Relationship between education and psychology

Education and psychology are interdependent. One psychologist said that I did not
understand how a teacher could teach with out the knowledge of education Psychology.
Psychology had changed the spirit of education and it gives new meaning to learning in
classroom.
Psychology also changed the old concept of education where only upper class had the
ability and right to learn. Psychology gives education the theory of individual differences that
every child has different mental ability and learns with different pace.
Today in modern era, education psychology is the foundation of education. Psychology
effect education in every filed of teaching learning process.

· Psychologist suggest use of different methods in teaching learning process to achieve

better result
· Psychologist emphasis on Motivation and readiness in class room
· Psychology introduce new theories of learning in education
· Psychology emphasis on activity base teaching learning process
· Use of Visual Aid in teaching learning process
· Psychology is the study of human behavior while Education is the process of modifying
human behavior so both deal with human behavior in different ways.
· Educational psychology deals with educational problems
· General psychology deals with different problems other then education

Psychology and teacher

• Psychology enhance the vision of teacher to understand the mental status of his students
• Psychology help teacher to evaluate his student, to measure his achievements
• With the help of psychology teacher understand the weakness of his students and with the
help of psychology he find solution for that problem
• Psychology bring change in the attitude of the teacher toward his students
• Psychology introduce new mental test through which teacher evaluate the students
• Psychology produce new theories of learning for better education
• With the help of psychology teacher learn to modify the behavior of a students
• Psychology teach teacher why a Child behaves in a certain situation differently than other
• What teacher need to do to change a negative behavior to a positive one

Untrained Teacher

• Without proper training, a teacher could not understand the psychology of the child and his
problems, what the possibilities are and why the child is not learning. A train teacher could
understand the problem and eradicate it.

Educational Psychology and Curriculum

A good curriculum is that, which stimulate the constructive potentialities of the students and
which is prepared according to their needs. The curriculum should be according to the
mental level of the students;
• What to teach and how to teach?
• Prepare the curriculum according to the needs of the students and society
• Preparing curriculum from easy to difficult approach
• Psychology stress on individual difference, therefore curriculum should be flexible for all
the learner in the class room

Education Psychology and Evaluation

Educational psychology has introduced different types of tests and examinations and derived
scientific measurement for intelligence, Personality education etc these tests disclose the
weak points of aptitude of the students and for this purpose help from statistical principles
has been taken. Psychology bring new methods of Evaluation in education;

• Evaluation of child IQ (* Intelligence test )

• Evaluate the factor of slow learning in the class room situation
• Personality test
• Attitude and interest Test
• The Stanford-binet scale of intelligence test
The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a standardized test that assesses intelligence and
cognitive abilities in children and adults aged two to twenty three years, determining the
presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay.

Educational Psychology and Method of Teaching:

If the teacher teaches his students according to the interest and mental development of the
students, they will like it and will learn it easily. The teacher should teach according to their
mental level. Audio visual aids in the educational Processes are also the result of
educational psychology. Education process is also the result of educational psychology.

Education Psychology and Guidance and Counseling

Many students have many problems in education, society and emotions, which have to be
guided. Psychologist provide guidance in such conditions and for this purpose child
guidance clinics have been opened in school in developed countries

What are the duties of Guidance Counselor?

• Psychologist emphasis that every schools should have a guidance counselor

• To evaluate problematic child and rectify his problem
• To prepare reports on the mental state of such students
• To provide help to the teacher to understand students behavior
• One psychologist says I don't understand how a teacher could teach without the knowledge
of education psychology

Educational Psychology and Different Stages of Growth

According to growth, the personality and mental ability of an individual can be divided into
different stages i.e. child hood and adult hood etc. during these stages the mental maturity is
at different stages. Psychologists consider that if the reaching process is according to these
different stages it will be easily learnt. Different methods of teaching are used at different
stages. This is impossible without proper knowledge of psychology.

Educational Psychology and Development of Personality

To build up the personality of an individual is the aim of education. To study the stimuli and
responses of personality demerits and their causes in personality and reforms of personality
is impossible without proper knowledge of psychology.

Educational Psychology and Social Adjustment

Educational psychology has shown factors effect in social adjustment and indorsed
principles which lead a man to adjustment of the society.

Educational Psychology and Learning

Learning is the basic topic of educational psychology. From the meaning of learning, up to
the laws of learning. Different topics have been highlighted by psychology, which have made
the process of education very easy, interesting and pleasant.

Educational Psychology and Mental Health

Educational psychology has pointed out the factors affecting mental health of the Students. If
these principles are not regulated the students can not adjust themselves in the society.
Mental retardation is created due to bad environment, improper food, and emotional and
social needs. To produce hygienic mental conditions is the work of only a psychologist.

Educational Psychology and Children of Special Attention

Physically disable students have many educational, emotional and social problems. To lead
them to a successful life and eradicate their psychological problems, Psychologist helps
them to become a useful part of the society.

Educational Psychology and School Organization

According to psychologist a school must have, democratic environment to help the students
to develop balanced personalities. The social environment in school can be an effective tool
to allow the students to develop a number of qualities such as self confidence, leadership,
cooperation and healthy competition, decision making, problem solving and good citizenship.

In the school, students can face a number of problems related to their social, emotional or
Physical development. Educational psychology also has a great role in helping the students
through various types of guidance and counseling.

Educational psychology is also helpful by supporting the curricular as well as co-curricular

and extracurricular activities in schools.
 TYPES OF CURRICULUM

Keywords:Subject Based Curriculum; Integrated curriculum; Learner centered

curriculum; Activity/Experience curriculum; Teacher Centered curriculum;Hidden curriculum;

There are many types of curriculum design, but here we will discuss only the few. Types or
patterns are being followed in educational institutions.
 Subject curriculum
 Teacher Centered curriculum
 Learner centered curriculum
 Activity/Experience curriculum
 Integrated curriculum
Core curriculum
Board field curriculum
Hidden curriculum
Subject Based Curriculum
Subject matter is the most used and accepted curriculum Design, it is also the oldest
curriculum Design. We see the earliest example in the medieval era in the Middle Ages the
monastery and Cathedrals and the organizations of the seven liberal arts in the schools of
ancient Greece and Rome. The seven liberal arts were consisted of two divisions:
1. Trivium
2. Quadrivium
These subjects were broad. In the modern period the Trivium was further divided to include
literature and history and the quadrivium to include algebra, trigonometry, geography,
botany, zoology, physics and chemistry. In this manner subjects added one after the other
so much so that in 1930 there were over 300 different subjects.
After centuries the curriculum design of the seven liberal arts are still the nucleus of the
subject curriculum. In a subject base curriculum every subject is separate unit. In this kind of
curriculum four or five subject are placed in curriculum and each subject has a separate
teacher. Every teacher try to teach his own subject, no one intervene in the subject of other
teacher

Characteristics of Subject Curriculum

Information for future use
Importance is given to acquire knowledge and information for future use, only those
subjects are considered important which have a value and the individual have benefit
from it in future (vocational importance). Adult problems are given importance and the
problems of children in youth are ignored
Progress is measured to the extent the students learned the subject
In this type of curriculum subject matter is the most important thing to learn therefore the
learning is measured by how much and well the subject matter has been mastered by the
pupil. Frequent tests are given to students to check the degree of the achievement in the
subject.
Predetermined uniform standard of knowledge:
There is a uniform standard for all the students to pass the subject else they well have to
repeat the subject therefore the experts of the subject centered approach strongly support
the minimum standards for examination so all achieved the set standard and qualify the
examination. The teacher tries to help the weak students and to bring him to the set
standard and pass the exam or repeat a grade.
 Each subject is a separate entity (unit) with a logical organization of its own:
Importance is given to the acquisition of skills, facts and information for vocational purpose in
different logically organized subjects. The teaching staff teaches different subjects and they
do not discuss or plan subject together.

Practice in skills is emphasized:

The main aspect of subject base curriculum is the continues practice or drill in a specific skill,
it is one of the typical characteristics of the subject base curriculum. For this purpose
multiple methods are used; evaluations, Exercise session, tutoring classes are often
dedicated to such type of practices and all the students are given equal opportunities to
participate.
Subject matter is selected by adults/experts for teaching learning situation:
The content of the subject is selected in advance before the teaching learning process; the
subject matter is logically organized from simple to complex with the help of the experts,
specialists, teacher’s supervisors, planners, writers and administrators.
Learning subject matter is an end in itself:
The main focus of the teachers, administrators and students are to complete the
subject matter, to cover all the topics which are provided in the course out line by
Listening to lectures, studying the recommended textbook. It is all preparation for
examination on the part of students and teachers and it shows the influence of the
subject centered approach. For the teacher to finish the textbook on time is a great
accomplishment,

Requirements for the Optimum Operation of Subject Curriculum

 Trained Teachers with mastery in a subjects and expert in methodology are required to
teach.
 A separate classroom for each subject and each level.
 A fixed time table is required for different subjects according to importance of the
subjects and age in curriculum.
 Special arrangements for guidance physical education, Indoor and outdoor activities,
tours and examinations etc.
Need of Text books and guide books for subject base curriculum.
Criticism on Subject Curriculum:
Teacher has the control over pupil experiences, Learning activities and conduct. The teacher
follows the decision of others in the planning and evaluation process. The teacher and
headmaster formulate the rules for the classrooms management. They demand a very stern
discipline and they want a quite classroom atmosphere, teacher thinks it is the best situation
for teaching learning process.
1. It is compartmentalized and fragmentary.
The critics believed that there is no unity and continuity in the subject base matter. The
subject is learned in parts. Every teacher is specialist in one subject and he feel pride to
have the knowledge of his own subject and teaching and denying any responsibility for any
other subject. Here they say that the learner acquire scraps of information not actual
knowledge.
2. Subject base curriculum ignores the interest and activities of the learner. The critics
think that the arrangement of the course content is useless and inefficient and not suitable
for teaching learning process. The subjects are logically organized.
3. The critics also have a viewpoint that the fact is the students know about the
history what a few men had done in the past but they do not know about the current situation
in their own country and what are the hopes and desires of Pakistani people and what are
the social problems they have today here .
1. The critics also said that subject base curriculum fails to develop habits of
effective and critical thinking. This curriculum gives importance to mastery of
conclusions of thought (the end result) rather than the process through which that
conclusion were derived. Which support this conclusion that it lead to uncritical
thinking? The traditional assumption is that anybody who has learned the facts and
information can think effectively, but the evidence does not support this assumption.
Defense of Subject Curriculum:
Defense of Subject Curriculum
1. The supporter of the subject base curriculum rejects the claim that it did not
develop child’s thinking. They argue that it is the most suitable method for the
development of critical thinking in an individual but if one cant then the problem lies in
the instruction not in the curriculum itself. A vast majority of countries select this
method and they are producing botanist, doctors and geologist and so on.
2. The other claim that it is fragmentary and compartmentalized is also not true about subject
base curriculum alone because no one can study one subject in one session at once in any
kind of curriculum. They use the principle of selection in the selection of course contents. In
a sense anything that is learnt is a fragment and is a part of some larger unit.
3. It gives the teacher the idea what to teach and the student what he suppose to learn and
how much time they have to cover the course of the subject. This provides them with a
constant source of security and a self evaluation process through which they know how
much course they have cover and how to complete.
4. Subject base curriculum use a logically sound framework for the organization of subject
matter, it used the cause and effect principle in science and the chronological order of the
historical events but they assumed an order and are reliable for learning experiences
5. The evaluation of subject base curriculum is easy. It use the achievement based testing in
the evaluation to find the mastery of the subject matter in the individual.
6. It has a bright future. Subject approach is useful for specialization in any branch of
knowledge. It is more effective.

Learner-Centered Curriculum
The supporters of learner-centered Curriculum give importance to individual development
and they wants to organize the curriculum according to the needs and interest of learners,
there are fundamental differences in this approach and the subject-centered design.
This movement from the traditional curriculum towards a programme that stresses the
interests and needs of students, This approach was used by Rousseau in the education of
Emile, then Dewy in his laboratory School in 1896-1904. it is believed that all of these
twentieth-century efforts reflect, the influence of Dewey.
it is a fundamental principle of education that the beginning of each instruction it shall be
connected with the previous experience of learners. The purpose is that the experience and
the capacities that have been developed in early lessons, it should provide a starting point
for further learning. The current importance given to student-centered programmes may not
always acknowledge the Dewey’s philosophy and influence on the movement to incorporate
more student-serving learning opportunities into the curriculum.
The association for the Advancement of Progressive Education formed in 1919, had its aim
“The development of the individual, based upon the scientific study of his mental, physical,
spiritual, and social characteristics and needs”. The views of this association, later called the
Progressive Education Association (PEA), were compatible with the ideas of Dewey’s as
indicated by their principles:
 1. Freedom to develop naturally.
2. Interest is the motive of all work.
3. The teacher is a guide, not a task-master.
4. Scientific study of pupil development.
5. Greater attention to all that affects the child’s physical development.
6. Co-operation between school and home to meet the needs of child-life.
7. The progressive school a leader in educational movement.
The aim of using the learner-centered curriculum on the part of curriculum planners to
interpret the needs and interests design as one based on common needs and interests of
learners rather than on those of the particular population to be served. Reflected in
curriculum plans, this interpretation could and sometimes did, become the rationale for
teaching. Research on learner centered curriculum in recent years made it possible for
curriculum planners to develop a better learner-centered curriculum. Modern learning
theories and dissatisfaction of students and parents from the old curriculum, are moving
curriculum and instruction toward a design that focus on real student needs and interests.
a. Characteristic:
the curriculum design on the needs and interests of student has these characteristic and
features.
1. The curriculum plan is based on knowledge of learner’s needs and interests
in general and diagnosis the specific needs and interests of the population served by
the plan.
2. The curriculum plan is flexible, to accept new modification to conform to the
needs and interests of particular learner’s In fact, in some curriculum designs the
learner may develop his or her own curriculum plan with the guidance of a teacher.
3. The learner is consulted and tutored individually at difficult points in the curriculum and
instructional process.
Learner centered approach is an example of the applications of needs and interests
(activities) approach. Subject obstacles were lowered or removed as teachers combined
subjects to study social problems identified by students.
Students in the experimental schools were more successful in college. This practice has
ever lasting effect on secondary education.
a. Applications of learner Centered Curriculum:
If the learning opportunities are not based on the needs and interests of the learners then
there is no assurance that the learners well equipped with the skills to participate effectively
in social activities; students as adults and good citizens. Therefore we see that the needs
and interests design as especially appropriate for the personal development, but not for the
social competence domain.
The most common approach to meet the needs and interests of learners is the grouping of
students for special programmes believed by the planners to match the needs and interests
of the students concerned.
The major use of the needs and interests design in curriculum planning is in the provision of
options for individual students. For example, the middle schools provide many special
interests activate, exploratory courses and other experiences aimed at giving each student
opportunities to explore his own interest.
Currently the movement in higher education and expansion of it by “Open University”
arrangements illustrates the feature of the needs and interests design. Drunker (1969)
argues for continuing education which assumes “that the more experience in life and work
people have, the more eager they will be to learn and the more capable they will be of
learning.
Curriculum plans emphasizing the option concept:
 1. The options are based on knowledge of learner characteristic.
2. Scheduling and other arrangements facilitate, selection and choice of
options, with counseling services available to help students.
3. Students are actively involved in planning and evaluating the options in
general and for themselves in particular.
Activity Based Curriculum:
The Activity Based Curriculum is also called project curriculum or an experience curriculum
but the name activity is a fundamental conception. Activity Curriculum has a long history.
The title “Activity Curriculum”, however, did not come into general use before 1920, although
Dewey used the expression “Activity Programme” as early as 1897 in a talk to the parents
and teachers at his laboratory school in Chicago (U.S.A). Activity is the natural urge of the
child. He wants to do things by himself. When curricular material is translated in terms of
activity, it is known as activity curriculum. Learning of the prescribed material takes place
through activities. Activity is used as a media or means for imparting knowledge and skills.
Activity is the greatest motivation for child. he enjoys the freedom of expressing his
potentialities during activities.
These activities should not merely be considered as physical activity but also intellectual
activity. The educator (teacher) should engage pupils in activities in such a way that while
manual skills are gained there should be mental satisfaction found in the work. The students
should not be passive listener they should be active participants in the process of learning.
True learning is experiencing, while activity is the process then experience becomes the
product of activity. Activity results in experience, in fact activity and experience cannot be
separated from each other. A purposeful activity must end in gainful experience. The school
must, therefore, plan its activities in such a way that students gain mastery on various
experiences. Such type of projects should be completed under a problematic situation in a
natural setting.
Characteristics of Activity Curriculum:
1. Children’s Interest Determines the Educational Programme:
The primary principle of the activity curriculum is that the interests and purposes of children
determine the educational programme. The basic principle of the activity programme refers
to the felt needs of children and not of adults. Because the educational programs are aimed
at doing something in the best interest of the children and not for an adults only. It is the task
of the teacher to discover these interests and to build educational activities upon them.
Whims (urges) must not be considered as basis of an educational programme. The interest
of the students must be carefully analyzed and then accepted, These intended courses of
actions are accepted after their consequences are reviewed. The subject matter is a mean of
fulfilling the purposes of an individual or a group and as a result of manipulating subject
matter children learn within the boundaries of group interests. The teacher’s responsibility is
to find out the interest of individual students and of the groups. He helps children to select
the most interesting activity for study; Building a cage for an animal, making preparation for
a field trip, gathering information on a current political affair, running a school store, planning
family budget
The Activity Curriculum is not planned in Advance:
The teacher discover the interests of students in group or individually. He guides the
students in the selections of activity and their interest among activities. He helps them to
plan and carry out these activities according to their interests. He also guides the individual
or group in assessing what they have accomplished in the process. This is the responsibility
of the teachers to make plans for himself how to guide the students and their activities in the
classrooms. Although teacher does not come into the classroom with a preplanned subject
matter. He does come with ideas and a background of experience of the students and their
interests. These are his working tools.
 Activities are Planned Co-operatively by Students and the Teacher:
The teacher and the students plan the activities cooperatively what needs to be done? And
how, first of all objectives are formulated with the help of the teacher, and then the class
students considers means of teaching the objectives e.g. a group has determined to improve
the beauty of its own classroom. The class may be divided into small groups so that students
can talk with their seat mates.
A student from each of these groups report to the total class. There should be ample
opportunity to organize for investigating, seeking information, selecting materials,
interviewing people and carrying on the activities needed to solve the problem, in each of
these steps the students take part in making decisions and they assume full responsibility for
it. Here the teacher is guide in the process of learning, he guide the students how to select
group leaders and how to make intelligent decisions. Most important is the quality of thinking
that goes in the group. There is a given and take of ideas in the group. The opinions of
different students in the group are evaluated by the students to select the best idea of all. It
is really a laboratory for learning group processes.
Problem solving is the Dominant Method of Activity Curriculum:
In the activity curriculum, the teaching learning process consists largely of problem solving.
In the pursuit of interests in the groups to complete an activity various difficulties will arise.
The teacher and his students are to find ways of overcoming these obstacles. As the
interests of children lead to problems requiring a great diversity of content so the subject
matter from almost every field of

Knowledge is used in the activity curriculum. But the subject matter is studied as a means of
solving problems and not as subject.
The Teacher Assists the Group as a Resource Person:
Here the teacher works as a guide and resource person. He serves to small groups, to
individual students. He sometimes leads the discussion to help the students to analyses the
problem. He works with them in improving their skills. He is a part of the total learning
situation rather than task master.

Practice and Individual Assistance are provided as needed:

In activity curriculum the need for practice grows out of the learning situation. As the
students show the need for working on spellings of certain words, or grammar, the teacher
gives them the opportunity to learn and practice these skills. If the students ask the teacher
to help them in writing a letter to invite a speaker, the teacher will not write the letter for
them, but he will guide them. He will work with them on the use of words and thus he will
encourage them to write a letter inviting the guest speaker.
a. Requirements for Optimum Operation of Activity Curriculum:
1. Training of Teachers:
Teachers should have a broad general education with specialized training in child and
adolescent development, guidance and methods of teaching.
1. Physical Features of the School:
Activity base curriculum needs spacious Building, grounds and classrooms to permit as
many activities as possible. Will light rooms and have ample facilities; for displaying and
decorations devised by children. The ample use of school grounds in addition to outdoor
class work and for other countless outdoor activities in which children may engage as they
follow their interests.
To complete these possibilities the school will require several times more space then they
have now.
Tentatively ten acres of land (one acre= 4940 sq. yards) would likely be the minimum to
meet the needs of an activity curriculum. To those critics who criticize the activity curriculum
as the most expensive pattern of curriculum organization, the advocates of an activity
programme will give a reply that there is no such thing as “a good cheap education:.

Teacher-Centered Curriculum:
Teachers participate in a variety of curriculum activities at classroom level. These are the
very core of their daily teaching tasks and include such activities as selection of specific
content, selection of teaching approach, use of audio-visual aids and so on. In recent years
teachers have become increasingly involved in a broader level of curriculum decision-
making such as involvement in major curriculum projects. It mostly involves few teachers,
although some teachers participate in syllabus committees.
At the school level, however, staff members are becoming more responsible for a vast array
of curriculum decision.
In countries where they have adopted teacher centered curriculum the schools have
considerably greater responsibility for curriculum development. In these schools teachers
have become involved, willingly or unwillingly, in more school-level curriculum decision-
making.
Regardless of the state in which one teaches, it has become obvious in recent years that all
teachers are participating more in curriculum decision-making at the school level. The nature
of this participation may be seen in the various roles that teachers adopt in the decision-
making process.
It is suggested that teachers may participate in any combination of curriculum decision-
making roles at the school level:
1. Implementers
2. Adapters
3. Developers
4. Researchers
5. Implementers.
As an ‘implementer’ or ‘receiver’, the teacher’s role is to apply the developed curriculum. In
this role the teacher has a minimum of responsibility and involvement in the curriculum
development phase of the curriculum process, though he has a significant role in the
application phase of this process.
1. Adapters.
As an adapter, the role of the teacher is just the same as implementer. This is somewhat
conceptual term which indicates that the teachers become ready to accept the curriculum in
order to implement it.
1. As a developer, the teacher’s role is to take part in the curriculum
development process. In Pakistan, some representative teachers are being invited to
attend various meetings held by the higher authorities in order to make contributions
in the curriculum development or curriculum evaluation process.
2. Researchers.
Curriculum is a dynamic process. Keeping in view this characteristic, there is a need to
conduct research in order to bring about desirable changes in the curriculum. Teachers in
most of the countries and also in Pakistan are taking part in various types of researches in
curriculum development process. The nature of these researches is.
i.To review the curriculum.
 ii.To evaluate the curriculum.
iii.To change the curriculum etc.
a. Advantages of Teacher’s centered Approach:
 As the curriculum is designed by the teacher, it become easy to achieve the desired goals.
 Subject matter become psychologically sound due to its relevance with interests, needs and
level of the children.
 Content/Subject matter is logically arranged.
 Irrelevant material/Subject matter is avoided.
 Teachers feel comfortable and confident in the classroom activities.
 Democracy is encouraged.
 Co-operation is developed.
 Society/Community is also involved (directly or indirectly) in the development of curriculum.
 No objection is raised by the teacher in connection with the availability of sources and
resources.
a. Limitations:
If this approach is followed in Pakistan then the following limitations may hinder the process.
 A change in the attitude on the part of learners, teachers and community is difficult to
develop.
 Lack of sources and resources.
 Hindrance due to rigid administration, planning and management.
 It will become difficult to maintain a common standard in various institutions.
 The existing curriculum for the teaching training institutions is not suitable for the teacher
centered approach.
 A drastic change in the examination system/evaluation will be required.

INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
Defining Integrated Curriculum
What exactly is integrated curriculum? In its simplest conception, it is about making
connections. What kind of connections? Across disciplines? To real life? Are the connections
skill-based or knowledge-based?
• Correlation may be as slight as casual attention to related materials in other subject areas .
. . a bit more intense when teachers plan it to make the materials of one subject interpret the
problems or topics of another
 Integration: the unification of all subjects and experiences.
Arguments for supporting integrated curriculum
There are two strong arguments supporting an integrated curriculum. First, there is simply
too much information to be covered in the traditional structure of a forty or fifty minute class
period. Secondly, most subjects are taught to students in isolation from other related
information. Advocates of an interconnected curriculum believe that individuals learn best
when encountering ideas that are connected to one another. A strong belief system exists
supporting that "all things are connected."
What do the critics say?
Critics of integrated curriculum have formulated several arguments against the idea;
 First, it is sometimes appropriate for information to be taught within the content area. Some
concepts run the risk of becoming confused when connected to unrelated subject matter.
 Secondly, most teachers have always been a part of a somewhat modernist method of
teaching. Therefore, implementing integrated curriculumbecomes increasingly more difficult.
 Third, critics claim that many teachers may lack knowledge and skills of the various
disciplines.
  Finally, a key criticism of integrated curriculum is assessment. Schools continue to struggle
with effective methods to assess student achievement in regard to higher level thinking and
deeper understanding. In order for integrated curriculum to replace traditional teaching
styles, the entire structure of the school needs to be change. Frankly, this is a change that
many modernist teachers are not willing to accept.
 The integrated curriculum approach is successful in making students more aware of content
area connections, challenging students, providing a learning environment, supporting
academic and social needs, dissolving the boundaries among the disciplines, and fostering
stronger student/teacher relationships.
 Components of Integrated Curriculum
 Focuses on basic skills, content and higher level thinking
 Encourages lifelong learning
 Structures learning around themes, big ideas and meaningful concepts
 Provides connections among various curricular disciplines
 Provides learners opportunities to apply skills they have learned
 Encourages active participation in relevant real-life experiences
 curiosity, motivates, and challenges learners
 Provides a deeper understanding of content
 Offers opportunities for more small
 Accommodates a variety of learning styles/theories (i.e., social learning theory, cooperative
learning, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy) and multiple intelligences
The organization of integrated curriculum is a post second world war occurrence. This
phenomenon gain greatest support in the 1960s. Based on the essential organization of
content, as in the subject design, the academic disciplines design emphasizes on the role
played by those diverse entities called academic disciplines. Thus it is clearly defined in
terms of knowledge, skills and values.
OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM IN PAKISTAN
1. The basic objective of integrated curriculum is to emphasize the learning and basic
language skills for the children of class’ I to III this would increase the literacy rate of the
country.
2. Reeducation of text books to one or two only so that the Teachers may focus their
attention on the improvement of language skills of the students and along with it they may be
able to impart the concept of other subjects.
3. In integrated curriculum, the mental level and interests of the children acquire the central
place which is the basic condition of acquiring knowledge.
4. Interesting textual material not only attracts the children but also provides opportunities to
groom up their mental abilities. Therefore efforts have been made to prepare the
integrated curriculum with the following comprehensive general objective.
5. The general objective of the integrated approach is to make a clear relation
between various subjects (having similar concepts) so that the learners may apply their
knowledge in real life situation.
 Curriculum Development Process
By Dr.Sultan Muhammad

Keywords: Situational analyses in Curriculum Development Process; Formulation of

objectives in Curriculum Development Process; Selection of content/Scope and sequence
in Curriculum Development Process;Methods/ Strategies/Actives in Curriculum Development
Process;Evolution in Curriculum Development Process; The judgmental process; The
analytical procedure; The consensual procedure;The experimental procedure

An effective programme can only be successful if it is organized properly. Curriculum being a backbone
of educational programme, needs proper designing. Tyler points out that, “It is important as a part of
comprehensive theory of organization to indicate just what kinds of elements will serve satisfactorily
as organizing elements. And in a given curriculum, it is important to identify the particular elements
that shall be used (Herrick and Tyler; 1950, P, 64).
The curriculum process consists mostly of five elements or phases.
3.1 Situational analyses.
3.2 Formulation of objectives.
3.3 Selection of content/Scope and sequence.
3.4 Methods/ Strategies/Actives.
3.5 Evolution.
3.1 Situational Analysis:
In order to follow any procedure of Curriculum Organization, the curriculum planners must know the
realities of the situation. The curriculum reflects the traditions, environment and ideals of the people of
concern society. The main purpose of education system is to adjust the curriculum to actual needs of
the society. Moreover one of the functions of curriculum is to preserve and transmit the cultural heritage.
Our cultural heritage is, in large measure, the tradition of our eastern civilization. Our language, our
social needs, our political and religious conditions must be considered while developing curriculum.
Some important aspects of existing situation are as follows:
1. Geographical condition of the country.
2. Religious condition.
3. Cultural and social needs.
4. Economical conditions.
5. Pattern of curriculum to be followed.
6. National and international trends.
7. Age, level and interests of the learners.
8. Teacher training programmers.
9. System of examinations etc.
 The identification of the above mentioned aspects help the planner in the selection of objectives,
selection and organization of material (learning) and in suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.
3.2 Formulation of Objectives:
The tasks of curriculum planners have to organize such a curriculum which helps in the achievement of
desired broad goals. These goals are primarily concerned with the international or national demands. In
order to reach these goals the experts (curriculum planners) have to state the aims which are related to
various fields of studies or subject areas. Then the problem arises to move from general aims to specific
instructional objectives of the classroom. The objectives are the initial targets to be achieved by the
teacher and learner in class-room. The achievement of these objectives ultimately leads the learner to-
wards various categories of life activate, such as:
 Citizenship: Participation in local, national, and world-wide civic, recreational, economic and religious
groups.
 Home responsibilities: helping each other, respecting the elders, rearing children physical health, mental
health and other related activities and experiences, such as food, rest, social and individual recreation.
 Vocational effectiveness: Ability to contribute to the economic assets of society and to be able to earn
livelihood.
 Continued learning: Intellectual and other interests such as ability to read, think, analyses, synthesize
and interpret effectively.
It is concluded that the curriculum must be the best possible selection and arrangement of stimuli to
experience, which will result in the maximum growth toward that kind of person who will function
effectively in the areas indicated by a sound statement of the objectives of education.
a. Validation of Educational Objectives:
The following general principles are to be kept in view while stating valid objectives for curriculum.
 Consistency with the ideology of a nation.
 Fulfillment of basic human needs.
 Consistency and non-contradiction of educational objectives.
 Behavioristic interpretation.
 Consistency with social condition.
 Democratic ideals/relationship.

1. Consistency with the ideology of a Nation:

Every nation has got certain ideological system. The ideology of Pakistan is based upon Islam. The
educational objectives in our country at all levels must be consistent to the teaching of Islam. The
validity of educational objectives in Pakistan largely depends upon their relationship with Quran and
Sunnah.
2. Fulfillment of basic human needs:
Man seeks to maintain himself in a state of equilibrium. The absence of equilibrium gives rise to an
impulse for example an imbalance called hunger gives rise to an impulse which becomes channeled in
search of food to restore the balance. The thing which is required to restore the equilibrium is termed
as need. Although all objectives are based ultimately upon some conception of human needs, there are
practical difficulties in using basic needs. Among the basic needs that have be4en identified are food,
clothing, shelter etc. The objectives must help in fulfillment of these needs.
3. Consistency and non-contradiction of education objectives:
 Educational objectives must be consistent and non-contradictory with one another. If one objective is
logically compatible with another, as teaching, the desirability of obedience in logically compatible
with teaching the students how to obey their elders, this relationship is consistent one.
In the same way if there is an objective in relation to inculcate certain Islamic value and at the same
time there is another objective which is to develop skill in the system of “Interest” and to apply it in life
situation, gives us an example of contradictory objectives.
It is therefore important that the curriculum workers set educational objectives keeping in view their
relationships.
4. Behaviouristic interpretation:
Objectives expressed in terms of student behavior are called as behavioral objectives. To make the
objectives valid, clear and achievable, the curriculum planners have to express these objectives as the
development of integrated personalities, self realization, economic efficiency, problem solving ability,
critical thinking, understanding of rights and responsibilities and appreciations are misunderstood until
they are expressed in terms of concrete and meaningful behavior. Objectives that are not put in terms
of human behavior are invalid.
5. Consistency with social conditions:
Since the objectives of an educational programme are derived from the culture, they will always be
related in some degree to the social circumstances. In a society that is undergoing little or no change,
objectives usually are closely related to conditions as they now are.
However, when a society ideas and practices tend to lag behind new ways of doing things. This is
because of the fact that personal contacts are reduced due to advancement of science and development
of technology in communication. Mass media of communication has grown. Computers are replacing
the manpower. These are new social realities. But the knowledge of the present state of affairs does not
necessarily mean that objectives formulated on the basic of these facts will be socially adequate.
Curriculum planners sometimes seek to avoid the danger they see in present day society by appealing
to ideals and virtues. They believe to be eternal or to belong to a historical period superior to the current
one. Hence the curriculum developers have to formulate such type of objectives which are valid with
respect to changing needs and those aspects of past culture which they feel essential to preserve as
heritage.
6. Democratic ideals relationship:
It is a well known fact that the democratic system permits the fulfillment of all the basic human needs
more completely than any other ideology. Form the practical point of view. Also, the important fact is
that the democratic ideology is the only one that can be used in validating educational objectives in
Pakistan.
Application of the democratic value system requires that the curriculum planners must relate the
objectives with the democratic values and principles. As the principles of democracy are very complex
so no condensed statements of these can be used effectively in the validation of educational objectives.
If the objectives are based upon critical thinking and effective reasoning, they can have a direct relation
with the democratic principal and can also be termed as valid.
3.3 Selection of Content/Scope and Sequence:
Selection of content means the selection of content for a subject. Traditionally, the Principal of complete
coverage was dominant. If a subject was to taught in the past, it was to be covered thoroughly.
As knowledge with in each subject field expanded the new topics were inserted into each subject,
gradually the number, weight and bulk of content become such that the achievement of total coverage
became difficult.
As a result of explosion of knowledge, the principal of coverage was modified by selecting
representative content topics from subject fields. Curricula are now constructed in that way. However
 the basis upon which representative topics are selected, varies from subject to subject. The common
principles of subject matter selection are as under:
 Curriculum organization must assimilate the best information from all sources.
 The subject matter if offered to the learners, the teachers must have information about psychology of that
age group. And if a teacher is teaching chemistry or biology, he must have knowledge and information
to integrate these subjects to a life situation.

a. General Principles of Subject Matter Selection

1. The course content selected, must be significant in the field of knowledge to which it belongs:
This is principle presupposes programme of studies consisting of specialized courses, with each course
being followed by a more advanced course.
2. The subject matter selected must possess the principle of survival:
Acceptance of the “Old and Tried” in due to the belief that the things that have come up from the past
are the product of generations and even centuries of experimentation. If such content is satisfying the
aspirations of mankind has been survived in spite of cultural and social changes, it is fulfilling the need
of the principle of survival.
3. The subject matter must have the principle of interest:
If the learners are motivated to learn more, if they take interest to get more and more knowledge in a
specific field, it means that the subject matter is interesting and it meets the principle of interest.
4. The content or subject matter must be utilized:
It means that the knowledge presented in any subject must be utilized in life situation otherwise it will
not help in achieving the desired goals.
5. The course content should contribute to the development of an Islamic society:
The content in each subject should help in the development of true Muslims i.e the subject matter in
various fields must equip the learners with the ideals, values and skills required for an Islamic society.
There should be no such content which is against our religion. Beside the above mentioned broad
principles, there are some more considerations for the curriculum organizers. i.e.
 Is the subject matter selected on the basis of its possible contribution to the objectives of the relevant
course?
 Is the subject-matter a mean to an end and not an end in itself?
 Dose the subject matter consist of a variety of physical and mental activities.
 Is the subject matter helpful in the development of creative abilities?
 Is the subject-matter divided into various units?
 Is there a logical sequence in various units of a subject?
 Dose the subject-matter demand active teaching-learning situation?

b. Procedure of Content Selection:

There are various procedures adopted for content selection. The most important procedures are:-
1. The judgmental procedure.
2. The analytical procedure.
 3. The consensual procedure.
4. The experimental procedure.

1. The judgmental procedure:

Since this procedure has not been reduced to a set of techniques, successful use of it depends upon the
point of view of the curriculum planner. If he is so occupied with the past that he cannot appreciate the
present, nor see its potentialities for the future, the judgment of curriculum planner will hardly lead to
the best selection of subject matter, the most objective selection of content by this procedure requires
that his interests, knowledge, and ideals rise above special social groups and is according to the common
good of people. Actually this procedure demands broad social vision.
2. The analytical procedure:
The analytical procedure is one of the most widely know method of content selection. It has been closely
identified with the criteria of utility. It consists of various techniques which can be followed to collect
information regarding subject matter selection. The techniques are:
i. Collecting information by conducting interviews.
ii. Collecting information with the help of questionnaires.
iii. Collecting information through documentary analysis.
iv. Collecting information by observing the performance of people.

3. The consensual procedures:

It is way of collecting people’s opinion about what they believe the curriculum should be. The results
of the consensual procedure are expressed in terms of the number of persons of a particular community
who recommend a specific content to be included in the curriculum. The persons whose opinions are to
be sought are selected because they are;
 Outstanding leaders in the fields of industry, business, agriculture etc.
 Experts and specialists such as physicians, engineers, teachers and artists etc.
 Representatives of the community the procedure adopted to collect, tabulate and interpret the data is just
like the scientific method.

3.4 Methods/Strategies/Activates:
This is the fourth important element of curriculum development process. The achievement of desired
objectives depends largely upon the methods adopted in the classroom. This phase includes:
1. Teacher’s activities.
2. Student’s activities.
The curriculum planners are supposed to suggest appropriate methods of teaching after suggesting the
subject matter. There are various methods of teaching such as lecture, lecture demonstration, problem
solving, project, programmed learning etc. All those methods which are based upon teacher’s delivery
only, considered to be ineffective. As learning is an active process so innovative approaches are to be
followed in order to initiate interest and develop creativeness among the youth.
Bases for Selecting Instructional Methods:
Within this wide array of teaching methods, teachers are faced with the problem of selecting the method
or methods which are most suited to a curriculum plan. As it is desirable to use a number of content
 organizing designs according to the objective, so it is in the selection of instructional methods. Some
important guidelines for the selection of instructional methods are given below:
1. Achievement of objectives:
Achievement of the instructional objectives is the first consideration in planning for teaching. The
objectives postulated for a course, activity, or unit of work should therefore be the primary factor in
planning instruction. A general objective may be attained by a wide range of teaching methods, but
specific objectives for instruction once determined narrow the choices considerably.
2. Principles of learning:
While selecting a method of instruction the teacher should know the theories and principles of learning
which underlie a certain method of instruction. This would help him adapt the method to the individual
needs and methods of learning of a larger number of students.
3. Individual learning styles:
Lee Cronback and Richard Snow believe the most effective learning takes place when the interactive
process (teaching) is one that is best suited to the individual student in terms of his learning style. A
learning environment that is “optimal for one person is not optimal for another”. The Rand Corporation
Study (1971) supports these findings by asserting that “teacher, student, instructional method, and
perhaps, other aspects of the educational process interact with each other. Thus a teacher who works
well (is effective) with one type of student using one method might be ineffective when working with
another method. The effectiveness of a teacher, or method, or whatever varies from one situation to
another”.
4. Self-fulfilling processes and educational stratification
Opinion of the teacher about a student’s abilities or capabilities is based on performance in the
classroom, influence the ways in which the teacher will work with the student, both with regard to
interactive process (teaching) and the content of instruction. Psychologists believe that children differ
in their learning abilities and processes. On the basis of these differentiated, educational processes
should also be differentiated. But Cronback and Snow are against this differentiation which is on the
basis of contrived tests, observation or past achievement of school programme, and that which results
in educational stratification. As B.F Skinner stated “we need to find practices which permit all teachers
to teach well and under which all students learn as efficiently as their talents permit”
The only acceptable prophecy that should be self fulfilling among teachers today is that every child has
precious talents and potentialities that should be developed to the utmost. The school’s responsibility is
to provide the child the opportunities for such development.
5. Facilities, equipment and resources
Instructional planning is often influenced by the available facilities that may be used, and the
administrative organization and structure of the school. Whatever restrictive influence the facilities,
equipment and resources may have on the instructional planning, a teacher should be as imaginative
and resourceful as possible in using methods that involve student in a highly active role.
6. Accountability
Teachers, administrators and others employed to provide education have always been held responsible
for the quality of their work. In as much as curriculum plans related to accountability.
The accountability means that someone has to report, explain or justify to someone else. Thus
accountability is a master servant, employee employer relationship, that is, some party answering
another party. It involves assessment, appraisal and evolution whichever is appropriate. It is a part and
parcel of the whole systems approach to educational planning with great emphasis on results, costs of
producing these results, and alternative possibilities weighed on the basis of costs. Lossigner observes
that we judge a school, or ought to judge it, by whether its students gain certain skills and knowledge
that can be measured against some set of students or judgment, and by the cost of producing the gains.
 It is also to be kept in view that method is a descriptive term used for the teacher’s actions to present
the organized subject matter. Methods are always derived from the nature of such subject matter. Some
professionals consider pupil behaviors as the source of methods. According to Shepherd and Regan
(1982; p 127).
1. “Methods are content free and not derived from organized subject matter.
2. Methods are pupil’s behavior free and are not from organized or unorganized pupil’s behavior. It has
been argued that methods are derived from an analysis and application of learning theories. The actions,
procedures and manipulations of the teacher are not different during instruction in reading or
mathematics but the organized subject matter is different. Method is like a vehicle, which is empty but
can carry a variety of subject matter. This vehicle is created and constructed from generalizations,
principles and assumptions”.
Some, professionals feel that methods are derived from the personality of the teacher. It seems evident
that some teachers are more comfortable with certain methods than others, and this is probably a
function of personality. It also seems evident that methods are created, selected and adopted by teachers
for purposes of incurring learning. The attention of the teacher is upon the pupil’s learning.
3.5 Evolution:
Assessment of student’s achievement means to evaluate the student’s academic achievement. Evolution
system may be defined as the tools, techniques and processing of defining, gathering, displaying and
interpreting data relevant to the goals and objectives of the curriculum. An evaluation system contains
and yields both a product and a process the product of evolution system is the valid, reliable, and
functional date utilized in the decision-making activates. The process of evolution system is the
involvement of personnel in the cycle of selecting goals, identifying objectives, defining relevant date,
gathering data, displaying data, interpreting data and decision making activates. Evaluation is the
quality control of the processes and outcome of educational programme. There are two types of
evolution, formative and summative
 PROBLEMS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT OF PAKISTAN

Keywords: What are the problems of curriculum development?; Problems related to

objectives of Curriculum; Problems related to content of Curriculum; Problems related to
methods of Curriculum; Problems related to audio-visual aids; Problems related to evaluation
of Curriculum; Recommendation for curriculum development

5.1 problems of curriculum development in Pakistan and suggestions for its

improvement

Falling education standard is one of the most favorite topics for discussion at our social
gatherings. Everyone has his own views and experiences to narrate and ultimately, express
the expression of grief and then recall the good old days when everything was at its best.

It is a known fact that our educational standards are on the decline. We have progressed in
quantitative expansion but gone backward qualitatively, in the government policies there are
planning and recommendations for the revolutionary steps but the progress in negligible.

We have innovative ideas but unable to implement any positive change effectively. That is
why we could not achieve the desired goals. We have many leaders in education but most of
them are without dedication to work. We have many schools, colleges and universities but
they are working only to award certificates and degrees to the students without changing their
attitude. The students are just memorizing facts and information from their text material without
developing proper concepts to apply in daily life. Teachers are following conventional methods
such as the lecture. Textbook recitation and notes dictation. The innovative methods are not
followed even in teacher training institutes. The textbooks are also theoretical ignoring the
activities. All these and many more are the curriculum related problems. These problems are
identified by various policies along appropriate recommendations.

5.2 Problems of Curriculum Development Process

Look to the various phases or elements of curriculum development process. So many

problems can be indicated i.e.

A. Problems related to objectives.

B. Problems related to content.
C. Problems related to methods.
D. Problems related to audio-visual aids.
E. Problems related to evaluation.

a. Problems Related to Objective

The curriculum development is a continuous and dynamic process, having some goals to be
achieved through classroom activities.

The effectiveness of curriculum process depends largely upon the extent to which these goals
are achieved. If the objectives are formulated in a clear and behavioral terms, their
achievement becomes easy. The objectives formulated for the existing curricula are mostly
ambiguous and non behavioral such types of objectives can be considered as invalid. Some
of the objectives are too broad to achieve and some of them are not related to the socio
 economic conditions in the country. There are certain objectives that are not according to the
psychological needs of the learners.

 Need some clear Goals to achieve in education system and for that need some good objectives
 Current objectives formulated are mostly ambiguous and non behavioral
 Some of the objectives are too broad
 Socio economic conditions is one of the reason in formulation of good objectives in the country,
because to achieve good objectives its need financial support.
 Some objectives are not related to psychological needs of students
 Need of behavioral and non behavioral objectives both in education system
 The objective should be narrow down and specific to the actual need of the society
 Objective should be achievable

b. Problems Related to Content

It has already been mentioned that curriculum development is a dynamic process. So it must
be flexible enough to be changed from time to time along with the changes occurring in the
society. But in our country, researches in curriculum development are very rare which make it
static.

Some of the defects of existing subject matter are as under;

 The content is not selected on the basis of research.
 To content does not help in the achievement of desired goals.
 The content is not suitable to the life situation of the learners.
 There is a lack of horizontal and vertical coordination in various concepts.
 The content does not demand active participation of learners, instead it encourages
rote memory.
 Logical sequence (when required) is missing.
 The subject matter does not help in the development of understanding, indicative
reasoning and desired creative abilities.
 principle of representative content ignored
 No motivation and interest for students
 Lack of physical and mental activities.
 Lack of Situational analyses
 No teaching methods suggested

c. Problems Related to Methods

The problems of curriculum development related to methods of instruction are:

 Methods of instruction are not suggested by the curriculum planners.
 Methods of instruction which are being followed in the classroom do not help
in the achievement of desired goals.
 Teachers take last interest in inquiry-based methods.
 Participatory or communicative approaches are not followed in the class.
 Methods are not helping the learners to develop various skills.
 The existing teacher training programmes do not fulfill the requirements of the
innovative methods.
  Teachers are reluctant to follow activity-based methods.

d. Problems Related to Audio-visual Aids

 Lack of sources and resources in educational institutes affects badly the

implementation of curriculum development.
 Teachers are not properly trained in preparation and used of low cost material.
 The curriculum planners have not given any guidelines to the teachers to use the local
resources as audio-visual aids.
 Charts should be accurate but it always missing the third dimensional attribute and
must be viewed from a fixed position
 The aids must be relevant to the concept need to be developed
 the audio-visual should be interesting for the students
 chalk board is the oldest aid of teaching but chalk is a source of pollution and it all
depend on teacher hand writing
 power failure (electricity) problem, it sometime damage audio-visual aids
 Hardware problem in electronic AV aids
 Overburden class room, the problem of visibility of small charts to all students

e. Problems Related to Evaluation

 Proper evaluation programme is not suggested by the curriculum planners.

 The test items are not related to the objectives of the relevant course.
 Most of the test items are ambiguous.
 Only cognitive aspect is emphasized in evaluation.
 The content validity is very low in existing evaluation system.
 The concept of continuous evaluation in to applied.

5.3 GENERAL RECOMMENDATION FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

 The curriculum should base upon research and not on the basis of opinions of
experts.
 Some of the enthusiast working teachers should be involved in curriculum
development.
 The objectives must be spelt out in specific behavioral terms.
 While setting the objectives, equal weightage must be given to all the domains such
as cognitive affective and psychomotor.
 Curriculum should be future oriented to cope with the needs of 21st century, which is
expected to be scientific and technological
 Curriculum should be activity based
 Curriculum must provide a high order of understanding inductive reasoning and
application of knowledge in the situation
 Instead of product based instruction, there should be an emphasis on processes of
learning
 Curriculum should be according to the social, cultural and economic conditions of the
country
 Teachers guides should be prepared to provide them help in instruction
 Curriculum planner must suggest a proper criteria for evaluation
 The test items must possess a high content validity
 The test items must help in the achievement of desired goals
 The test items should be objectives valid and reliable

 Curriculum
(Presentation outlines)

Keywords: What is Curriculum?; Old concept of Curriculum; The Traditional concept

of Curriculum; Static view point Curriculum; Dynamic view point Curriculum ; Modern
Curriculum; Syllabus vs CurriculumContent Outline of Curriculum; Planned
Experiences; Scope and importance of Curriculum Functions of Curriculum; Importance of
Curriculum; Characteristics of Curriculum; Life centered Curriculum

Introduction
What is Curriculum?
A document or plan that exists in a school or school system that defines
the work of teachers, at least to the extent of identifying the content to be taught to
students and the method to be used in the process. (English, 2000)
The word Curriculum is taken from the Latin word which mean race or race-course.
Oxford Dictionary defined it as a course of study
“Curriculum is a disciplining technology that directs how the individual is to act, feel, talk, and
‘see’ the world and the ‘self.’ As such, curriculum is a form of social regulation.”
The Traditional concept;
“It is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to
learn”
Static view point
Initially the curriculum was consider the course of study which gives importance only to text
book teaching in educational institutions, the objective was to help students to memorize the
content of the subject.
Dynamic view point
After 19th century the old concept of the curriculum was replaced, it include now all the
activities which are practiced inside or outside school for the well being of the students. It is
the totality of learning; classroom
Experiences, lab work, play ground and interaction with the community
Definitions of Curriculum
1. Experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.
2. Curriculum encompasses all learning opportunities provided by school.
3. Curriculum is a plan for all experiences which the learner encounters in
school.
Modern Curriculum
The modern curriculum consists of all experiences for learning which are planned and
organized by the school. It is composed of the actual experiences and activities of learners
inside or outside the classroom under the guidance of the teacher and for which the school
accepts responsibility.
Some authors define curriculum as
“The total effort of the school to bring about desired out-comes in school and out-of-
school situations”
Concepts of Curriculum
The concept of Curriculum is dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow
sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in school. In a broader
 sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in
society as well. ( Purita P. Bilbo, Ed.D)
A general overall plan of the content or specific materials of instruction that the college
should offer the student by way of qualifying him for graduation or certification or for
entrance into a professional or vocational field.
A body of prescribed educative experiences under the supervision of an educational
institute, designed to provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to
fit him for the society of which he is a part or to qualify him for a trade or profession.
Common Concepts of Curriculum
Syllabus Content Outline
Standards Textbooks
Course of study
Planned Experiences
Scope and importance of Curriculum
1. the coverage of the area or subject matter that something deals with or to
which it is relevant.
2. The range of one's perceptions, thoughts, or actions “He hasn't the scope to
understand this concept."? .
3. The area covered by a given activity or subject
So here the word scope means the range of curriculum and how much area it covers.
Here is the various aspect of the curriculum process;
1. Substantive (real or actual)
2. Technical
3. social
The important aspect of the substantive is related to goals, aims and objectives and the
technical aspect refers to the skill development , methods and subject matter.
The social side is the need and involvement of the society in the process.

1. Functions of Curriculum
The main objective of the curriculum is the development of the child physical,
intellectual, emotional and personality development.

Development of individual
Each student learns with his own pace and each individual has his own abilities and
potentialities. Some students Learn with one method while other learn with other. So it is the
function of curriculum to help the student by providing such experience which encounters the
need of all students
Curriculum a play very important role in the mental, social, emotional, moral and physical
development of the student.
Produce good Citizens
Good curriculum gives good citizens to a country, it play very important role in the character
building and providing knowledge about what is wrong and what is right
Patterns of Curriculum
What is the pattern of the curriculum, it is the most important aspect of the curriculum. It is
the mean and plan of implementation curriculum;
 Subject based curriculum
 Activity based curriculum
 Learner centered curriculum
 Teacher centered curriculum
Develop Basic skills
Develop the basic skills of the students by implementing a good curriculum;
Reading, writing, understanding and speaking
 Culture preservation and transmission
The main aim of education is to preserve the culture, values and transfer it to next
generation. The Curriculum helps in the process. It inculcates Islamic values, improve
mental and physical health of the student, and prepare people for the new era
Foundation of curriculum
The forces that shape and influence the curriculum;
* Philosophical foundation
* Psychological foundation
* Sociological foundation
Importance of Curriculum
1. The success of a nation is hidden in the formulation of effective curriculum which
helps to develop the inner potentialities of an individual
2. Curriculum provide a plan and structure to education process inside and
outside of school
3. Curriculum is the reflection of the society, what society needs and want, how they
want to mold the individual capacities
4. Curriculum guides the society to improvement and brings enrichment.
5. Curriculum Gives concrete shape to educational policies of a nation
6. Curriculum helps in the preservation, improvement and transfer of culture to the next
generation
7. Curriculum helps in producing good and broad minded citizens.
8. It helps in the development of responsible citizen
9. Curriculum fulfill the future demands of the country
10. Curriculum gives concrete shape to national requirement..
11. Curriculum helps in the harmonious development of the personality of the people of the
society.
12. Curriculum Help in the development of basic skill in the people of the society and
prepare them for the life
13. Curriculum Gives knowledge
14. Curriculum helps in the formulation of good attitudes and guides them in the
development of desired attitudes in the young ones
Characteristics of Curriculum
 Flexibility
 Integrated & continuous
 Balance
 Scope
 Curriculum consisted religious and moral values.
 Considering individual conflicts in curriculum
 Life centered Curriculum
 Flexibility
The Curriculum has administrative flexibility.
• A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate new changes whenever necessary.
• The curriculum is open to revision and development, to meet the demands of globalization
and the digital age.
Integrated & continuous
There should be continuity and integration in curriculum development process for every
class.
The curriculum should be balanced in all aspects.
Scope
Cover all aspects;
 vocational,
 educational area,
 social,
 technical and moral
 curriculum consist religious and moral values.
 Cover religious and moral values of a nation
 Considering individual conflicts in curriculum.
 Curriculum should have the ability to engage /support all kinds of students. It should
be based on individual differences.
 Life centered Curriculum
1. The Curriculum is continuously evolving.
• It evolved from one period to another, and to the present time.
• For a curriculum to be effective, it must have continuous monitoring and evaluation.
• Curriculum must adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs
of modern and dynamic community.
2 . The Curriculum is based on the needs of the people.
• a good curriculum reflects the needs of the individual and the society as a whole.
• The curriculum is in proper shape in order to meet the challenges of times and make
education more responsive to the clientele it serves.
3. The Curriculum is democratically conceived.
• A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a group of individuals from different
sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and resources of
the learner and the society as a whole.
• The curriculum is the product of many minds and energies.
4. The Curriculum is the result of a long-term effort.
• a good curriculum is a product of long and tedious process.
• It takes a long period of time in the planning, management, evaluation and development of a
good curriculum.
5. The Curriculum is a compound of details.
• A good curriculum provides the proper instructional equipment and meeting places that are
often most conducive to learning.
• It includes the student-teacher relationship, guidance and counseling program, health
services, school and community projects, library and laboratories, and other school-related
work experiences.
6. The Curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter.
• Learning is developmental.
• Classes and activities should be planned.
• A good curriculum provides continuity of experiences.
7. The Curriculum balance and cooperates with other programs of the community.
• The curriculum is responsive to the needs of the community.
• The school offers its assistance in the improvement and realization of ongoing programs of
the community.
• There is cooperative effort between the school and the community towards greater
productivity.
8. The Curriculum has educational quality.
• Quality education comes through the situation of the individuals intellectual and creative
capacities for social welfare and development.
• The curriculum helps the learner to become the best that he can possibly be.
• The curriculum support system is secured to add to existing sources for its efficient and
effective implementation.
 School Administration and Management

Keywords; Types of administration; principles of school administration;

Supervision; Education planning; Planning and Policy Implementation

Meaning Administration

Administration is derived from Latin word ministiare which mean to serve, so administration
mean to serve. In broad view it mean to support the people in an organisation to help them to
achieve there goals. In other words it is the art of managing organisation resources and
provides support to those who needed to achieve the aims and objective of organisation.
Today we have different types of administration in different filed. All differ from filed to field.
Every organisation have their own way of administration to reach their goals by supporting
there professional staff and to communicate the line agencies.

Types of administration
Democratic administration
Authoritative administration
Laissez-faire administration

Democratic administration
The Process is based on consultation with staff, sharing the responsibilities
Good Environment.

Authoritative administration
The administrator act like dictator
Imposed His rules
Create fear in Staff

Laissez-faire administration
The Administrator Depend on others
No Interest in school activities
No Control over staff

Educational Administration

Educational Administration is a discipline within the study of education that examines the
administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and
educators in particular. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and
management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational philosophy.

In educational administration the aim of the organisation is to organise the administration at

different level of organisation to help the staff to achieve their aims which lead to the goal of
organisation to facilitate the educational institutions to provide better education.
 The concept of educational administration may not be totally different from what we
are familiar with in the concept of administration. Education at different levels has its
objectives, the most important of the objectives that cut across all the levels of education is
teaching and learning. It is the function of the school to produce educated and enlightened
human beings who would be able to contribute positively to the development of the society.
This formed the opinion of Olaniyi (2000) who describes school as a social institution which
does not exist in a vacuum. He said further that a school is a micro-community, existing
within a macro community to mould the habits, interest, attitudes and feelings of children and
transmit from one generation to another. The school also comprises certain personnel i.e.
teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the students. These human resources in the
school work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and financial
resources in order to achieve the objectives of the school.

Administration is very useful for the realization of the school’s objectives indeed, the
success of the school system depends largely on the administration of the school it handled.
The teachers, students, non-teaching staff and resources must be efficiently arranged,
monitored and controlled, so that they would work harmoniously according to plan
(educational plan). Even the National Policy on Education emphasizes the success of the
entire educational system on proper planning, efficient administration and adequate funding.
School administration is the process by which principles, methods and practices of
administration are applied in educational institutions to establish, maintain and develop such
institutions in line with the goals of the institutions. Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004) define school
administration as the scientific organization of human and material resources and programs
available for education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve
educational goals.

Basically, educational administration implies the arrangement of the human and

material resources and program available for education and carefully using them
systematically for the achievement of educational objectives.
Thus educational administrator, whether in the ministry of education, the schools board, or in
a school is essentially the organizer, the implementer of plans, policies and program meant
for achieving specific educational objectives. The educational administrator may contribute,
one way or the other, in planning, policy–making and program designing, yet his major role
rests with the effective and efficient implementation of such plans, policies and program for
the benefit of education. Viewed from this angle, educational administration is concerned
with organization and implementation – it may be categorized under broad areas of:

Planning and Policy Implementation

Although such a categorization is essentially arbitrary and broad and these aspects of
management are closely tied, inseparable and inductive, it is possible to separate the
functions of administration from that of planning and policy–making in education. For
example the administrator is concerned with formulating general plans and policies for
education.

Functions of School Administrators

Obemeata (1984) referred to a school head as an administrator who is responsible for
running a school and also responsible for policy decisions, and determining the direction and
objectives of the school. The function of a school head, according to Obemeata, is more
than mere controlling the staff of the school, its finances and curriculum; it also includes the
management of resources towards the achievement of educational goal. Fadipe (1990)
however, highlighted the major functions of the school head as: interpretation of policy,
execution of instructional programs and the selection, induction and retention of personnel,
and in Cranston (2002), the duties of the school administrators include: the demonstration of
a variety of management and leadership abilities and, making complex decisions in
collaboration with other staff in the school.

The function of the school administrators could be summarized as follows:

 production and management of resources (human and materials) needed to support

organizations and its program
 supervision of instructional activities in the school system
 obtaining and training personnel
 providing leadership for curriculum
 maintaining peaceful co-existence between the school, the community and the
external agencies
 influencing staff behaviour
 discerning and influencing the development of goals and policies
 evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency or otherwise of the school
 initiating work activities
 grouping the tasks into activities
 defining the task to be done
 taking remedial action if the objectives are not being met
 Supplying incentives to stimulate productivity.

Basic principles of school administration

1. Priority of Objectives
2. Co-ordination of Authority and responsibility
3. Adaptation of the responsibility to a person
4. Recognition of the Human Psychological Factors
5. Relativity of Values
Supervision
Supervision
Definition of Supervision:
1. Oversee activity: to watch over an activity or task being carried out by somebody and
ensure that it is performed correctly. (MS Encarta)
Oversee people: to be in charge of a group of people engaged in an activity or task and
keep order or ensure that they perform it correctly. (MS Encarta)
A successful school is the indication of a good leader, a leader who supervises the school
like delicate flower
Good education is result of good supervision upon the side of a good supervisor
School need a team to look after the teaching learning process and suggest measure for
further improvement. This support team provides better environment……
And necessary tools for teaching learning process.
Why the need of supervision in school it is also an important question. Curriculum, discipline,
school plant, teacher student behavior etc
Education planning
The supervisor should select and set targets for the whole year day by day for him self and
teachers, what to teach and when to teach a complete annual planner.
Discipline
Discipline in school is the most important factor in the process of supervision of school which
is full of students and teachers
Community
The supervisor will involve the community in the supervision process of the school
Continuing staff development
Arrange classes for staff development purpose and arrange visits to model schools for
developing their teaching skills
Opportunities for staff
Create Opportunities for the staff and give them the opportunity to get further education.
Help them with their education process.
Seminars
Arrange seminars in school for teacher and students from time to time
Provision of materials
Availability of materials to teachers for teaching learning process, e.g. books, news papers,
audio visual aids. Keep the library up to date
Development of leadership in other
Develop the skills of teachers and transform them to better leaders
Authority
For better supervision of the school, the head need to give some authority to teachers and
involve them in the supervision of school
Reward and punishment
For better supervision the supervisor should always had stick in one hand and reward in
other
Record
Record keeping is the essential part of supervision