CLO1

Describe the characteristics and operation of electronic power

devices
Introduction
• Electrical engineering can be divided into four areas of specialization: electronics,
power, control and communications.

• Electronics deals with devices and circuits for the processing of information.

• Power area deals with both rotating and static equipment for the generation,
transmission, distribution, and utilization of massive quantities of electrical power.

• Control area deals with the stability and response characteristics of closed-loop
systems.

• Communication deals with transmitting and receiving data.

Introduction
• Three of these areas can be combined in power electronics , which
deals with the use of electronics for the control and conversion of
large amounts of electrical power.

• The design of power electronics equipment involves interactions with

the source and the load, and utilizes small-signal electronic control
circuits as well as power devices.
Power electronics concepts
• To explain the concept of power electronics let’s get into the following
design problem:

A 12V dc power source is available but the load needs only 6V dc.

How can we connect the load to the source?

• One way to do this is to use voltage divider, an additional load must
be added to the circuit as shown below:

• In this solution there are two problems. Guess what are these
problems?
Voltage divider problems
• When voltage divider is used there will be power loss.

• In this example the power loss is 50% of the power generated by the
source
• Another problem is that if the load resistance changes, the output
voltage changes unless we change the value of the resistor we added.
• A proper solution for this problem is to replace the additional resistor
with a controlled switch.

• If the switching frequency is 1kHz, then the period is 1ms.

• To achieve 6V at the output from 12V at the input, the switch must be
ON half of the period and OFF the other half.
Average voltage for ideal switching circuit
• The average output voltage is:

Where is the source voltage, the time during which the switch is ON,
is the period of the signal. (

• The ratio is called Duty cycle (with no unit).

Example: find the average voltage for the following signals.

Answers: 5V, 7.5V , 2.5V

• If the circuit shown below is used and the switch is turned ON and
OFF quickly, the brightness of the lamp will decrease as if the voltage
dropped.

• Switching power supplies achieve this effect using semi-conductor

elements (Power electronics)
Power electronics
• Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits that are
used to control the flow of electrical energy. Usually these circuits
handle high levels of power flow.

• The main purpose of power electronics is to achieve conversion of

electric power from one form to another, using a combination of high-
power semiconductor devices and passive components transformers,
inductors, and capacitors.
Converters
• Power electronic converters can be classified into four different types
on the basis of input and out-put:
dc-dc, dc-ac, ac-dc, and ac-ac converters.

• The first part referring to the input and the second part to the output.
Converters
• Rectifier circuits: convert AC input into DC output.

• Invertor circuits: convert DC input into AC output.

• Chopper circuits: convert DC input into DC output.

(Different levels)

• Cyclo-converter circuits: convert AC input into AC output.

(Different frequencies)
 Rectifiers

Cyclo-
Choppers
converters

Inverters
Ideal switch
Ideal switch characteristics:

Blocks any forward or reverse applied voltage with 0 current flow when
it is open

Conducts any bidirectional current with zero voltage drop when it is

closed

Switches instantaneously between ON and OFF states when triggered

Ideal switch
Power semiconductor devices
Power
Electronics

Controlled Uncontrolled
devices devices

Regenerative Non- Diode

(Thyristors) regenerative
Schottky
DIAC
Zenner
SCR
TRIAC BJT
GTO JFET
LASCR MOSFET
Power electronics devices as switches
• Regenerative switches show inherent ON-OFF behavior, they cannot
operate in linear manner. This means changing the trigger signal will
only turn the devise ON or OFF and will not increase or decrease the
current passing the main circuit.

• For example: applying enough current to the gate of a thyrisor will

switch the thyristor ON, increasing the gate current has no effect on
the anode current that passes the main circuit.
Thyristor as a controlled regenerative switch
• Non-regenerative switches can operate in linear manner allowing
gradual changes in conduction. For example applying current to the
base of a Bipolar Junction Transistor will switch the BJT ON, while
increasing the base current will increase the collector current.
Power diodes
• Power diodes, (Uncontrolled switches) conduct only if forward biased
and stop conducting if reverse biased (No need for control signal).
This means ON and OFF is controlled by power circuit.

• Ideal diode Practical diode

• If an ideal diode is forward biased then it acts as a closed switch
• If an ideal diode is reverse biased then it acts as an open switch
• Diode blocks negative voltage only!
Reverse recovery time
• When switching from the conducting to the blocking state, a diode has
stored charge that must first be discharged before the diode blocks reverse
current. This discharge takes a finite amount of time known as the Reverse
Recovery Time.

• During this reverse recovery time of the diode, there will be fairly large
amount of current flowing through the diode, but in the opposite direction
Ir. (Reverse current)
Reverse recovery time
• The reverse recovery time is
measured as the time delay between
switching OFF till the current reaches
ten percent of its maximum reverse
value.

• Diodes with smaller reverse recovery

time are preferred, especially when
the requirement is of high switching
speed.
Power diodes classification
• Power diodes can be classified according to their reverse recovery
time into three categories

- General purpose power diodes

- Fast recovery diodes
- Shottky power diodes
Comparison Between Different Types Of Diodes
Power diodes applications
• Rectifiers
Power diodes applications
• Regulated voltage supply

Diodes are connected together in series to provide a constant DC voltage across the diode
combination

We can of course produce the same

constant voltage source using a single Zener Diode.
Resistor, RD is used to prevent excessive current
flowing through the diodes if the load is removed.
Power diodes applications
• Freewheeling Diodes for protection
The Freewheel diode is used to protect solid state switches such as power transistors and MOSFET’s
from damage by reverse battery as well as protection from highly inductive loads such as relay coils
or motors, and an example of its connection is shown below.
• Inductor current can’t drop to zero immediately.

• Freewheeling diode (Fly-wheeling diode) creates an alternative path for the current passing
the inductor when switch is open.

• If the diode is not connected, spark occurs when switch opens.

• Freewheeling diode must be connected in reverse direction (otherwise it creates short

circuit).
Thyristors
• Thyristors are usually three-terminal devices that have four layers of alternating
p-type and n-type material. (three PN junctions)

• The control terminal of the Thyristor is called the gate (G), the other two
terminals, are called the anode and cathode.

• The anode and cathode terminals are connected in series with the load to which
power is to be controlled.

• Thyristors are typically used as switches or rectifiers in high power circuits

because they are designed to handle large currents and voltages
Thyristors
• A Thyristor can be modeled as either two transistors or three diodes
• Like the diode, the Thyristor is a unidirectional device, it will only conduct
current in one direction only, but unlike a diode, the Thyristor must be
triggered to switch ON.

• Usually gate current is used to trigger the Thyristor (switch the Thyristor
ON)
• The minimum anode current that will cause the Thyristor to remain (ON) in
forward conduction after removing the gate signal is called the latching current.

• This means after applying enough trigger current at the gate, the gate signal can
be removed only if the anode current reaches the latching current.

• If the Thyristor is already in forward conduction and the anode current is

reduced, the device can be turned OFF.

• Holding current is the minimum current below which the Thyristor goes OFF
after it has been switch ON.

• The holding current value is lower than the latching current value.
Example(1) Ideal Thyrsitor (VAK=0, VGK=0)
• The following values obtained
from the datasheet of a thyristor
• Minimum trigger current = 2 mA
• I(Latching)= 6 mA
• I(Holding) = 4 mA
• If both switches (S1 and S2) are OFF will the thyristor conduct?
The thyristor is OFF when both S1 and S2 are OFF,

• What happens if only S1 is switched ON?

The thyristor stays OFF, because there is no trigger signal at the gate.

• What happens if both S1 and S2 are switched ON.

Gate current is:

The Thyristor turns ON and the anode current will be:

• If both switches are turned ON for sometime, and then S2 is switched
OFF will the thyristor keep conducting?
when both switches are ON:
, gate signal can be removed and the thyristor stays ON because the anode
current is greater than the latching current.

• While the circuit is ON if the value of R1 is increased gradually to 4K

will the thyristor keep conducting?
Increasing R1 will reduce the anode current

The thyristor will switch OFF because the anode current drops below the holding
current.
Example(2) Practical Thyrsitor
• The following values obtained
from the datasheet of a thyristor
• Minimum trigger current = 2 mA
• I(Latching)= 6 mA
• I(Holding) = 4 mA
• VAK (ON)=1 V
• VGK=0.7 V
• If both switches (S1 and S2) are OFF will the thyristor conduct?
The thyristor is OFF when both S1 and S2 are OFF,

• What happens if only S1 is switched ON?

The thyristor stays OFF, because there is no trigger signal at the gate.

• What happens if both S1 and S2 are switched ON.

Gate current is:

The Thyristor turns ON and the anode current will be:

• If both switches are turned ON for sometime, and then S2 is switched
OFF will the thyristor keep conducting?
when both switches are ON:
, gate signal can be removed and the thyristor stays ON because the anode current is
greater than the latching current.

• While the circuit is ON if the value of R1 is increased gradually to 2K will

the thyristor keep conducting?
Increasing R1 will reduce the anode current

The thyristor stays ON because the anode current still greater than the holding
current.
Example(3) Practical Thyrsitor
• The following values obtained
from the datasheet of a thyristor
• Minimum trigger current = 2 mA
• I(Latching)= 6 mA
• I(Holding) = 4 mA
• VAK (ON)=1 V
• VGK=0.7 V
• Vs= 10 V
• What happens if only S1 is switched ON?
The thyristor stays OFF, because there is no trigger signal at the gate.

• What happens if both S1 and S2 are switched ON.

R2 and GK are in parallel

Gate current is:

The Thyristor stays OFF.

Example(3) Practical Thyrsitor
• The following values obtained
from the datasheet of a thyristor
• Minimum trigger current = 2 mA
• I(Latching)= 6 mA
• I(Holding) = 4 mA
• VAK (ON)=1 V
• VGK=0.7 V
• Vs= 10 V
• What happens if only S1 is switched ON?
The thyristor stays OFF, because there is no trigger signal at the gate.

• What happens if both S1 and S2 are switched ON.

R2 and GK are in parallel

Gate current is:

The Thyristor goes ON.

• If both switches are turned ON for sometime, and then S2 is switched
OFF will the thyristor keep conducting?
when both switches are ON:

gate signal can be removed and the thyristor stays ON because the anode current is
greater than the latching current.

• While the circuit is ON if the value of R1 is increased gradually, at

what value of R the thyristor switches OFF?
Turn on methods of a thyrsitor
• Gate trigger
applying positive voltage to the gate with respect to the cathode will send current
signal to the gate, if this current is sufficient the thyristor turns ON)

• Voltage trigger
A thyristor can be turned ON if the anode cathode voltage reaches the break-over
voltage (even with NO gate signal), but this method is not used.
Methods of Turning Off the thyristor
• Once the thyristor is turned-on, the gate loses control and the
thyristor will only turn off when the load current falls below the
holding current, or the thyristor is reverse biased.

• The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as "Commutation".

• There are two methods by which a thyristor can be turned Off.

a- Natural Commutation
b- Forced Commutation
Natural Commutation
• In AC circuit, the current always
passes through zero for every half
cycle .

• As the current passes through zero,

anode current drops below the
holding current. This will turn OFF
the thyristor immediately.

• This process is called as natural

commutation, since no external
circuit is required for this purpose.
Forced Commutation

• If S1 is pressed momentarily then released

thyristor switches ON and the light goes
ON.

• If S2 is then pressed thyristor will turn OFF

because its current will drop to 0 due to
the short circuit created by the switch.

• Note: After switching the circuit ON and

while pressing S2 load stays ON even
though the thyristor is OFF, the moment S2
is released the load goes OFF.
Thyristor Types

• There are many types of thyristors all of them has three terminals but
differs only in how they can turn ON and OFF.

1. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

2. Gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO)
3. Bidirectional triode thyristor (TRIAC)
4. Light activated silicon-controlled rectifier (LASCR)
Gate-turn-off thyristor
• A GTO thyristor can be turned on by a single pulse of positive gate
current like conventional thyristor, but in addition it can be turned off
by a pulse of negative gate current

• Position 1 is used to switch the GTO ON.

• Once GTO is triggered it stays ON and the switch
is moved to position 2.
• Position 3 is used to switch the GTO OFF.
Difference between SCR and GTO
• In SCR, only the ‘on’ function is controllable, whereas both ‘on’ and ‘off’ functions are controllable in
GTOs.

• GTO uses both negative and positive pulses in operation unlike SCR, which uses only positive pulses.

• GTO has higher switching speed than SCR.

• Voltage drop and associated losses are higher in GTO than thyristor

• Triggering gate current required for GTOs is more than those of thyristor

• Latching and holding current is more in GTO than those of thyristor

Bi-Directional Thyristor (TRIAC)

• The TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device for controlling current. It gains
its name from the term TRIode for Alternating Current.

• A TRIAC is equivalent of two reverse parallel-connected SCRs with one common

gate.

• Conduction can be achieved in either direction with an appropriate gate current.

• A TRIAC is thus a bi-directional gate controlled thyristor with three terminals.

• The terms anode and cathode are not applicable to TRIAC

TRIAC
TIRAC v.s SCR
• The TRIAC is an ideal device to use for AC switching applications
because it can control the current flow over both halves of an
alternating cycle.

• A thyristor is only able to control current over one half of a cycle.

During the remaining half no conduction occurs and accordingly only
half the waveform can be utilized.
The DIAC (DIAC is not a thyristor)
• This is a bi-directional trigger diode used mainly in firing Triacs and Thyristors in AC
control circuits.

• It consists of a PNP structure (like a transistor without a base) and acts basically as two
diodes connected cathode to cathode.

• The DIAC is designed to have a particular break over voltage, typically about 30 volts,
and when a voltage less than this is applied in either polarity, the device remains in a
high resistance state with only a small leakage current flowing.

• Once the break over voltage is reached however, in either polarity, the device
conducts. (it will have a negative resistance)
DIAC Symbol and I-V Characteristics
Quadrac
• Quadrac is a special type of thyristor that combines a “DIAC" and a
“TRIAC" in a single chip.
• The DIAC is the triggering device for the TRIAC.
• As the AC supply voltage increases at the beginning of the cycle, capacitor is charged.

• When the charging voltage reaches the breakover voltage of the diac (about 30 V), the
diac breaks down and the capacitor discharges through the diac, producing a sudden
pulse of current, which fires the triac into conduction.

• Once the triac has been fired into conduction, it is maintained in its “ON” state by the
load current flowing through it.

• At the end of the half cycle the supply voltage falls to zero, reducing the current
through the triac below its holding current, IH turning it “OFF” and the diac stops
conduction.

• The supply voltage then enters its next half-cycle, the capacitor voltage again begins to
rise (this time in the opposite direction) and the cycle of firing the triac repeats over
again.
Thyristor Protection
• Switching devices and circuit components may fail due to the
following reasons:

1. Overheating – thermal failure

2. Overcurrent
3. Overvoltage – usually happens during turn-off
4. Excessive
5. Excessive
𝑑𝑣
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡
• Applying a positive voltage to the SCR might activate the thyristor and allow
current to follow due to the capacitance behavior of the reversed junction in the
thyristor.

• This current can turn-on the device even when the gate signal is absent. It is
called dv/dt triggering and must be avoided using Snubber circuit

• A capacitor must be connected across a switching device to limit the .

• The voltage across capacitor build up gradually (this limits )
• A resistor must be used with the capacitor to limit the discharge
current through the SCR.
𝑑i
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡
• When a thyristor is turned on by gate
pulse then charge carriers spread
through its junction rapidly. But if rate of
rise of anode current (di/dt) is high local
spot heating occurs.

• Heat might damage the thyristor, to

avoid heating an inductor can be used in
series with the thyristor.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (Review)
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a Semiconductor device consists of
three doped semiconductor Regions (Base, Collector and Emitter)
separated by two p-n Junctions.
Common Emitter BJT

Region of Description Collector-Current Curves

Operation IC

Active Small base current

controls a large Active
collector current
Region
Saturation VCE(sat) ~ 0.2V, VCE
increases with IC
IB
Cutoff Achieved by reducing
IB to 0, Ideally, IC will
also equal 0. VCE

Saturation Region
Cutoff Region
IB = 0
Common Emitter BJT as a switch
• A transistor can be used for switching
operation for opening or closing of a
circuit.

• Both NPN and PNP transistors can be

used as switches.

• Base current controls collector

current Ic= βIB
Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
• The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to
control the electrical behavior of the device.

• There are two basic types of Field Effect Transistor, N-channel and P-channel.

• Bipolar Transistors are "Bipolar" devices because they operate with both types
of charge carriers, Holes and Electrons.

• The Field Effect Transistor on the other hand is a "Unipolar" device that
depends only on the conduction of Electrons (N-channel) or Holes (P-channel).
 BJTs vs FETs
BJTs FETs

FETs are voltage-controlled. They

How it operates BJTs are current-controlled. They only require voltage applied to the
require a biasing current to the gate to turn the FET either on or
base terminal of operation. off. They do not require a biasing
current for operation.

FETs offer greater input impedance

BJTs offer smaller input
than BJTs. This means that they
impedances, meaning they draw
practically draw no current and
Input Impedance more current from the power circuit
therefore load down the power
feeding it, which can cause loading
circuit that's feeding a lot less and
of the circuit.
minimimally.

Gain BJTs offer greater gain at the The gain (or transconductance) of
(Transconductance) output than FETs. FETs are smaller than for BJTs.

FETs can be manufactured much

BJTs are larger in size and smaller than BJTs. This is
Size therefore take up more physical especially important for integrated
space than FETs normally. circuits that are composed up of
many transistors.

FETs, especially MOSFETs, are

Cost BJTs are cheaper to manufacture
more expensive to manufacture
JFET
• Junction Field Effect Transistor is a normally closed device (ON).
• For n-channel device, when the drain is positive with respect to the
source and the gate to source voltage is zero there will be current in
the channel.
• When a negative voltage is applied to the gate the electric field makes
the channel narrow which in turn causes the current to decrease.
Output characteristic voltage-current curves JFET
 N-Channel JFET Operation

The nonconductive depletion region becomes thicker with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)

January 2004 ELEC 121 76

JFET as a voltage controlled switch
• In a BJT,  (hFE) defined the relationship between IB (input current)
and IC (output current).
•
In a JFET, the relationship (Shockley’s Equation) between V GS (input
voltage) and ID (output current) is used to define the transfer
characteristics, and a little more complicated (and not linear):
2
 VGS 
ID = IDSS  1 - 
 VP 
 Transfer (Transconductance) Curve

From this graph it is easy to determine the value of I D for a given value of VGS
It is also possible to determine IDSS and VP by looking at the knee where VGS is 0

78
Example:
• The device parameters for an n-Channel JFET are: Maximum current
IDSS = 10mA, Pinch off voltage Vp=-4 V
Calculate the drain current for
(a) VGS = 0
(b) VGS = - 1.0v
(c) VGS = - 4V.

Answers: (a) 10 mA (b) 5.6 mA (c) 0 mA

Example:
• Find VGS. Given ID= 3mA

(Answer: -0.99V)
MOSFET
• Gate input is electrically insulated from the main current carrying channel
and is therefore called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor.

• The most common type of insulated gate FET or IGFET as it is sometimes

called, is the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET
for short.

• The power MOSFET has two important advantages over than BJT, First of
them, is its need to very low operating gate current, the second of them, is
its very high switching speed. So, it is used in the circuit that requires high
turning ON and OFF speed that may be greater than 100kHz.
MOSFET TYPES

• Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage,

( VGS ) to switch the device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is
equivalent to a “Normally Closed” switch.

• Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage,

( VGS ) to switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is
equivalent to a “Normally Open” switch.
E-MOSFET
• An n-channel E-MOSFET has
almost zero current until it is
induced by a positive voltage.

• E-MOSFET works only in the

Enhancement mode.
D-MOSFET
• A D-MOSFET type can
work in either
enhancement mode
or depletion mode
depends on the gate
to source voltage.
Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET
Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET
IGBT
• IGBTs transistors introduce a performance same as BJT but it has the
advantage that its very high current density and it has higher switch
speed than BJT but still lower than MOSFET.
• An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned “ON” or “OFF” by
activating and deactivating its Gate terminal.
• Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the
Emitter will keep the device in its “ON” state, while making the input
gate signal zero or slightly negative will cause it to turn “OFF” in much
the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET.
IGBT
IGBT
• Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a
small voltage on the Gate to maintain conduction through the device
unlike BJT’s which require that the Base current is continuously
supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.