Public administration
The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of
Public administration is the implementation of government policy, and the
academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil
servants for working in the public service. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse
scope" its "fundamental goal... is to advance management and policies so that
government can function."Some of the various definitions which have been
offered for the term are: "the management of public programs"; the
"translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day";and "the
study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves,
the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to
produce alternative policies."
Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of
government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials
(usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct" Many unelected
public servants can be considered to be public administrators, including heads
of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal
budget directors, human resources (H.R.) administrators, city managers,
census managers, state mental health directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public
administrators are public servants working in public departments and
agencies, at all levels of government.
In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted
American civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into
academia.However, "until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the
German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy" there was not "much
interest in a theory of public administration." The field is multidisciplinary in
character; one of the various proposals for public administration's sub-fields
sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy
analysis and statistics, budgeting, and ethics.
One scholar claims that "public administration has no generally accepted
definition", because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that
it is easier to explain than define". Public administration is a field of study
(i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about
whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline,
largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a subfield
of political science or a subfield of administrative science". Scholar Donald
Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a subfield within
political science".
The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public
Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "...
comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental
nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their
pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them". This
includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and
safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and
the administration of government programs are activities that are purely
governmental in nature".
From the academic perspective, the National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) in the United States defines the study of public administration as "A
program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of
local, state, and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study
of executive organization and management. Includes instruction in the roles,
development, and principles of public administration; the management of
public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and
financial management; administrative law; public personnel management;
professional ethics; and research methods."
Antiquity to the 19th century PA
Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages,
treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of
government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations
was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often
referred to as a "spoils system". Public administrators have been the "eyes and
ears" of rulers until relatively recently. In medieval times, the abilities to read
and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public
employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to
read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary
activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying
taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers
extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a
sophisticated public administration grew.
The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created
professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public
administrators.
Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines,
with the goal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most
well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European
perspective, Classic, Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed the
foundation of the discipline that has come to be called public administration.
Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the
founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In
the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of
administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von
Stein taught that public administration relies on many prestablished
disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public
finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that
public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He
argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated
and evaluated according to the scientific method.
Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic
governance, justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world
ranging from Aristotle to John Locke to Thomas Jefferson.
In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of
public administration. He first formally recognized public administration in an
1887 article entitled "The Study of Administration." The future president
wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what
government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do
these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least
possible cost either of money or of energy."[7] Wilson was more influential to
the science of public administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article
Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts:
Separation of politics and administration
Comparative analysis of political and private organizations
Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily
operations
Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by
training civil servants, merit-based assessment
The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting
debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to
differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public
administration.
By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's
solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced. A few
distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick,
Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915),
another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also
published a book entitled ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’ (1911).
He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the ‘one
best way’ to do things and /or carrying out an operation. This, according to
him could help save cost and time. Taylor’s technique was later introduced to
private industrialists, and later into the various government organizations
(Jeong, 2007).
Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles, and/or Taylorism.
Taylor's scientific management consisted of main four principles (Frederick
W. Taylor, 1911):
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study
of the tasks.
Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively
leaving them to train themselves.
Provide ‘Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the
performance of that worker's discrete task’ (Montgomery 1997: 250).
Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the
managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the
workers actually perform the tasks.
Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach):
‘It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of
the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that
this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of
standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.
The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) the leading
professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA
sponsors the journal Public Administration Review, which was founded in
1940.
Local government or "Municipal government", is a form of public
administration which in a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of
administration within a given state. The term is used to contrast with offices at
state level, which are referred to as the central government, national
government, or (where appropriate) federal government and also to
supranational government which deals with governing institutions between
states. Local governments generally act within powers delegated to them by
legislation or directives of the higher level of government. In federal states,
local government generally comprises the third (or sometimes fourth) tier of
government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually occupies the
second or third tier of government, often with greater powers than higher-level
administrative divisions.
The question of municipal autonomy is a key question of public
administration and governance. The institutions of local government vary
greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the
terminology often varies. Common names for local government entities
include state, province, region, department, county, prefecture, district, city,
township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire and village.
The Local Government Code of 1991 provides for the three levels of Local
Government Units or LGUs in the Philippines: (1) the province (2) city and
municipality, and (3) the barangay. The country remains a unitary state and
the National Government continues to have strong influence over local
government units.
A province is led by a governor along with the Sangguniang Panlalawigan
(Provincial Council) composed of board members. A mayor leads a city or
municipality while the Sangguniang Panlungsod (City Council) and the
Sangguniang Bayan (Municipal Council) constitute the legislative branches of
a city and municipality, respectively. A barangay is headed by the Barangay
Captain and the Barangay Council. Barangays can be further divided into
puroks and sitios but their leadership is unelected.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution also provides for the existence of
autonomous regions. The Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao
(ARMM) is the only autonomous region in the Philippines. There was an
attempt to institute an autonomous region in the Cordillera, but that failed and
instead the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) was established. Local
governments have limited taxing authority. Most of their funds come from the
national government via the Internal Revenue Allotment.
Local government in the Philippines is divided into four levels:
a. Autonomous regions
b. Provinces and cities independent from a province
c. Component cities and municipalities
d. Barangays
All divisions below the regional level are called "local government units
(LGUs)."
According to the Constitution, the LGUs "shall enjoy local autonomy", and in
which the president exercises "general supervision". Congress enacted the
Local Government Code of 1991 "which shall provide for a more responsive
and accountable local government structure instituted through a system of
decentralization with effective mechanisms of recall, initiative, and
referendum, allocate among the different local government units their powers,
responsibilities, and resources, and provide for the qualifications, election,
appointment and removal, term, salaries, powers and functions and duties of
local officials, and all other matters relating to the organization and operation
of local units."
Levels of local government
Autonomous regions
Autonomous regions have more powers than other LGUs. Currently, the
constitution limits the creation of autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
and the Cordilleras. Other regions are not considered LGUs since they do not
have political power.
Currently, only one autonomous region exists: the Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). In 2001, a plebiscite confirmed the previous
composition of the autonomous region, and added Basilan except the city of
Isabela, and Marawi in Lanao del Sur within its jurisdiction; however Isabela
City is still politically a part of Basilan despite rejecting inclusion.
A 1998 plebiscite for the creation of a "Cordillera Autonomous Region" was
only approved by the voters of Ifugao; as a result, the Supreme Court (Ordillo
vs. Comelec; G.R. No. 93054) ruled that a region must be composed of more
than one province. The proposed Cordillera Autonomous Region never came
to be and the provinces were reorganized into the Cordillera Administrative
Region without the expanded powers of an autonomous region. An
autonomous region is governed by the regional governor; its legislature is the
regional legislative assembly.
Provinces
Outside the lone autonomous region, the provinces are the highest-level
LGUs. The provinces are organized into component cities and municipalities.
A province is governed by the governor; its legislature is the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan.
Cities
Cities are of somewhat complex matter; most cities are component cities in
which they are a part of a province. Several other cities are highly urbanized
cities and independent component cities, these cities are not politically a part
of any province, hence city residents are not allowed to run for provincial
offices. Cities are composed of barangays. A city is governed by the mayor;
its legislature is the Sangguniang Panlungsod.
Municipalities
Main article: Municipalities of the Philippines
Municipalities are always a part of a province except for Pateros which was
separated from Rizal to form Metro Manila. Just as cities, municipalities are
composed of barangays. A municipality is governed by the mayor; its
legislature is the Sangguniang Bayan.
Barangays
Main article: Barangay
Barangays are the smallest of the independently elected Local Government
Units. Barangays can be further divided into sitios and puroks but those
divisions do not have leaders elected in formal elections supervised by the
national government.
A barangay's executive is the Punong Barangay or barangay captain and its
legislature is the Sangguniang Barangay, composed of barangay captain, the
Barangay Kagawads (barangay councilors) and the SK chairman. The SK
chairman also leads a separate assembly for youth, the Sangguniang Kabataan
or SK. The center of governance is the barangay hall.
Public Administration in the Philippines
In Dire Need Of A New Public Management Model By Ruby Ann
Kagaoan – Calo
Different Levels of Public Administration in the Philippines
The Philippine Government is a presidential form with a Senate and a
Congress and departments that rely on elected officials, i.e., the politicians, for
their budget allocations. Pork barrels have not been abolished; thus, public
administration in our country is subject to whatever is the prevailing political
climate among the Senate, Congress, and the Chief Executive’s office.
Market Segmentation of Philippine Consumers
My people, the Filipinos, are mostly poor. Only 1% of our population are
rich, or what marketers call Class AB. Among the rich, there are three sub-
classes, namely, the Established Rich like the Ayala family who owns the
Makati Business District – the financial hub of the Philippines, the Smart Rich
like rags-to-riches Manuel V. Pangilinan who rose from being poor to
becoming an Asian oligarch through diligence and scholarships and a
successful climb up the corporate ladder, and the Nouveau Rich who suddenly
become rich usually through corrupt means or through large winnings like our
phenomenal world champion boxer Manny Pacquiao, who used to be a bakery
worker.
The Upper C or Upwardly Mobile Middle Class, that is, those among the
middle class who have received good education and have landed in
occupations that may enable them to climb out of the middle class segment
and possibly join the smart rich sub-class of Class AB, is only 9%.
The Broad C Class, who are characterized as downwardly mobile, meaning,
they are getting poorer and poorer as a result of the economic and political
instability in our country, is a big 45%. They are the ones who rely on luck to
better their lot. Their class are the ones who queue in long lines to make
lottery bets and who give the television networks their big bucks as those
networks present game shows that thrive on the hopes of the majority of the
Filipinos to become sudden millionaires and end their downwardly mobile
lives.
We, thus, have a thinning middle class, which is supposed to be the backbone
of an economy.
Low-income families and the poor, also called Class DE, comprise the
remaining 45% of the Philippines’ consumer population. Class D are the
families of salesladies and domestic helpers. Class E are the ones seen on
international television features as living off garbage dumps. They are also
found living on the precarious sides of railroads and squatting on unused
lands.
No longer counted in the consumer classification of the Philippines are the
hundreds of thousands of extremely poor who cannot anymore purchase
anything. They beg in the streets, rely on the wastes of fast food restaurants
for their meals, and live and sleep under bridges or on pavements in sub-
human conditions.
Feasting on the Masses as a Revenue Source
The consumer behavior of the Broad C, Class D, and even Class E segments
have been fully exploited by the private sector and even by the Philippine
Government. After all, these segments comprise 90% of our population. The
Government, for example, has made betting a way of life for the Filipinos
through lotto, where winnings can go higher than the winnings of world
champion boxer Manny Pacquiao.
Even the controversial illegal numbers game called “jueteng,” which has been
a major source of campaign funds of several political candidates in the
country since the last century, has recently crossed over to becoming legal
since it cannot be stopped anyway and it is a sure moneymaking machinery
for the Government.
Thus, on a significant scale, our Government earns for its upkeep from
feasting on our nation’s poor, low-income, and downwardly mobile citizens
whose sheer number in a population of 82 million can turn habitual bets of ten
pesos or twenty pesos into millions and billions of pesos.
Our Government and economy are also kept afloat by the billion-dollar
remittances of our Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs), many of whom are
doing servile tasks in difficult situations in other nations. Again, sustaining
the operations of public administration in our country are sourced from those
who are already poor, oppressed, and desperate.
Cost for Public Service
Nationwide, there are public elementary schools and public high schools and
public hospitals, but the state of public education and public health services in
our country is pathetic in most areas. Only 2% of Grade Six public school
students pass the national exams for entry into high school and only 1% of
public high school students pass for entry into college.
Our poor die unnecessarily in public hospitals because of inadequate hospital
equipment and medical materials. A typical scene in public pediatric wards,
for example, are two to four sick babies or children in one dilapidated
pediatric bed with the parents sitting on a wooden bench side-by-side
watching over their young ones. And this scene happens in infectious wards
where there should be quarantined areas and sanitation.
Thus, there may be free education and free hospital service in our country but
the high cost is on the lives and futures of our citizens, who suffer bleak
futures because of poor public education and unnecessary deaths because of
inadequate public health and hospital service.
National Debt
The figures vary depending on the sources, but all things considered, our
national debt figure has gone as high as 6 trillion pesos (US Dollar to
Philippine Pesos currency exchange rates these days fluctuate between Php 51
to 52 to US$ 1).
Much of what our Government earns, thus, goes to debt servicing, with little
left for public education and public health services.
We have come to a point wherein debt pardon is necessary, at least for the
debts incurred dubiously, for example, during corrupt administrations, just so
we can channel our budgets more for public service rather than for debt
service.
Main Problems
From the point of view of the citizens, the main problem is the dirty politics of
traditional politicians. There is no end to election fraud and accusations of
election fraud. Until now, the Commission on Elections is unable to get a
clean contract to computerize elections, and so vote rigging is rampant. Then
there are also politicians in power who bicker and accuse endlessly. Thus, our
nation is in a constant mode of being destabilized from all sides – from those
in power and those who are not in power.
From the point of view of entrepreneurs or the market, the main problem is
graft and corruption in government offices. It has become abnormal not to
pay “under-the-table” to get a business permit or a government clearance.
From the point of view of politicians, the main problem is a personality-based
politics wherein celebrities without any platform nor preparation for public
service win by a landslide at the polls and end up mismanaging their public
office and public funds.
From the point of view of public administration employees or civil servants,
the main problem is low pay such that they need to earn extra from extortions
and sideline-selling to adequately provide for their families.
Relevant Government Statements about Planned Reforms
In the President’s 2006 State of the Nation Address (SONA), she said that the
Expanded Value Added Tax (EVAT) has allowed the Government to make
medium-term plans of building more roads to connect the many islands of the
Philippine archipelago and thereby enhance commerce nationwide. Her
reforms have been more in the area of tax collection and public works and
highways.
However, the Government still plays an imposing role on the Filipino citizens
with the EVAT reform, and this reform is more a stopgap measure rather than
a total transformation in public service with a long-term effect.
Successful Example
I have seen an exemplary city, Makati City, which is well run by its mayor,
lawyer Jejomar Binay. But because he is vocal about his issues against the
incumbent President, he is painted more as an opposition leader rather than a
stalwart public servant whose public administration should be emulated.
I have researched on the public school system of Makati City and have
encountered up close the management of Mayor Binay’s office and the Makati
City Hall, and I can say that the Makati public administration is a beacon in
public service.
The Makati senior citizens, for example, are called “seniorito citizens” as they
are given more privileges than other senior citizens in the Philippines, like
free movie viewing in any theater in Makati City. For Mayor Binay to think of
serving in a special way the least of his constituents, the elderly, “the least” in
the sense that they are no longer economically productive, shows the mayor’s
intent to use his public office for genuine public service.
Top in the priorities of Mayor Binay is public education.
The Makati public schools are laced with IBM computers and audio-visual
rooms and are actively involved in community development and the
promotion of good citizenship in their respective communities. Also, the
Makati public schools are regularly engaged in citywide academic
competitions that challenge both the students and the teachers to strive for
academic excellence.
So important is public education in Makati that there is a public city college,
which has now evolved into a university. Note that this is not a state
university but a city-initiated public college. Makati, under the leadership of
Mayor Jejomar Binay, is a trailblazer in public education and has not allowed
the national state of public education to bring down its own standard in public
education.
Key Success Factors
A key success factor in Makati City is a no-nonsense mayor who engages the
thriving business sector of his city in sponsoring the development of the
Makati public schools, who immediately stamps out corrupt police and
engages media in his campaign to rid his city of corrupt civil servants, and
who immediately rehabilitated and renovated the Makati City Hall so that it
can serve his constituency with the same professionalism as the business
sector that operate in his city.
Most importantly, Mayor Binay does not make the poor his main source of
city funds and revenues. His city earns enough from the city taxes of the
business sector and the rich residents. Instead, he genuinely serves the poor in
his city by giving them the best possible public education so that they can
have more success climbing out of poverty when they enter the labor force.