Written by Nkugwa Mark William PHYSICS 3 GROUP WORK

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
PHYSICS 3
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
GROUP MEMBERS: SIX
NKUGWA MARK WILLIAM 17/U/7029/CHE/PE

BYARUGABA DENIS 17/U/6981/CHE/PE

BULYABA CAROLINE 17/U/6978/CHE/PE

AHEREZA JANITH 17/U/6967/CHE/PE

NABUSIU BENJAMIN 17/U/7012/CHE/PE

REFERNCES

1. Serway Raymond; Clement Moses. (2003). MODERN PHYSICS.

(Third edition). David Harris. (519,526,530,532,536, 539).
2. Jewett John; Serway Raymond. (2010). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers with Modern Physics. (Eighth edition). Mary Finch.
(1379, 1380, 1388, 1390, 1391.1393, 1394).
3. Richard Wolfson. (2007). ESSENTIAL UNIVERSITY PHYSICS.
(SECOND EDITION). James Smith. (695,691).
4. Knight Randall. (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
(Second edition).Black Adam. (1333).

RADIATION TRACES MATERIALS; whenever an unstable nucleus undergoes a

rearrangement to become more stable (decays, or disintegrates), detectable and

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measurable amounts of radiation are given off. This radiation usually consists of gamma
rays (very short electromagnetic radiation) or beta particles (electrons). These atoms can be
located easily with suitable detection equipment. Use of a radioisotope to follow a material
as it moves through a process is commonly called the tracer technique.
RADIATION AFFECTS MATERIALS; just as we may be sunburned from overexposure to
sunlight, a person also may be burned by overexposure to gamma radiation from
radioisotopes. This energetic radiation is capable of killing bacteria and insects; hence
radioisotopes can be used for sterilization of materials and foods. The radiant energy is also
suitable for catalyzing chemical reactions or supplying the energy to start them
MATERIALS AFFECT RADIATION; since most of the radiations are more energetic than
ordinary light, they can pass through opaque materials. Even so, not all the incident
radiation necessarily passes through, since the amount that penetrates depends on the
density and thickness of the material and the energy of the radiation. This is the basis for
using radioisotopes m measuring thicknesses, finding voids (empty spots) in metal castings,
testing welds, and taking pictures of concealed objects, such as bones inside the body or
contents of sealed container.

1. INDUSTRIAL TRACERS.
Radioactive tracers are used to track chemicals participating in various reactions.
Radioisotopes are used by manufacturers as tracers to monitor fluid flow and filtration, detect
leaks, and gauge engine wear and corrosion of process equipment. Small concentrations of
short-lived isotopes can be detected whilst no residues remain in the environment. By adding
small amounts of radioactive substances to materials used in various processes it is possible to
study the mixing and flow rates of a wide range of materials, including liquids, powders and
gases, and to locate leaks. Application of Leak Detection in the following areas;
1 Determining the location of leaks in oil-well casings
2 Testing the tightness of an abandoned slate quarry to be used for temporary oil storage
3 Locating Freon leaks in refrigerator coils
4 Testing possible leakage between cross streams in a heat ex-changer
5 Studying the characteristics of leaks through engine seals.
From the ability to label certain atoms they have further application to chemical engineers in;
1. Investigating the flow of aluminum during extrusion.
2. Locating materials pumped into oil and gas wells.
3. Determining the efficiency of industrial mixers and the vapor pressure of strontium oxide.
4. Studying the distribution of an embrittling impurity in metal and alloy production and
detection of Minute Quantities.
5. Measuring the washing efficiency of detergents.
6. Following the migration of mercury in fluorescent lamps.
7 .Detecting dye contamination in multicolored textile printing machines.
Further applications of tracers in chemical engineering and industrial research include
1. Absorption of silicones in emulsifiers in hand creams and absorption of fluorine on teeth.
2. Acid-olefin ratio in alcohol production.
3. Application of finishes on synthetic fibers and films.
4. Availability of iron chelates to growing plants

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5. Contamination of food-processing equipment by cleansing agents.

6. Diffusion of sulfur and zinc into rubber compounds during vulcanization.
7. Effectiveness of oil removal from steel rails
8. Fate of inhibitors and terminators in polymerization, of toxic residues from feed additives in
milk and of catalyst fragments from redox catalyst reactions.
9. Interaction of detergent components and fabrics and of flotation agents and minerals.
10. Kinetics of exchange reactions of halogens and halogenated methane
12. Mechanism of drying lacquers ,of drying agent used on potatoes and onions and of
emulsifiers used in ice cream cartons
13. Migration of antimony in lead-storage battery grids.
14. Purification of semiconductor materials.
15. Sulfur content of petroleum liquids after desulfurizing
2. AUTORADIOGRAPHY
A radioisotope picture-taking technique is called autoradiography, or "self picture taking".
Autoradiography combines tracer and radiographic methods; that is, radiation from a tracer is
used to expose a photographic film. Suppose you want to know how the chemicals in an
experimental fertilizer are distributed through a growing plant. You could add a radioisotope of
phosphorus to the fertilizer and feed this to the plant. Then after a few days you could place
leaves or roots of the plant on a sensitive photographic plate. The radioisotope that had been
absorbed in the plant would expose portions of the film by its radiation. Similarly, metallurgical
samples can be exposed to tritium gas and the specimen’s auto- radiography to give infor-
mation about the effects of stretching, surface cracking, porosity, and other surface
characteristics, because the gas collects in surface irregularities. Other applications Employing
Autoradiography include; 1.Studying the distribution of carbon impurities in zirconium and
zirconium-base alloys. 2. Measuring the absorption of ions from water solutions on the surface
of metals.3. Investigating the mobility of carbon in steels under the influence of electric
currents.4. Determining the effect of passivating agents such as chromates, phosphates, and oil
additives on the corrosion of metals.
5. Studying the effect of vulcanization on sulfur distribution in synthetic rubber.
6. Locating inclusions and grain boundary segregation in metals.
3. ISOTOPE DILUTION.
Many biologically important substances, such as vitamins, hormones, and enzymes, are very
complex organic chemical molecules or mixtures. With radioactive tracers, complex substances
can be analyzed by the process known as isotope dilution. An analysis of the amount of vitamin
B12 in a sample of mixed vitamins may be made in the following manner: 1. Prepare a pure
sample of vitamin B12 containing radioactive cobalt as a tracer. Determine the amount of
radioactivity in a given weight of the sample. 2. Add the radioactive tracer-tagged B12 to a
known amount of the vitamin mixture that you want to analyze. 3. Mix tracer and vitamins
thoroughly. 4. Take a sample of the mixture. 5. Separate a small amount of the vitamin B12
from the mixture and purify it. 6. Determine the weight of this new sample and its radio-
activity. The activity of the new sample of vitamin B12 per unit of weight will not be as high as
that of the original sample because it has been diluted with the vitamin B12 in the mixture. You
can then calculate how much vitamin B12 must have been in the original mixture to cause the
change in the amount of the radioactivity of the tracer. Isotope Dilution Analysis can also be

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used in; Determining sulfur content of petroleum liquids after desulfurizing, phosphorus
content of steel during open-hearth production and sulfate concentrations in chromium plating
solutions.
Routinely assaying for vitamin B2 and vitamin D during drug manufacture.
Continuously measuring acid-olefin ratios in alcohol.
Measuring the solubility of wax in milk and orange juice.
4. RADIATION PROCESSING
The largest quantity of radioisotopes used in industry is in the preparation of radioactive
sources for radiation processing. Radiation from these sources is used for various purposes,
such as catalyzing chemical reactions, sterilizing medical supplies, and preserving food. The
weight of a radioisotope used in a processing source may be about two pounds. Chemical
reactions can be made to occur more cheaply with the aid of radiation and that sometimes the
changes so induced are better than those made in other ways. When radiation strikes a
mixture of chemicals, small molecules may combine to make larger units or molecules that
are already large may be bent or even broken. Chemical engineers are now using gamma
radiation to make ethyl bromide, an important chemical used in the manufacture of drugs. Two
simple gases, ethylene and hydrogen bromide, are mixed in a large tank. In the center of the
tank is a cobalt-60 source. Its radiation makes the two gases combine to form a liquid, which is
taken out of the container through a pipe. Not only is the new process more economical than a
former method, but the ethyl bromide it produces is purer. Wool, a very complex molecule, is
improved by small amounts of radiation. When cotton, another very complex molecule, is
joined to a simple organic chemical by radiation, an improvement of the fibers results.
Polyethylene, a good plastic for packaging, is often wrapped around food and shrunk into place
with heat. Ordinary polyethylene is too weak to be handled this way. If it is treated with just the
right amount of radiation, however, some of the molecules break and combine with others to
make the plastic strong. A spoon made from irradiated plastic does not become misshapen in
hot water Wood may be made harder and therefore more useful by soaking it in a simple
chemical and irradiating the soaked piece so that the chemical molecules combine between the
wood fibers to make a plastic. The beauty of the wood is unchanged. In the food industry
radiation may be used in three ways: (1) to prevent sprouting of root crops, such as potatoes,
(2) to eliminate insects from gram before storage, and (3) to pasteurize food, that is, to kill
most, but not all, micro- organisms on it.* Some food processors are irradiating bacon so that it
may be kept for a long time without refrigeration. Usually food processing takes the form of
pasteurization; that is, it is exposed to enough radiation to prevent spoilage for weeks or
months but is not completely sterilized, since this might tend to change the flavor. Complete
sterilization is needed to sterilize hypodermic syringes, pharmaceuticals and surgical sutures by
irradiation. The radiation does not destroy the protective wrappers on the sutures as moist-
heat sterilization sometimes does. In an Australian plant, goat hair is irradiated to destroy the
harmful anthrax bacterium before the hair is sold for making cloth or rugs.
5. APPLICATIONS IN METALLURGY.
1. Investigating role of hydrogen in metals as it applies to defects in porcelain enamels
2. Studying the mechanism of corrosion inhibitors and the mechanism of passivation of iron by
chromates.
3. Determining moisture content of oxide films and sulfur content and extent of migration in

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steel
4. Investigating interaction of various metals and alloys with materials at refractory
construction
5. Measuring sodium diffusion in pot lining of electrolytic cells
6. Studying dendrite formation and the kinetics of slag metal reactions
7 .Determining mode of action and efficiency of scavengers
8 .Investigating effect of hydrogen sulfide on steel corrosion
9. Studying the diffusion of carbon in steel alloys and nickel in aluminum —nickel alloys
10. Determining the origin of nonmetallic occlusions in steel

APPLICATIONS IN ACTIVATION ANALYSIS .

1. determining the amount of impurities, such as manganese, nickel, and copper in ultra-
high-purity silicon and the retention of selenium in glass to which it had been added as a
decolorizer.
2. Measuring the amount of iridium in steel and the presence of toxic concentrations of
beryllium dust.
3. Investigating the structure of failed components of rotating machinery.

6. APPLICATIONS IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.

Detection of Inaccessible Material; 1. Locating a stuck earner in a pneumatic message-tube
system. 2. Measuring piston-ring rotation during engine operation. 3. Determining residence
time of wood chips in a pulp digester.
Nondestructive Location of Material; 1. Determining carbon dioxide absorption on vacuum
tube sections. 2. Measuring the buildup of combustion residues inside an engine. 3.
Determining the fit of flush rivets by labeling penetrating oil.

7. RADIATION HAS ENERGY

The radiations from unstable nuclei have considerable energy, and it is not difficult to convert
this energy to heat and electricity. When gamma rays or alpha or beta particles are stopped by
being absorbed in a dense material, the energy is converted to heat, which can be transformed
to electricity with thermo- couples. This property is the basis of radio isotopic power. In the
figure below it shows how a nuclear reactor(a casing for a nuclear reaction to take place) can
be used to heat water which then turn into steam so as to run a turbine and hence to generate
usable energy. The one below is a water pressurized nuclear reactor scheme.

8. NUCLEAR REACTORS IN PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN, AMMONIA AND DESALINATION.

Around the world, approximately a quarter of the energy demand is attributed to the

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transportation sector. [1] In order to address problems such as the fossil fuel resource
depletion and a country's dependence on imported petroleum, the idea of hydrogen serving as
a transportation fuel has become popular over the years due to its efficiency and versatility of
use. [2] However, the majority of hydrogen is currently generated from natural gas, leading to
significant carbon dioxide emission in the chemical process. [3] As a result, researches have
been devoted to identify other potential energy sources for hydrogen production to mitigate
climate change. One of the existing solutions is hydrogen production from nuclear reactors. In
comparison with other hydrogen schemes, the nuclear reactor emits zero greenhouse gas, and
is capable of supporting large-scale hydrogen production consistently. [2]

Fig. 1: Nuclear reactor system, involving thermo chemical process as the hydrogen production
method. [4]
The fundamental concept behind nuclear-hydrogen system is to use the heat of the reactors to
generate hydrogen via thermo chemical or electrochemical processes. In other words, a hydro-
gen production plant is combined with an advanced nuclear power plant, which acts as a heat
source in driving the chemical reactions. The hydrogen produced in turn is used to produce
ammonia. Heat from nuclear reactors can be used directly, instead or as well as being used to
generate electricity. This heat can be used for district heating, as process heat for industry or
for desalination plants, used to make clean drinkable water from seawater.
9. CONSUMER PRODUCTS
The function of many common consumer products is dependent on the use of small amounts of
radioactive material. Smoke detectors, watches & clocks, and non-stick materials, among
others, all utilize the natural properties of radioisotopes in their design.
One of the most common uses of radioisotopes today is in household smoke detectors. These
contain a small amount of americium-241 which is a decay product of plutonium-241
originating in nuclear reactors. The Am-241 emits alpha particles which ionize the air and allow
a current between two electrodes. If smoke enters the detector it absorbs the alpha particles
and interrupts the current, setting off the alarm.
10. ENVIRONMENTAL TRACERS
Radioisotopes play an important role in detecting and analyzing pollutants. Nuclear techniques
have been applied to a range of pollution problems including smog formation, sulphur dioxide
contamination of the atmosphere, sewage dispersal from ocean outfalls, and oil spills.
11. WATER RESOURCES
Adequate potable water is essential for life. Yet in many parts of the world fresh water has

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always been scarce. Isotope hydrology techniques enable accurate tracing and measurement of
the extent of underground water resources. Such techniques provide important analytical tools
in the management and conservation of existing supplies of water and in the identification of
new sources. They provide answers to questions about origin, age, and distribution of
groundwater, as well as the interconnections between ground and surface water, and aquifer
recharge systems. The results permit planning and sustainable management of these water
resources. For surface waters they can give information about leakages through dams and
irrigation channels, the dynamics of lakes and reservoirs, flow rates, river discharges, and
sedimentation rates. Neutron probes can measure soil moisture very accurately, enabling
better management of land affected by salinity, particularly in respect to irrigation.
12. INSPECTION
Radioactive materials are used to inspect metal parts and the integrity of welds across a range
of industries. Industrial gamma radiography exploits the ability of various types of radiation to
penetrate materials to different extents. Gamma radiography works in much the same way as
X-rays screen luggage at airports. All that is needed to produce effective gamma rays is a small
pellet of radioactive material in a sealed titanium capsule.
The capsule is placed on one side of the object being screened, and some photographic film is
placed on the other side. The gamma rays pass through the object and create an image on the
film. Just as X-rays show a break in a bone, gamma rays show flaws in metal castings or welded
joints. The technique allows critical components to be inspected for internal defects without
damage. Radioisotopes have the supreme advantage that they can be taken to the site when an
examination is required – and no power is needed. However, they cannot be simply turned off,
and so must be properly shielded both when in use and at other times.
The process of gamma radiography, a type of non-destructive testing (NDT), is used to validate
the integrity of poured concrete and welds on fluid vessels, pipelines, or critical structural
elements. The unique characteristics of gamma radiography have resulted in the technique
becoming a crucial tool throughout many industries. For example, to inspect new oil or gas
pipelines, special film is taped over the weld around the outside of the pipe. A machine called a
'pipe crawler' carries a shielded radioactive source down the inside of the pipe to the position
of the weld. There, the radioactive source is remotely exposed and a radiographic image of the
weld is produced on the film. This film is later developed and examined for signs of flaws in the
weld. Wear Study in the areas of; 1. Measuring the wear of rollers in engine-gear boxes on
farm machinery. 2. Determining the life of switches in automobile backup lights.
3 Measuring the erosion wear of water on turbine blades in a hydroelectric plant
4 Evaluating the influence of various molding compounds on the wear of steel molds used in
forming plastic radio and television cabinets
5. Determining the wear resistance of various kinds of floor waxes
6 Studying contact wear of distributor points in process design

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7. Measuring piston-ring wear in refrigerator compressors

8. Studying corrosion wear in gas-fired thermoelectric generators
Applications in Measurement include;
1. Measuring the amount of mine seepage industrial waste and effluent flowing into rivers lakes
and measuring the flow of solid dispersions
2. Studying the flow of glass lubricant in the hot extrusion of stainless steel.
3. Measuring the transport late of sponge iron flowing from a continuous ore-reduction unit.
4. Measuring flow rates in various petroleum refining and processing operations.
5. Analyzing the flow of gas through an air-filter system.
6. Studying the economics of pneumatic and hydraulic conveying of fine coal.
7. Determining the movement and distribution of "mud" in sugar thickeners.
12.INSTRUMENTATION AND GAUGES.
Gauges containing radioactive (usually gamma) sources are in wide use in all industries where
levels of gases, liquids, and solids must be checked.
They measure the amount of radiation from a source which has been absorbed in materials.
These gauges are most useful where heat, pressure, or corrosive substances, such as molten
glass or molten metal, make it impossible or difficult to use direct contact gauges.
The ability to use radioisotopes to accurately measure thickness is widely used in the
production of sheet materials, including metal, textiles, paper, plastics, and others. Density
gauges are used where automatic control of a liquid, powder, or solid is important, for example
as in detergent manufacture. Radioisotope instruments have three advantages:
1.Measurements can be made without physical contact to the material or product being,
increasing the envelope of operating environments and decreasing inspection time.
2. Very little maintenance of the isotope source is necessary.
3. The cost/benefit ratio is excellent – many instruments pay for themselves within a few
months through the time savings they facilitate.
There are two broad types of nucleonic gauges used in industry: fixed and portable. Fixed
gauges are typically used in production facilities – mines, mills, and oil and gas platforms – as a
means of controlling and monitoring quality from a production process. For example, fixed
nucleonic gauges are sometimes deployed to determine conditions within separator vessels
and to monitor residual oil content within separated gas streams.
Nucleonic gauges are also used in the coal industry. The height of the coal in a hopper can be
determined by placing high energy gamma sources at various heights along one side with
focusing collimators directing beams across the load. Detectors placed opposite the sources
register the breaking of the beam and hence the level of coal in the hopper. Such level gauges
are among the most common industrial uses of radioisotopes.
Some machines which manufacture plastic film use radioisotope gauging with beta particles to
measure the thickness of the plastic film. The film runs at high speed between a radioactive

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source and a detector. The detector signal strength is used to control the plastic film thickness.
In paper manufacturing, beta gauges are used to monitor the thickness of the paper at speeds
of up to 400 m/s. When the intensity of radiation from a radioisotope is being reduced by
matter in the beam, some radiation is scattered back towards the radiation source. The amount
of 'backscattered' radiation is related to the amount of material in the beam, and this can be
used to measure characteristics of the material. This principle is used to measure different
types of coating thicknesses.
13. FERTILIZERS.
Fertilizers are expensive and if not properly used can damage the environment. It is important
that as much used fertilizer as possible is “fixed” in the plant matter and that a minimum is lost
to the environment. 'Labeling' fertilizers with a particular isotope (e.g. nitrogen-15) provides a
means of ascertaining how much has been taken up by the plants, allowing for better
management of fertilizer use.
14. FOOD
Some 25-30% of food harvested is lost as a result of spoilage before it can be consumed. This
problem is particularly prevalent in hot, humid countries.
Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to gamma rays to kill bacteria that can
cause food-borne disease, and to increase shelf life. In all parts of the world there is growing
use of irradiation technology to preserve food. In addition to inhibiting spoilage, irradiation
can delay ripening of fruits and vegetables to give them greater shelf life, and it also helps to
control pests. Its ability to control pests and reduce required quarantine periods has been the
principal factor behind many countries adopting food irradiation practices.
15. OIL MARKING.
At the refinery radioisotopes are used to follow the flow of material through various processes.
Later, after the products (gasoline, light oils, motor oils) are separated by refining the crude oil,
these may be tested with radioisotopes in the company laboratory. Information from these
tests helps the company operate more efficiently. Finally, oil is commonly shipped long
distances through pipelines. Several companies often use the same pipeline, just as cattlemen
use the same range for their herds. Cattle can be distinguished by their brands, but different oil
batches ordinarily look alike. However, oil can also be "branded" by tagging the leading edge of
each batch in the pipeline with a very small amount of radioisotope. Some of the isotope
precedes company A's oil, for example, as it moves along, and another tracer is carried along
ahead of company B's shipment. When the oil reaches the "corral- ling" area.
16. TRACERS IN “CAT CRACKERS”
Crude petroleum are essentially a mixture of a number of materials, such as gasoline, kerosene,
motor oils, and greases. Chemical engineers found that heavier oils, much like those used in the
crankcase of an automobile, can be broken down in a device known as a catalytic cracker (or
"cat cracker") to make more gasoline. A cat cracker consists of three parts: a reactor, a stripper,

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and a regenerator. The petroleum oil and a powdery catalyst, usually a silica—alumina mixture
with a large surface area, are mixed together in the reactor at about 900°F.These crackers are
gigantic pieces of equipment. To make a cracker work at its highest efficiency, engineers must
know how the catalyst is moving through each section. Radioisotopes are effective for this
determination. Usually a gamma-ray-emitting isotope, such as scandium- 46, is added to the
catalyst. Then a small amount of this radioactive-tracer-tagged catalyst is admitted to the
reactor, and from samples taken at various points in the strip- per and regenerator it is possible
to tell quickly how fast the catalyst moves from one vessel to the next.
18. SOAP, SOLVENTS, AND MISSILES.
Companies that make soap or detergents are interested in how effectively their products will
remove dirt from soiled clothes. Although it has been difficult to make radioactive "dirt" for
testing that is as good as the real dirt normally found on clothes, some fairly good substitutes
have been developed. Radioactive "dirt" is washed from clothes with new soap products, and
the dirty water is examined with instruments to measure the amount of radioisotope
removed. One of the dangers in missile and rocket operations is the possibility of accidentally
contaminating liquid oxygen (LOX) with grease, dirt, or residual fuel before mixing it with the
new fuel in the ignition chamber. This contamination may cause premature ignition; even the
slightest trace of fuel in the oxygen lines can cause an explosion. One missile manufacturer
tagged his usual fuel with a radio-isotope, and the oxygen lines were deliberately contaminated
with it. Then various cleaning compounds were used in the system. Any fuel remaining in the
lines was revealed by its radioactivity.

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