Solid State Electronics

15.1 Introduction and Electronic Fundamentals

  NUMBER 15
 TITLE: SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS
 Duration: 69 Total Hours
Solid State  Theory: 47 Hours Application: 22 Hours
Electronics  Prerequisites: 1, 2, 12, 13
 Evaluation & Testing: - Assignments related to theory and
appropriate application skills.
 Minimum of one mid-term test during the term.
 Final exam at end of term.
 Periodic quizzes.
  GENERAL LEARNING OUTCOME:
 Upon successful completion of this reportable subject, the
Solid State apprentice is able to describe the fundamentals of solid state
electronic devices as applied to elevating devices in accordance
Electronics with government safety regulations, manufacturer’s
recommendations and specifications and approved industry
standards.
  15.1 – Electronic fundamentals
 15.2 – Diodes
 15.3 – Transistors
Solid State  15.4 – Thyristors
Electronics  15.5 – Analogue Integrated Circuits
 15.6 – Power Supplies and Operational Amplifiers
 15.7 – Digital Systems
  15.1 Electronic Fundamentals
 Duration: 3 Total Hours Theory: 3 hours Application: 0 hours
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Electronic  Upon successful completion, the apprentice is able to:
Fundamentals  15.1.1 – Identify solid state electronic components used in
elevating devices.
 15.1.2 – Define the fundamentals of solid state electronic devices.
  15.1.1 Identify solid state electronic
components used in elevating devices. [1/0]
 diodes
Electronic  transistors
Fundamentals  thyristors
 integrated circuits
 analogue
 digital
  Resource for this course and where a lot of the material came from
is the All About Circuits website and free digital text books.

 https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/
Electronic  https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/
Fundamentals
 You would need to create an account then you can download a
PDF copy of these books
 If you need help April from the library can help you.
 Diodes
 The first electronic or semiconductor device we looked at.
 A polarity sensitive switch
Electronic
Fundamentals
  Remember that diodes are known by two
names: diodes and rectifiers.
Electronic
 Diodes can be used in configurations to convert
Fundamentals AC to DC, this is used extensively in elevator
circuits
 Transistors

 Bipolar Junction Transistors are current amplifiers. They

work as current-controlled devices or current
Electronic regulators. In other words, transistors can restrict or
Fundamentals increase the amount of current passed thru it according
to a smaller, controlling base current. In a NPN type
transistor the main current that is controlled flow from
collector to emitter (or from emitter to collector in a
PNP type). The small base current that controls the
main current goes from base to emitter in a NPN type
(or from emitter to base in a PNP type).
 Transistors

Electronic
Fundamentals  Because a transistor’s collector current is
proportionally limited by its base current, it can be used
as a sort of current-controlled switch. A relatively small
flow of electrons sent through the base of the
transistor has the ability to exert control over a much
larger flow of electrons through the collector.
  First bipolar transistor invented between 1947
and 1948
 Arranged like a third layer added to a two layer
diode
 Device arranged with three leads, a collector
Electronic and emitter on the outside and a base in the
Fundamentals middle layer
  Two transistor symbols
 The left a PNP transistor, the right an NPN transistor

Electronic
Fundamentals
 Devices generally fall into two major types:
Bipolar and Field-Effect
Types include:
Electronic
- Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Fundamentals - Junction Field Effect (JFET)
- Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect (MOSFET)
- Insulated Gate Field Effect (IGFET)
- Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
  Thyristors

 Thyristors, are semiconductor devices that tend to

stay ”on” once turned on, and tend to stay ”off ”
Electronic once turned off. A momentary pulse is able to flip
Fundamentals these devices into either their on or off states
where these will remain that way on their own,
even after the cause of the state change is taken
away. As such, these are useful only as on/off
switching devices – much like a toggle switch – and
cannot be used as analog signal amplifiers.
  Thyristors can be classified depending on the
nature of their turn-on and turn-off behavior
and their voltage and current characteristics:
Electronic The different classes are:
Fundamentals  Thyristors with turn-on capability (Unidirectional control)
 Thyristors with turn-off capability (Unidirectional control)
 Bidirectional control
  Thyristors with turn-on capability (Unidirectional control)
 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
 Reverse conducting thyristor (RCT)
 Light-activated silicon-controlled rectifier (LASCR)
Electronic
Fundamentals
  Thyristors with turn-off capability (Unidirectional control)

 Traditional thyristors like SCRs turn on when sufficient

gate pulse is applied. To turn them off, the main current
has to be interrupted. This is inconvenient in DC to AC
Electronic and DC to DC conversion circuits, where current does
Fundamentals not naturally become zero.

 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)

 MOS turn–off thyristor (MTO)
 Emitter turn off thyristors (ETO)
 Bidirectional control
 The thyristors discussed so far have been unidirectional and are
used as rectifiers, DC-DC converters, and inverters. To use these
thyristors for AC voltage control, two thyristors will need to be
connected in anti-parallel, resulting in two separate control circuits
that would involve more wire connections. Bidirectional thyristors
that are able to conduct current in both directions when triggered
Electronic were developed specifically to overcome this problem.

Fundamentals  Triode for alternating current (TRIAC)

 Diode for alternating current (DIAC)
 Silicon Diode for Alternating Current (SIDAC)
  SCR’s are the most prevalent member of the thyristor four layer
diode family.
• A positive pulse applied to the gate of an SCR triggers it into
conduction. Conduction continues even if the gate pulse is
removed. Conduction only ceases when the anode to cathode
Electronic voltage drops to zero.
• SCR’s are most often used with an AC supply (or pulsating DC)
Fundamentals because of the continuous conduction.
• A gate turn off switch (GTO) may be turned off by application of a
negative pulse to the gate.
• SCR’s switch megawatts of power, up to 5600 A and 10,000 V.
  Integrated Circuits
Electronic  Analogue
Fundamentals  Digital
  An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, is
a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. An IC can
Electronic function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer
memory, or microprocessor. A particular IC is categorized as either
Fundamentals linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended application.

 https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/integrated-circuit-IC
  Digital – circuits whose signals are limited to two conditions: zero
or full control voltage (off or on , 0 or 1). Used with ‘true-false’ type
logic operations. Applications include PLC automation and
control CPUs. Logic functions include Digital signals and gates,
NOT gate, NAND and AND gates, NOR and OR gates.
Electronic
Fundamentals  Analogue - circuits whose signals are able to vary infinitely
between the ranges imposed by the neutral (zero) condition and
full power supply. Power supply circuits, amplifiers, oscillators,
voltage multiplier, measurement circuits, control circuits, cathodic
protection.
Electronic  As most of you know, like in most industries today more and more
are going to the integrated circuits and more is elevator circuits
Fundamentals are incorporating analogue and digital circuits to do everything.
  15.1.2 Define the fundamentals of solid state electronic devices.
 [2/0]
 Define the introductory information of solid state electronic
Electronic devices
 review atomic theory of matter
Fundamentals  define semiconductor material
 identify the advantages and disadvantages of semi-conductor
materials
 define semiconductor crystals
  15.1.2 Define the fundamentals of solid state electronic devices.
 Define conduction in intrinsic germanium and silicon
 low temperature characteristics
Electronic 

high temperature characteristics
hole theory
Fundamentals  current flow
 Define conduction in doped germanium and silicon
 “N” type semiconductors
 “P” type semiconductors
  15.1.2 Define the fundamentals of solid state electronic devices.
 Define precautions in the care and handling of solid state devices
Electronic  static discharge
Fundamentals 

excessive heat
ultra violet light
 radio frequency induction
  Classical view of matter like ‘solar system’. Atoms (similar to the
entire system) contain a nucleus (centre core, or ‘the sun’) made of
protons and neutrons surrounded by orbiting electrons (the
planets going around the sun represent electrons)
 Electrons surrounding the nucleus can exist in only defined ‘orbits’,
with each orbit able to contain a fixed number of electrons. The
Electronic atomic orbits are called shells.
Fundamentals  Electrons in each ‘orbit’ contain a fixed amount (or “quantity”) of
energy.
 Electrons in some cases are able to jump between orbits,
increased energy to jump to larger orbit, loss (release) of energy to
drop back down to smaller orbit
Electronic
Fundamentals
Electronic
Fundamentals
Electronic
Fundamentals

 Silicon
  An atom’s chemical behaviour is solely determined by the
electrons in the unfilled shells. Low-level shells that are
completely filled have little or no effect on the chemical bonding
Electronic characteristics of elements.

Fundamentals  Elements with completely filled electron shells are almost entirely
unreactive, and are called noble (formerly known as inert).
  Elements ‘want’ to fill the outer shell with electrons and will give
up electrons to expose an inner full shell, or might attract (share)
electrons with another atom to ‘fill up’ the out shell.

Electronic  In the case of giving up or accepting electrons charged particles

called ions are formed. Salt (NaCL) forms from ionic bonds when
Fundamentals neutral Sodium donates an electron and becomes + charged, and
Chlorine accepts an electron and becomes - charged. The Na+ and
Cl- are attracted by the different charges.
  In the case of sharing electrons covalent bonds are formed
(remember valence electrons- outer shell). In this case the
electrons are shared (not given or taken) and ions are not formed.
Elements that bond in this manner include Silicone (Si) and
Germanium (Ge), common materials within solid state electronics.

Electronic  Most materials form their atoms (or ions) in an organized array
called a crystal.
Fundamentals  Metals form crystals at the microscopic level. If polished to optical
quality and then acid etched crystals will be visible.
 Semiconductors are generally single crystals, these are of interest
with solid state electronics.
Electronic
Fundamentals
  Metals can be deformed with the working process deforming the
crystal lattice. “...valence electrons are free to move about the
crystal lattice, and from crystal to crystal. The valence electrons do
not belong to any one particular atom, but to all atoms.. ..”
 We discussed salt crystals forming with the Na+ and Cl- ions by
Electronic transferring

Fundamentals  an electron from Na to Cl, with no free electrons. Electrons are not
free to move about the crystal lattice, a difference compared with
a metal.
 “...semiconductors: C, Si, Ge crystallize into a diamond structure.
Each atom in the crystal is part of a giant molecule, bonding to
four other atoms...”
  Pure semiconductors, by themselves, are not particularly useful.
Though, semiconductors must be refined to a high level of purity
as a starting point prior the addition of specific impurities.

Electronic  At low temperatures semiconductors are poor conductors or

Fundamentals insulators.
 When heated, their resistance decreases.
  Semiconductor material pure to 1 part in 10 billion, may have
specific impurities added at approximately 1 part per 10 million to
Electronic increase the number of carriers. The addition of a desired impurity
to a semiconductor is known as doping. Doping increases the
Fundamentals conductivity of a semiconductor so that it is more comparable to a
metal than an insulator.
  It is possible to increase the number of negative charge carriers
within the semiconductor crystal lattice by doping with an
electron donor like Phosphorus. Electron donors, also known as N-
Electronic type dopants include elements from group VA of the periodic
table: nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. Nitrogen and
Fundamentals phosphorus are N-type dopants for diamond. Phosphorus,
arsenic, and antimony are used with silicon.
  It is also possible to introduce an impurity lacking an electron as
compared with silicon, having three electrons in the valence shell
as compared with four for silicon, this leaves an empty spot known
as a hole, a positive charge carrier. The boron atom tries to bond to
four silicon atoms, but only has three electrons in the valence
band. In attempting to form four covalent bonds the three
electrons move around trying to form four bonds. This makes the
hole appear to move. Furthermore, the trivalent atom may borrow
Electronic an electron from an adjacent (or more distant) silicon atom to
form four covalent bonds. However, this leaves the silicon atom
Fundamentals deficient by one electron. In other words, the hole has moved to
an adjacent (or more distant) silicon atom. Holes reside in the
valence band, a level below the conduction band. Doping with an
electron acceptor, an atom which may accept an electron, creates
a deficiency of electrons, the same as an excess of holes. Since
holes are positive charge carriers, an electron acceptor dopant is
also known as a P-type dopant.
Electronic
Fundamentals
Electronic
Fundamentals

 Intrinsic Silicon Wafer

Electronic
Fundamentals

 A wafer with integrated circuits on it

  Using combinations of the N-type and P-type semiconductor
Electronic materials we can produce components that do useful tasks for us,
Fundamentals such as diodes, transistors and using many PN-junctions
integrated circuits
  Define precautions in the care and handling of solid state devices
 static discharge
Electronic 

excessive heat
ultra violet light
Fundamentals  radio frequency induction
Electronic  ESD
Fundamentals  An ElectroStatic Discharge event is when a static charge is bled off
in an uncontrolled fashion and will be referred to as ESD hereafter.
  ESD comes in many forms, it can be as small as 50 volts of
electricity being equalized up to tens of thousands of volts. The
Electronic actual power is extremely small, so small that no danger is
generally offered to someone who is in the discharge path of ESD.
Fundamentals It usually takes several thousand volts for a person to even notice
ESD in the form of a spark and the familiar zap that accompanies
it.
  The problem with ESD is even a small discharge that can go
completely unnoticed can ruin semiconductors. A static charge of
Electronic thousands of volts is common, however, the reason it is not a
threat is there is no current of any substantial duration behind it.
Fundamentals These extreme voltages do allow ionization of the air and allow
other materials to break down, which is the root of where the
damage comes from.
  Damage to components can, and usually do, occur when the part
is in the ESD path. Many parts, such as power diodes, are very
robust and can handle the discharge, but if a part has a small or
Electronic thin geometry as part of their physical structure then the voltage
can break down that part of the semiconductor. Currents during
Fundamentals these events become quite high but are in the nanosecond to
microsecond time frame. Part of the component is left
permanently damaged by this, which can cause two types of
failure modes: catastrophic and latent.
  ESD damage

Electronic
Fundamentals
Electronic
Fundamentals
  Thermal overstress
 Thermal overstress—excess heat—can cause semiconductors to
Electronic fail. Excess heat melts materials, chars plastics, warps and breaks
semiconductor dies, and causes other types of damage. In
Fundamentals general, devices should not operate with a junction temperature
above 125–150°C.
  Operating junction temperature = TJ , the maximum allowable
Electronic temperature for the diode’s PN junction, usually given in degrees
Celsius (oC). Heat is the “Achilles’ heel” of semiconductor devices:
Fundamentals they must be kept cool to function properly and give long service
life.
  Ultra Violet Light
 Because of the short wavelength of ultraviolet light it can affect
Electronic the stability of the semiconductor material.

Fundamentals  Additionally some digital memory circuits use ultraviolet light to

put all the memory into a known blank state.
  Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency
interference (RFI) when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a
disturbance generated by an external source that affects an
electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic
coupling, or conduction. The disturbance may degrade the
performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the
case of a data path, these effects can range from an increase in
error rate to a total loss of the data. Both man-made and natural
Electronic sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that
Fundamentals can cause EMI: ignition systems, cellular network of mobile
phones, lightning, solar flares, and auroras (northern/southern
lights). EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect mobile
phones, FM radios, and televisions, as well as observations for
radio astronomy and atmospheric science.

 EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic

warfare.
Electronic  Integrated circuits are often a source of EMI, but they must usually
couple their energy to larger objects such as heatsinks, circuit
Fundamentals board planes and cables to radiate significantly.
  Circuits in general all are designed to produce as little RFI/EMI as
Electronic possible as well as to protect from interference. These
requirements are regulated and tested.
Fundamentals  Additionally elevator controls specifically would need to be tested
to not have interference affect the safe operation of the elevator.
Electronic The End
Fundamentals