission of 1 channel)
Carrier telephony (long-distance telephony for multiple channels – 4,8,16)
Coaxial cable systems (for 32 channel PCM systems – 32x64kb/s = 2.048 Mb/s)
PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Affected by EMI
Low bandwidth (4 kHz – telephone, 100-500 MHz per km – coaxial cable )
High attenuation (20 dB/km – typically)
High system cost due to too many repeaters for a given Bandwidth/ data rate
Eg. 32 channel (2.048 Mbps) PCM link required one repeater every 2 km
Prone to tapping
Bulky
HISTORY OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS
1966 – suggestion to use optical fiber (Kao & Hockham)
1970 – Corning Glass optical fiber with 20 dB/km near 1 μm
1970 - Semiconductor Laser with CW operation at room temp.
1980 onwards – wide spread use of Optical Fiber Communication using SMF and
MMF
1990 – used Optical amplification (for increased repeater spacing) and
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) for increased data rate.
Resulted in a data rate of 10 Tb/s by 2001.
OPTICAL NETWORK AROUND THE WORLD
OPTICAL NETWORK IN INDIA
NEED FOR OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
In any communication system, information to be transmitted is generally available as
an electrical signal that may take analog or digital form.
In the analog case, the signal (e. g., electric current) varies continuously with time, as
shown schematically in Fig. Familiar examples include audio and video signals
resulting when a microphone converts voice or a video camera converts an image into
an electrical signal.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
The digital signal takes only a few discrete values. In the binary representation of a
digital signal only two values are possible. The simplest case of a binary digital
signal is one in which the electric current is either on or off, as shown in Fig. These two
possibilities are called “bit 1” and “bit 0” (bit is a contracted form of binary digit).
Each bit lasts for a certain period of time TB, known as the bit period or bit slot. Since
one bit of information is conveyed in a time interval TB, the bit rate B, defined as the
number of bits per second, is simply B=TB−1 . A well-known example of digital signals
is provided by computer data.
INTRODUCTION
What is communication?
Communication is the transfer of information from one point to another.
What is the function of communication system??
The function of communication system is to convey signal from information source over
transmission medium to the destination.
Communication system consists of???
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
CONSISTS OF????
OPTICAL FIBER LINK
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
COMMUNICATION:
Enormous potential bandwidth
Small size and weight
Electrical isolation
Immunity to interference and crosstalk
Signal security
Low transmission loss
Ruggedness and flexibility
System reliability and ease of maintenance
Potential low cost
DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER:
High initial cost.
Maintenance and repairing is difficult and expensive.
Fiber joining process is very costly and requires skilled man power.
Fiber losses are more.
Cost of LASER and detector is high.
FIBER OPTIC APPLICATIONS
Fiber is the least expensive, most reliable method for high speed and/or long
distance communications
While we already transmit signals at 100 Gigabits per second speeds, we have only
started to utilize the potential bandwidth of fiber
Electronics and Computers
Broad Optoelectronic
Medical Application
Instrumentation
THE ATTENUATION HISTORY
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Law of Reflection
The angle of Incidence = The angle of reflection

Law of Refraction -
•Light beam is bent towards the normal when passing into a medium of higher
refractive index.
•Light beam is bent away from the normal when passing into a medium of lower
refractive index.
Index of Refraction –
n = Speed of light in a vacuum / Speed of light in a medium

Inverse square law - Light intensity diminishes with square of distance from source.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Medium 1

1 1 2 Refracted
n1 n2 ray
Boundary 2
1 1
n2 n1
Incident 1 1
2 ray
Reflected
Medium 2 ray
n1 < n2 n1 > n2
Using the Snell's law at the boundary we have:
Willebrord
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 or n1 cos 1 = n2 cos 2 Snell
1 = The angle of incident
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
n1 > n2 n2

• As 1 increases (or 1 decreases) then there is no reflection 1

• The incident angle c
1 =  c = Critical Angle n1
• Beyond the critical angle, light ray
becomes totally internally reflected n1 > n2 n2
When 1 = 90o (or c = 0o)
n1 sin 1 = n2 1<c 1
1 
n2  1>
Thus the critical angle c  sin  

 n1  c n1
 nr
CRITICAL ANGLE ni
c

The incident angle that causes the refracted ray to skim right along the boundary of
a substance is known as the critical angle, c. The critical angle is the angle of
incidence that produces an angle of refraction of 90º. If the angle of incidence
exceeds the critical angle, the ray is completely reflected and does not enter the new
medium. A critical angle only exists when light is attempting to penetrate a medium
of higher optical density than it is currently traveling in.
From Snell,
n1 sinc = n2 sin 90 nr
From Snell, c = sin-1
n1 sinc = n2 sin 90
ni
 air
CRITICAL ANGLE SAMPLE PROBLEM diamond
c

c = sin-1 (nr / ni)

= sin-1 (1 / 2.42)
= 24.4
Any light shone on this boundary beyond this
angle will be reflected back into the diamond.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Total internal reflection occurs when light attempts to pass from a more optically
dense medium to a less optically dense medium at an angle greater than the critical
angle. When this occurs there is no refraction, only reflection.

n1 n2 > n1
n2   > c

Total internal reflection can be used for practical applications like fiber optics.
FIBER OPTICS
A fiber optic wire
Fiber optic lines are strands of glass or transparent fibers that allows the transmission
of light and digital information over long distances. They are used for the telephone
system, the cable TV system, the internet, medical imaging, and mechanical
engineering inspection.
Fiber optics are often long strands of very pure glass. They are very thin, about the
size of a human hair. Hundreds to thousands of them are arranged in bundles
(optical cables) that can transmit light great distances. There are three main parts to
an optical fiber:
FIBER OPTICS CONT.
Core- the thin glass center where light travels.
Cladding- optical material (with a lower index of refraction than the core) that
surrounds the core that reflects light back into the core.
Buffer Coating- plastic coating on the outside of an optical fiber to protect it from
damage.
Light travels through the core of a fiber optic by continually reflecting off of the cladding.
Due to total internal reflection, the cladding does not absorb any of the light, allowing the
light to travel over great distances. Some of the light signal will degrade over time due to
impurities in the glass. The refractive index of the core is always greater than that of the
cladding(i.e.)n1 > n2.
FIBER OPTICS CONT.
 The thickness of the core of a typical
glass fiber is nearly 50 μm and that of
cladding is 100 – 200 μm.
 The overall thickness of an optical
fiber is nearly 125 – 200 μm.
 Thus an optical fiber is small in size
and light weight unlike a metallic cable.
Light guides (a) Simple glass rod
(b) Glass rod and cladding with
different refraction qualities
PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER :
MERIDINAL RAYS AND SKEW RAYS :
The light rays, during the journey inside the optical fiber through the core, cross the
core axis. Such light rays are known as meridinal rays.
The passage of such rays in a step index fiber is Similarly, the rays which never cross
the axis of the core are known as the skew rays.
Skew rays describe angular ‘helices’ as they progress along the fiber. They follow
helical path around the axis of fiber.
The skew rays will not utilize the full area of the core and they travel farther than
meridinal rays and undergo higher attenuation.
MERIDINAL RAYS AND SKEW RAYS :
FIBER OPTICS CONT.
There are two types of optical fibers:
Single-mode fibers- transmit one signal per fiber (used in cable TV and telephones).
Multi-mode fibers- transmit multiple signals per fiber (used in computer networks).
There are two main fibre types by index profile:
(1) Step index:
Multi-mode
Single mode
(2) Graded index multi-mode
Total number of guided modes M for multi-mode fibres:
Multi-mode SI M  0.5V 2 Multi-mode GI M  0.25V 2
STEP-INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBRE
Advantages:
• Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
• Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
• Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
• Cost effective
Disadvantages:
• Suffer from dispersion (i.e. low bandwidth (a few MHz)
• High power loss

50-200 m Output pulse

Input
pulse 120-400m n1 =1.48-1.5
dn=0.04,100 ns/km n2 = 1.46
GRADED-INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBRE
Advantages:
• Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
• Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
• Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
• Reduced dispersion compared with SIMMF
Disadvantages:
• Lower bandwidth compared with SISMF
• High power loss compared with the SISMF

50-100 m
Input Output
pulse 120-140m pulse
n2 n1
dn = 0.04,1ns/km
STEP-INDEX SINGLE-MODE FIBRE
Advantages:
• Only one mode is allowed due to diffraction/interference effects.
• Allows the use high power laser source
• Facilitates fusion splicing similar fibres
• Low dispersion, therefore high bandwidth (a few GHz).
• Low loss (0.1 dB/km)
Disadvantages:
• Cost

8-12 m Output pulse

Input
pulse 100-120m n1 =1.48-1.5
n2 = 1.46
dn = 0.005, 5ps/km
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE :
It should be noted that the fiber core will propagate the incident light rays only
when it is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle  c. The geometry of
the launching of the light rays into an optical fiber is shown in the following Fig.
Lost by
Acceptance radiation
angle
Acceptance Cone
A
a
c Core

B Cladding
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE : CONTD.
A meridinal ray A is to be incident at an angle  a in the core – cladding interface of the fiber.
The ray enters the fiber core at an angle  a to the fiber axis.
The ray gets refracted at the air – core interface at angle  c and enters into the core – cladding
interface for transmission.
Therefore, any ray which is incident at an angle greater than  a will be transmitted into the core –
cladding interface at an angle less than  c and hence will not undergo total internal reflection.
The ray B entered at an angle greater than  a and eventually lost propagation by radiation.
It is clear that the incident rays which are incident on fiber core within conical half angle  c will be
refracted into fiber core, propagate into the core by total internal reflection.
This angle  a is called as acceptance angle, defined as the maximum value of the angle of
incidence at the entrance end of the fiber, at which the angle of incidence at the core – cladding
surface is equal to the critical angle of the core medium.
NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA) :
Numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and
is a measure of the amount of light rays can be accepted by the fiber.
This ray enters from a medium namely air of refractive index n0 to the fiber with a
core of refractive index n1 which is slightly greater than that of the cladding n2 .
Assume that the light is undergoing total internal reflection within the core.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at A,
sin 1 n1 sin  1  n1 sin  2
  n1
sin  2 n0
In the triangle ABC,
 
  2 or 2   
2 2
  
sin 1  n1 sin      n1 cos 
2 

 
1
cos   1  sin 2 2

From the above two equations,

 
1
sin 1  n1 1  sin 
2 2

When the total internal reflection takes place, θ = θc and

θ1 = θa . Therefore,
 
1
sin  a  n1 1  sin  c2 2
Also, at B, applying the Snell’s law of refraction,
we get
sin  c n2 n2
 (or) sin  c 
sin 90 n1 n1
From the above equation, we get 1

 n  2
2

 
1

sin  a  n1 1   2    n12  n22 2

  n1  
This is called the numerical aperture (N.A). The numerical
aperture is also defined as the sine of the half of the
acceptance angle .
N . A  sin  a  n1 sin  c
In terms of refractive indices n1 and n2, where n1 is the
core index and n2 the cladding index
N. A  (n1  n2 )
2 2 1 2

The half acceptance angle a is given by

 a  sin 1 ( N. A)
1
 sin (n1  n2 )
2 2 1 2

n1  n2
2 2
( N . A) 2
 2
 2
2n1 2n1
From the above eqns, we get
N.A  n1  (2)1 2
SOLVED PROBLEM (1) :
Two layers of glass are placed on top of each other. The light is travelling from n1 =
1.45 to n2 = 1.40. Find the range of angles c, for which total internal reflection
takes place.
n1 = 1.45 and n2 = 1.40.
We know that
Substituting the values of n1 and n2
= 74.9 deg

Thus, for the critical case x = 90 – 74.9 = 15.1deg, and for all angles x less than
15.1deg, total internal reflection takes place.
SOLVED PROBLEM (2) :
A fiber has the following characteristics: n1 = 1.35 (core index) and 
=2%. Find the N.A and the acceptance angle.
n1 = 1.35 ;  = 2% = 0.02
W.K.T N . A  n1  (2)
12

= 1.35  (2  0.02)1/2 = 0.27

a = sin – 1 (N.A) = sin – 1 (0.27) = 15.66

Acceptance angle = 2a = 31.33
SOLVED PROBLEM (3) :
A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.47. Determine (i) the critical angle at the core – cladding
interface, (ii) the N.A for the fiber and (iii) the acceptance angle for the fiber.
n1 = 1.50 ; n2 = 1.47
 n2   1.47 
The critical angle  c  sin  
1
= sin 1    78 .5


 1.50 
 n1 
The numerical aperture N. A  (n12  n2 2 )1 2

(1.50 2  1.47 2 )1 2
 0.30

The acceptance angle = 2a = 2 sin – 1 (N.A) = 2 sin – 1 (0.30) = 34.9

Critical angle = 78.5º ; N.A = 0.30 ; Acceptance angle = 34.9
SKEW RAYS
SKEW RAYS CONTD.
Analysis for skew rays is much more involved.
Ray direction defined in two planes as shown.
Acceptance angle for skew rays =

Derivation in Class Notes….

SOLVED PROBLEM (4) :
An optical fibre in air has an NA of 0.4. Compare the acceptance angle for
meridional rays with that for skew rays, which change direction by 100
degrees at each reflection.
Solution
Acceptance angle for meridional rays = 23.6 degrees
Skew rays change direction by 100 degrees so gamma is 50 degrees
Using the formula for the acceptance angle for skew rays gives:
Skew ray acceptance angle = 38.5 degrees
Notice that the acceptance angle for skew rays is higher than that for meridional rays
MODE THEORY FOR OPTICAL PROPAGATION
Optical Waveguide mode patterns seen in
the end faces of small diameter fibers.
E&M WAVE
The planar mirror waveguide can be
solved by starting with Maxwells
Equations and the boundary condition
that the parallel component of the E field
vanish at the mirror or by considering that
plane waves already satisfy Maxwell’s
equations and they can be combined at
an angle so that the resulting wave
duplicates itself
MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE:
Mode is the stable field distribution in x
direction with only a periodic z dependence.
The components of phase propagation constant
in z direction is given by βz = n1kcosθ
The components of phase propagation constant
in x direction is given by βx = n1ksinθ
When total phase change after 2 successive
reflections at upper and lower interfaces is
equal to 2mπ radians then constructive
interference occurs and standing wave is
obtained.
MODE NUMBER
PLANAR DIELECTRIC LAYER BOUND MODES
The field components have a transverse variation across the guide. There are more
nodes for higher-order modes. The changed boundary conditions for the dielectric
interface result in an evanescent penetration into the cladding.
DIELECTRIC LAYER BOUNDED WAVES
The ray model is mathematically accurate for dielectric guides if the
additional phase shift due to the evanescent wave is acknowledged.
And the relationships between field types (for simple, isotropic dielectric material with
no free charges) are:

And if we put all of these equations together (vector analysis) we end up with the
wave equation:

which is the same for the magnetic field:

The rectangular cross-section has the simplest mathematics. The
wave equation in rectangular coordinates is

Which, using becomes

or

or (simpler)
TYPICAL END-VIEW REPRESENTATIONS OF SOME
OF THESE MODES
PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITY:
In plane waves the constant phase points of EM waves form a surface known as wave
front. The points of constant phase travel at phase velocity is given by

The combination of 2 waves of slightly different frequencies propagating together

form wave packets. This wave packet move at group velocity is given by
PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITY:
PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITY:
For phase velocity, substitute value of β and simplify. The answer is

For group velocity,

 Multiply and divide by dλ.
 Find dω/dλ.
 Substitute β value and differentiate with respect to λ.
 After simplification final answer is
MODE THEORY FOR CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDES
To understand optical power propagation in fiber it is necessary to solve Maxwell’s
equation subject to cylindrical boundary conditions
When solving Maxwell’s equations for hollow metallic waveguide, only transverse
electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes are found
In optical fibers, the core cladding boundary conditions lead to a coupling between
electric and magnetic field components. This results in hybrid modes
Hybrid modes HE means (E is larger) or HM means H is larger

61
OVERVIEW
Since n1-n2 << 1, the description of guided and radiation modes is simplified from
six-component hybrid electromagnetic fields to four field components.
Modes in a planar dielectric slab waveguide
The order of a mode is equal to number of field zeros across the guide
Field vary harmonically in guiding region and decay exponentially outside this region
For lower order modes, fields are concentrated towards the center of the slab

62
MODES
Modes
Guided
 Modes travelling inside fiber along its axis. They are finite solutions of Maxwell equation ( hybrid E and H
field)

Radiated
 Modes that are not trapped in core. These result from optical power that is outside the fiber acceptance
being refracted out of the core. Some radiation gets trapped in cladding, causing cladding modes to
appear
 Coupling between cladding and core (radiation not confined)
 Cladding modes are suppressed by coating

Leaky
 Partially confined to core region and attenuates by radiating their power. This radiation results from quantum
mechanical phenomena tunnel effect
V NUMBER
V number

 Cut off condition that determines how many modes a fiber can support

 Except for lowest mode HE11, each mode exists only for values of V that exceed a limiting value

 Modes are cut off when . This occurs when

 (for 8 microm diameter fiber)

 Number of modes M in multimode fiber when V is large

MODAL CONCEPTS
For step index fiber, the fractional power flow in the core and cladding for a given
mode

M is proportional to V, power flow in cladding decreases as V increases.

Solved Problem (5) : In classwork note

Solved Problem (6) : In classwork note
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
……..1 (Faraday’s Law)

………2 (Maxwell’s Faraday equation)

………3 (Gauss Law)

………4 (Gauss Law for magnetism)

and . The parameter Є is permittivity and μ is permeability.

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Using vector identity
……(6)
Using (3),
…….(7)
Taking the curl of 2,

. . . . . (8)

(7) and (8) are standard wave equations

MAXWELL’S EQUATION
Using cylindrical coordinates
.…..(9)
……(10)

Substituting (9) and (10) in Maxwell’s curl equation

…. . .(11)

…….(12)

…….(13)
MAXWELL’S EQUATION
Also
----------(14)

----------(15)

----------(16)

By eliminating variables, above can be written such that when Ex and Hz are
known, the remaining transverse components can be determined
MAXWELL’S EQUATION
……..(17)

………(18)

…...........(19)

…………(20)
Substituting (19) and (20) into (16) results in
….…(21)

…….(22)
MAXWELL’S EQUATION
(21) and (22) each contain either Ez or Hz.
 Coupling between Ez and Hz is required by boundary conditions
 If boundary conditions do not lead to coupling between field components, mode solution will such that
either Ez=0 or Hz=0.
 When Ez=0, modes are called transverse electric or TE modes
 When Hz=0, modes are called transverse magnetic or TM modes
 Hybrid modes exist if both Ez and Hz are nonzero designated as HE or EH
WAVE EQUATIONS FOR STEP INDEX FIBERS
Using separation of variables
………..(23)
The time and z-dependent are given by
………..(24)
Circular symmetry, each field component must not change when Ø is increased by 2п.
Thus
…………(25)
Thus, (23) becomes

….(26)
WAVE EQUATIONS FOR STEP INDEX FIBERS
Solving (26). For inside region, the solution must remain finite as r->0, whereas on
outside the solution must decay to zero as r->∞
Solutions are
 For r< a, Bessel function of first kind of order v (Jv)

 For r> a, modified Bessel functions of second kind(Kv)

HOW THESE NUMBERS ARE USED IN DESIGNING
FIBER OPTICS ?
Bessel’s first zeros are used to calculate the diameter of fiber core using formula :
“Wave length cutoff” < “root of Bessel function”
(2) Sqrt. (n12- n22)  (2.405 for SMF)

Example :
wave length  = 1310 nm transmitting through single-mode silicon fiber
with refractive index of core n1= 1.47
refractive index of cladding n2= 1.45
The radius is about 2.93 micron.
Bessel Functions First Kind Bessel Functions Second kind

Modified Bessel first kind Modified Bessel Second kind 75

PROPAGATION CONSTANT β
From definition of modified Bessel function

Since Kv(wr) must to zero as r->∞, w>0. This implies that

A second condition can be deduced from behavior of Jv(ur). Inside core u is real for
F1 to be real, thus,
Permissible range of β for bound solutions is
MEANING OF U AND W
Both u and w describes guided wave variation in radial direction
 u is know as guided wave radial direction phase constant (Jn resembles sine function)
 w is known as guided wave radial direction decay constant (recall Kn resemble exponential function)

77
BESSEL FUNCTION
a variety of solutions to the Bessel's equation depending upon the parameters
and . is an integer and a positive quantity.
Depending upon the choice of i.e., a) real, b) imaginary, c) complex,
we get different solutions to the Bessel's equation. So to choose the proper solution
we must have the physical understanding of the field distribution.
WAVE INTERFERENCE
We have seen from the ray model that the rays can
be launched at discrete angles inside an optical fiber.
For a particular launching angle all the rays which lie
on the surface of a cone are equip-probable rays.
When total internal reflection takes place, the field
must decay away from the core cladding boundary. If
the field does not decay, then the energy is not
guided along the fiber axis and the energy is lost.
Here, since we are interested in the guided fields, we
accept only those field distributions which decay away
from the core-cladding interface.
LET US NOW LOOK AT THE PLOT OF THE BESSEL
FUNCTIONS
If q is real then the solutions are
Bessel functions
Neumann functions
The quantity v is called the order of the function and qr is called the argument of the
function. Plots of the two functions as a function of their arguments are shown
SOLVED PROBLEM (7) :
A single Mode step index fiber has a core diameter of 7μm and core refractive
index of 1.49.Estimate the shortest wavelength of light which allows single mode
operation when the refractive index difference for the fiber is 1% ?
For a single mode step index fiber, n1 = 1.49, 2a = 7μm => a = 3.5 μm, index diff
= 0.01 We have n2 = n1 (1-∆) = 1.49(1-0.01) = 1.4751 Therefore n2 =1.48
The condition to be fulfilled for a fiber to be single mode is that normalized
frequency, V ≤ 2.4
λ = 1.58μm.
CUT OFF FREQUENCY OF A MODE
Cut off frequency is defined as the frequency at which the mode does not remain
purely guided. That is, when a guided mode is converted into a radiation mode.
The cut-off is defined by (and not as is usually done for the metallic
waveguides)
where, , and is propagation constant in cladding .
If is real we get the guided mode and if it is imaginary we get radiating mode
UNDERSTANDING POLARIZATION
Light is an electromagnetic wave
Light is called unpolarized if the direction of this electric field fluctuates randomly in
time.
The most common source of polarized light is a laser.
We classify polarized light into three types of polarizations: Depending on how the
electric field is oriented.
 Linear polarization: the electric field of light is confined to a single plane along the direction of
propagation.
 Circular polarization: the electric field of light consists of two linear components that are
perpendicular to each other, equal in amplitude, but have a phase difference of π/2.
 Elliptical polarization: the electric field of light describes an ellipse. This results from the combination
of two linear components with differing amplitudes and/or a phase difference that is not π/2.
LINEAR, CIRCULAR & ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
TYPES OF CYLINDRICAL MODES DEFINED BY THE
CYLINDRICAL BESSEL FUNCTIONS
The E field component is transverse to the z direction. Ez = 0 and it is a TEnm mode.
The H field component is transverse to the z direction. Hz = 0 and it is a TMnm mode.

If neither Ez nor Hz = 0 then it is a hybrid mode.

If transverse H field is larger, Hz < Ez and it is an HEnm mode.
If transverse E field is larger, Ez < Hz and it is an EHnm mode.

For weakly guided fibers (small ), these type of modes become degenerate and combine
into linearly polarized LPjm modes.
Each mode has a subscript of two numbers,n and m. The first is the order of the Bessel function
and the second identifies which of the various roots meets the boundary condition. If the first
subscript n = 0, the mode is meridional. Otherwise, it is skew.
END VIEW, CYLINDRICAL MODES
OBLIQUE VIEW, CYLINDRICAL MODES
SUPERPOSITION GIVES LINEARLY POLARIZED
MODES

Composition of two LP11 modes from TE, TM and HE modes

COMPOSITION OF LP (LINEARLY POLARIZED)
MODES
MODE DEGENERACY = MODES THAT CAN EXIST
CONCURRENTLY AND INDEPENDENTLY
LP01 degeneracy:

LP11 degeneracy:
HIGH ORDER FIBER MODES 2
MODE COUPLING:
Due to irregularities and fiber bend, the
ray no longer maintain same angle with
axis. So propagating mode is changed.
This mode conversion is known as mode
coupling.
STEP INDEX FIBER:
The refractive index of core is constant and a cladding is of slightly lower refractive
index is known as step index fiber.
The refractive index profile makes step change at core cladding interface. The
refractive index profile is defined as
TYPES OF STEP INDEX FIBER:
In multimode step index fiber, core diameter is 50 µm or greater.
 More than one modes can be transmitted.
 Due to differing group velocities dispersion may occur.

In single mode step index fiber, core diameter is 2 to 10 µm.

 Low intermodal dispersion.
 One mode is transmitted.
 Advantages of multimode fiber
 Larger core radii make it easier to launch optical power into fiber.
 Light can be launched into multimode fiber using LED. LEDs are easier to make, less expensive and less complex circuitry and
have longer life time.
 Lower tolerance required for fiber connectors.
REFRACTIVE INDEX PROFILE:
GRADED INDEX FIBERS:
Graded index fiber have no constant refractive index but decreasing core index n(r)
with radial distance from maximum value of n1 at axis to constant value n2 beyond
core radius a in cladding. The refractive index is given by

 Δ --- > relative refractive index difference.

 Α --- > profile parameter which gives characteristics
refractive index profile of fiber core.
GRADED INDEX FIBERS:
GUIDED MODES IN GRADED INDEX FIBER:
Total number of guided modes or mode volume Mg supported by graded index fiber
is derived as
  
Mg   n1ka 
2

  2 
Total number of guided modes or mode volume in terms of normalized frequency is
given by

   v 
2
Mg    
   2  2 
SINGLE MODE FIBER:
Normalized frequency for SMSI fiber is 0≤V≤2.405.
2
The cutoff normalized frequency for SMGI fiber is Vc  2.405 1   
 

If GI fiber has triangular profile then V number is increased by √3 factor.

If GI fiber has parabolic profile then V number is increased by √2 factor.
Cladding thickness should be 50μm to avoid losses.
REASON FOR USING SM FIBERS:
Greater transmission bandwidth and lower losses
Superior transmission quality due to the absence of modal noise.
Replacement of components are required in more than 20 years.
Two types of fiber based on cladding refractive index ie) MC and DC (Matched
cladding, Depressed cladding)
MC
 cladding has constant uniform refractive index which slightly lower than core region.
Relative refractive index difference Δ is 0.3%
MFD is 10μm
DC
Cladding immediately adjacent to core is of lower refractive index than outer cladding region.
MFD is 9μm, Δ is 0.25% and 0.12%
MATCHED CLADDING DESIGN
CUTOFF WAVELENGTH:
λc is the theoretical cutoff wavelength, A is the radius of the fiber core, n1 is the
refractive index of the core, Vc is normalized frequency, Δ is the refractive index
difference between the fiber core and cladding. The typical cutoff wavelength for
1.3um single modefibers range from 1.1 to 1.28 μm.
2an1 2 2
c  2  V  an1 2 2 
Vc 

c V V
 c 
 Vc 2.405
MFD
PROBLEMS:
IMPORTANT THINGS TO REMEMBER
Reflection
Total internal reflection
Acceptance angle
Numerical aperture
Critical angle
Refraction
Refractive index
Snell’s law
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Draw the block diagram of optical fiber communication system and structure of optical fiber cable.
2. What are the conditions to achieve total internal reflection?
3. Define acceptance angle and critical angle.
4. Define phase and group velocity.
5. Distinguish single mode fiber and multi mode fiber.
6. What are the advantages of MM fiber over SM fiber?
7. What is Goos Haenchen shift and evanescent field?
8. Derive the relationship between NA and relative refractive index from NA in terms of refractive index of core and cladding.
9. Draw the refractive index profile for SMGI and SMSI fiber.
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable?
11. Define MFD and group delay.
12. Distinguish skew ray and meridional ray.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Draw the schematic diagram of optical fiber communication system. Explain the function of each component in that diagram.
2. Derive the expressions for NA in terms of acceptance angle of meridional ray and skew ray. Also write the conditions to achieve
TIR.
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber communication in detail.
4. Derive the expression for phase and group velocity.
5. Why SMSI fibers are most widely used in telecommunication? Discuss about the effective refractive index for SM fiber.
6. Explain in detail about the modes of propagation in circular waveguide.
7. Explain the structure of graded index fiber.
8. Derive wave equation from Maxwell’s equation.
9. Define the following terms with respect to optical laws.
10. Distinguish skew ray and meridional ray.
11. Explain in detail about optical fiber modes and configurations.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. The relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber is 1%. Determine the critical angle at the core
cladding interface if the core refractive index is 1.46.
2. Calculate the Numerical Aperture of a fiber having n1 = 1.6 and n2 = 1.49 and another fiber having n1
= 1.458 and n2 = 1.405. Which fiber has greater acceptance angle?
3. A SI fibre with silica-core refractive index of 1.458, V = 75 and NA = 0.3 is to be operated at 820 nm.
What should be its core size and cladding refractive index? Calculate the total number of modes entering
this fiber.
4. Calculate the number of modes supported by a graded index fiber having a core radius of 25 m m and
operating at 820 nm. The fiber has a refractive index of 1.48 at the core axis and a cladding index of
1.46. Assume a parabolic index profile.
5. Determine the fraction of average optical power residing in the cladding of a step index fiber having a
core radius of 25 micrometer. The fiber operates at 1300 nm and has a numerical aperture of 0.22.
6. A step index fiber has a core diameter or 7 micrometer and core refractive index of 1.49. Estimate the
shortest wavelength of light which allows single mode operation when the relative refractive index
difference for the fiber is 1%.