1.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is an electronic display system. A 16x2 LCD display is a very basic system and
commonly used in various devices and circuits. LCD’s are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses
the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome

We come across LCD displays everywhere around us. Computers, calculators, television sets, mobile phones,
digital watches use some kind of display to display the time. An LCD is an electronic display module which
uses liquid crystal to produce a visible image

The advantages of LCD’s are as follows:

• LCDs are economical.
• They are easily programmable.
• A number of characters can be displayed.
• Very compact and light.
• Low power consumption.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and 2 such lines are there. In this LCD every character
is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. LCD possesses two registers: Data and Command registers. The command
register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command can be defined as an instruction given
to LCD to do a predefined task.

For example,

Initializing the LCD, clearing the screen, controlling the cursor position, controlling the display etc. The data
register stores the data which is displayed on the LCD screen. The data is the ASCII value of the character
which is displayed on the LCD screen.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in portable
consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including Smartphone’s.
LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices
and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications.
LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens
available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being
replaced by OLEDs, which can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider
color gamut, virtually infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a
slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two glass panels; the
thickness of the panels increases with size but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower
power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and there is no backlight).
 2. TRANSISTOR (BC547)

TECHNICAL SP2ECIFICATIONS:

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a general-purpose transistor. It is used in
general-purpose switching and amplification

Transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and a large current (Ic) flows through the device between the
collector and the emitter terminals. But, this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the
base terminal of the transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of the two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of Beta, (β). Beta has no
units as it is a ratio. The ratio of the emitter to the collector current, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α). As the emitter
current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current, the value of the α is very
close to unity, and this value is found to be about 0.950 to 0.999for a typical low-power signal transistor.

BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used to
amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals.

BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. Its
equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves.
This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for
all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common
emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base
signal, it gets completely off.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TRANSISOR ACTING AS SWITCH

An NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. When the device is in forward
active mode the arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow. Whenever base is high, then current starts flowing through base and emitter and after
that only current will pass from collector to emitter.

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off Region as explained above.
As discussed a transistor will act as an Open switch during Forward Bias and as a closed switch during Reverse
Bias, this biasing can be achieved by supplying the required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned the
biasing current should maximum of 5mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor; hence a resistor is
always added in series with base pin. The value of this resistor (RB) can be calculated using below formulae.
RB = VBE / IB
Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current (I B depends on the Collector current (IC).
The value of IB should not exceed mA.
 3. RELAY

A relay is a switch whose operation depends on the electricity. A switching mechanism is operated
mechanically within the relays with the use of an electromagnet; Relays are used when it is necessary to control
a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch,
but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The
first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit.
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type
of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called
a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device to perform switching.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called "protective relays". Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to
move their contacts in one direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back.
Repeated pulses from the same input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where
interrupted power should not affect the circuits that the relay is controlling.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay will operate in
one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the polarity is reversed. On a dual
coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the contacts will transition.
AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes to differentiate between
operate and reset commands. It was used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.

A relay with its coil and switch contacts is shown in the fig. A lever on the left being attracted by magnetism
when the coil is switched on. That lever moves the switch contacts.
 Relays are the primary protection as well as switching devices in most of the control processes or
equipments. All the relays respond to one or more electrical quantities like voltage or current such that they
open or close the contacts or circuits. A relay is a switching device as it works to isolate or change the state of
an electric circuit from one state to another.
Classification or the types of relays depend on the function for which they are used. Some of the categories
include protective, reclosing, regulating, auxiliary and monitoring relays.
Protective relays continuously monitor these parameters: voltage, current, and power; and if these parameters
violate from set limits they generate alarm or isolate that particular circuit. These types of relays are used to
protect equipments like motors, generators, and transformers, and so on.

Different Types of Relays

Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different types such as
electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, power varied relays, multi-dimensional relays, and so on, with varied
ratings, sizes and applications.

Electromagnetic Relays
These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and have operating coil and
mechanical contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by a supply system, these mechanical contacts gets
opened or closed. The type of supply can be AC or DC.

Solid State Relays

Solid State uses solid state components to perform the switching operation without moving any parts. Since the
control energy required is much lower compared with the output power to be controlled by this relay that results
the power gain higher when compared to the electromagnetic relays. These are of different types: reed relay
coupled SSR, transformer coupled SSR, photo-coupled SSR, and so on.

Hybrid Relay
These relays are composed of electromagnetic relays and electronic components. Usually, the input part
contains the electronic circuitry that performs rectification and the other control functions, and the output part
include electromagnetic relay.

Thermal Relay
These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means – the rise in the ambient temperature from the limit,
directs the contacts to switch from one position to other. These are mainly used in motor protection and consist
of bimetallic elements like temperature sensors as well as control elements. Thermal overload relays are the best
examples of this relays.
Reed Relay
Reed Relays consist of a pair of magnetic strips (also called as reed) that is sealed within a glass tube. This reed
acts as both an armature and a contact blade. The magnetic field applied to the coil is wrapped around this tube
that makes these reeds move so that switching operation is performed.