SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 50, No. 6, 965–975, Dec.

2010
Japanese Geotechnical Society

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ``SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS'': GROUND IMPROVEMENT

MASAKI KITAZUMEi) and MITSU OKAMURAii)

ABSTRACT
To date, numerous ground improvement techniques have been developed and applied to various types of ground for
various improvement purposes. However, they were not developed at the same time, but were developed and applied
one by one according to social demands and the development of society. As the development ground improvement
techniques improved and such techniques came to used more widely, a great deal of research eŠort was devoted to their
design, execution, quality control and quality assurance, with the results published in many journals and conference
proceedings. Soils and Foundations has published a large number of papers related to ground improvement. This arti-
cle introduces a brief historical review of the development of ground improvement techniques, and then highlights the
major papers published in Soils and Foundations over the last 50 years.

Key words: consolidation, densiˆcation, ground improvement, historical review, replacement, solidiˆcation (IGC:
A1)

INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL REVIEW OF GROUND

It is an obvious truism that structures should be con-
structed on stiŠ, uncompressible ground. The ground
conditions of construction sites, however, has worsened
in recent decades throughout the world. When a structure
is constructed on soft clay ground or organic soil ground,
a large amount of ground settlement and/or stability
failure is likely to be encountered. Apart from clay or or-
ganic soil grounds, a loose sand deposit under a water ta-
ble may cause serious problems of liquefaction under
seismic condition. In such cases, appropriate ground im-
provement techniques are required to improve the physi-
cal and mechanical properties of the ground, thus
preventing these problems.
There are, at present, so many ground improvement
techniques to choose from for application to various
types of ground for various improvement purposes.
These techniques developed over time when the need for
them was recognized and the necessary attention was
given to improving the methods and technology availa-
ble, with the results published in many journals and con-
ference proceedings. Soils and Foundations has pub-
lished a large number of papers related to ground im-
provement. This article introduces a brief historical rev-
iew of the development of ground improvement tech-
niques, and then highlights the major papers published in
Soils and Foundations over the last 50 years.
i)
Port and Airport Research Institute, Japan (kitazume＠pari.go.jp).
ii)
Ehime University, Japan.
The manuscript for this paper was received for review on May 25, 2010; approved on September 29, 2010.
IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Throughout the long history of geotechnical engineer-
ing, concepts like bearing capacity, earth pressure and
consolidation have been developed. The focus of the bulk
of research at any given time re‰ects the social needs and
demand for new techniques: sometimes it is stability, and
at other times it has been ground settlement or the dy-
namic behavior of ground and the geo-environment.
There are roughly ˆve categories of ground improve-
ment techniques for various types of ground and for vari-
ous improvement purposes: replacement, consolidation,
densiˆcation, solidiˆcation and contact pressure reduc-
tion, as shown in Table 1 (after Zen, 1999). In the table,
the chronological development of the techniques is sum-
marized.
Ground Improvement Techniques for Clay
In the 1940s, and even well into the 1950s, the main
geotechnical focus of Japanese geotechnical engineers
was the stability problem. It is no exaggeration to say that
the stability problem was the only item that researchers
were working on, at that time, which was largely due to
the limitations in geotechnical engineering and construc-
tion machinery at the time. The replacement method was
frequently applied as a countermeasure to the stability
problem, where soft clayey soil stratum was entirely or
partially excavated and replaced by sandy material prior
to the construction of the superstructure.
After the development of the Terzaghi's and Barron's

965
966 KITAZUME AND OKAMURA

consolidation theories in 1943 and 1948 respectively,
``ground settlement'' came to be almost equal to the sta-
bility problem in the 1950s in terms of the amount of at-
tention it was getting from geotechnical engineers. In
order to accelerate the consolidation process and to
reduce residual settlement, several improvement
methods, categorized into ``consolidation'', were devel-
oped in the 1950s and 1960s. The sand drain method, one
of the main ground improvement methods, was devel-
oped and ˆrst applied at Nagasaki Port in 1952, and this
was followed by several applications in the 1950s and
1960s. More than 50,000 sand drains were constructed at
Nagoya Port in 1962, at which point, it can safely be
claimed, the design procedure, execution and QA/QC of
the method was well-established. In the 1970s to 1980s,
the social demand for rapid construction led to the use of
the sand compaction pile method and the deep mixing
method rather than the sand drain method. In 1983, a
new type of sand drain method was developed in order to
improve very soft clay with high water content for the
Tokyo/Haneda International Airport Expansion
Project, where the sand drain was packed by a sort of en-
velope made of geosynthetics. In the 1980s, more than
two million sand drains were constructed at the Kansai

Table 1. Chronological table on development and application of ground improvement techniques (after Zen, 1999)
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
International Airport construction project.
In order to reduce the amount of ground settlement
and deformation, several densiˆcation methods were de-
veloped in the 1950s and 1960s, and several admixture
stabilization methods followed in the 1970s. The princi-
ple of the sand compaction pile method was introduced in
the 1950s. In 1956, the ˆrst type of sand compaction pile
(SCP) machine with a hammering device was developed
in Japan for the densiˆcation of sandy ground (Muraya-
ma, 1957). After various developments in machinery, the
SCP method with a vibro-hammer was developed in
1959. In 1961, the method was also applied to improve
soft clay ground as a replacement method, in which many
compacted sand piles were constructed with a high
replacement area ratio. The result was that almost all the
soft clay was replaced by these piles. Since its successful
application to marine clay deposits, the SCP method has
been applied not only to sandy ground but also to clay
ground in many marine and on land construction projects
(Kitazume, 2005).
In the 1970s, the deep mixing method, in-situ soil ad-
mixture technique using quicklime as a binder was devel-
oped and put into practice not only in Japan but also in
Scandinavian countries. Quicklime was replaced with ce-
ment in Japan, and with a lime-cement mixture in Nordic
countries. Due to the rapid increase in strength, which
was most desirable in the era of ``the Japanese post-war
economic miracle'' in the 1970s and 1980s, the deep mix-
ing method (DMM) was frequently applied for the im-
provement of many kinds of foundation in marine and
on land constructions (CDIT, 2002). The purposes of im-
provement included the prevention of settlement, an in-
crease in stability and bearing capacity, a reduction of ac-
tive earth pressure, an increase in the passive pressure, to
cut-oŠ water, or to increase the lateral resistance of piles.
Recently the method tends to be applied to prevent the
liquefaction of sandy ground.
Ground Improvement Techniques for Sand
The huge earthquakes which occurred in Alaska and
Niigata in 1964 demonstrated the importance of soil dy-
namics and countermeasure of seismic disasters to geo-
technical engineers. Since then, dynamic soil properties,
the dynamic interaction of ground and structure, and liq-
uefaction have been the main focus of geotechnical en-
gineering. The possibility of liquefaction used to be eval-
uated by the SPT N-value alone many years ago, and the
main method used as a countermeasure to liquefaction
was the densiˆcation of ground to increase the SPT N-
value. Several densiˆcation methods, including the
vibro‰oatation method, the sand compaction pile
method and the dynamic compaction method were devel-
oped to increase the density and SPT N-value. As the
mechanism of liquefaction began to be studied in more
detail, the gravel drain method was developed and ap-
plied to liquefaction mitigation in 1968, and a grid type
deep mixing method was applied to liquefaction mitiga-
tion in 1994. Vibration was considered quite an eŠective
way to increase the density of granular soil, but it caused
967
large noise and vibration to surrounding. As the public's
attention turned to environmental issues over time, new
types of SCP method were developed, and in 1985, a
compacted sand pile was constructed in a static manner
without any vibration.
In the 1990s, the premixing method, one of the solidiˆ-
cation methods, was developed to construct a sort of liq-
uefaction free reclaimed land where sand was premixed
with a relatively small amount of cement prior to recla-
mation (CDIT, 2003). After the Hyogoken-Nambu
Earthquake in 1995, the design concept for seismic design
was revised dramatically, with not only the liquefaction
potential but also the ground deformation during and af-
ter earthquake becoming the main focus of geotechnical
engineering community. Not only the SPT N-value but
the detailed mechanical properties of improved soils were
studied to determine crucial input parameters for defor-
mation predictions using numerical methods. Several new
ground improvement methods, such as the permeable
grouting method and the compaction grouting method,
were developed to reinforce existing structures and to pre-
vent liquefaction. Recently, a new and less costly densiˆ-
cation method has been developed in which the ground is
de-saturated to increase the liquefaction potential.
Ground Improvement Techniques for Geo-environment
In the era of ``the Japanese post-war economic mira-
cle'' in the 1970s and 1980s, many cases of soil and
groundwater contamination were reported, to the extent
that it was considered a social problem. Since then, the
management of waste landˆll and contaminated sites has
garnered a great deal of attention in the discipline of geo-
technical and geo-environmental engineering. Such
management required the development of new ground
improvement techniques to allow the construction of an
impermeable barrier for disposal sites and for the clean-
ing up contaminated ground for the beneˆcial use of the
dredged soft soil, subsoil and industrial by-products.
Several types of soil admixture techniques, such as the li-
queˆed soil method, the light weight soil method (Tsuchi-
da and Egashira, 2004) and the pneumatic ‰ow mixing
method (The ˆfth Regional Development Bureau, Minis-
try of Transport, 1999) were developed and put into prac-
tice in the 1990s and 2000s. Among then, the light weight
soil method and the pneumatic ‰ow mixing method were
applied to the restoration project of the Hyogoken-
Nambu Earthquake and the Tokyo/Haneda Internation-
al Airport Re-expansion Project respectively. In addi-
tion, many ground improvement techniques have been
developed and improved to minimize the potential ad-
verse in‰uences on the surroundings during execution,
such as noise, vibration, ground heaving and lateral
deformation.
BRIEF REVIEW OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN
SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
Consolidation
In the category of consolidation as the improvement
968 KITAZUME AND OKAMURA
principal, the preloading method, the preloading method
with a vertical drain, the dewatering method and chemi-
cal dewatering method are included. These methods were
developed independently from the 1920s to 1970s, as
shown in Table 1. Several research papers on the preload-
ing method with vertical drain were published in Soils
and Foundations, but those on the other methods are
quite limited.
Vertical Drain Method
The strengthening and pre-consolidation of soft and
compressible soils by preloading prior to construction is
one of the oldest and most widely used methods. In order
to accelerate the consolidation by preloading, the vertical
drain method was developed by Kjellman in 1937 (Mitch-
ell, 1981). After the development of the theory for the
vertical drain method by Barron in 1948 (Barron, 1948),
it has been applied in several ports in Japan and their case
histories have been published in several journals.
The magnitude of coe‹cient of vertical consolidation
due to horizontal ‰ow, Cvh, the smear eŠect, and the
eŠects of well and mat resistances are the most important
issues in the design of vertical drain method. For the Cvh,
a lot of research eŠorts was conducted in the 1960s and
1970s, and there were several proposals of Cvh/Cvv as
nearly 1, or anywhere from 2 to 10. Recently, Suzuki and
Takeuchi (2008) presented a successful case history of
prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) method for Hai
Phong clay in Vietnam, and concluded that the Cvh/Cvv
back calculated by the settlement measurement data at
ˆeld was 1.5.
For the eŠects of well resistances, Aboshi and Yoshiku-
ni (1967) derived a theoretical equation. They obtained
numerical solutions with the aid of an electric lumped-
parameter model and compared their numerical results
with a large scale laboratory experiment. They in-
troduced a factor modifying the consolidation process
with well resistance. Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1974) fol-
lowed the research by Aboshi and Yoshikuni (1967), and
provided a rigorous solution on the well resistance factor.
Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1975) provided theoretical so-
lutions for various deformation conditions and conclud-
ed that the rate of consolidation was dependent upon the
deformation condition and Poisson's ratio.
Onoue published two important papers in Soils and
Foundations (Onoue, 1988a, c). He developed the ˆnite
diŠerence equations based on Hansbo's theory (1981) to
simulate the consolidation of multilayered ground
(Onoue, 1988a). He performed a series of ˆeld experi-
ments to investigate the applicability of his equations and
the well resistance eŠect of the consolidation phenomen-
on. He found his equations highly applicable and demon-
strated the importance of incorporating well resistance in
making precise estimations when doing ˆeld measure-
ments. He also proposed the homogeneous method for
handling multilayered ground. Onoue (1988c) investigat-
ed the eŠect of the well resistance and the smear by his
ˆnite diŠerence equations. He compared his calculations
on the smear eŠect with Hansbo's solution and obtained
good results. He provided the diagram on equivalent
spacing ratio of drain by incorporating the permeability
ratio of smear portion and un-smear portion, kh/khs. He
also discussed the eŠect of compressibility change in the
smear zone on the consolidation process. The smear
eŠect on consolidation speed was small for soils whose
compressibility increased due to disturbance. For soils
whose permeability decreases due to disturbance, Bar-
ron's and Hansbo's approximate solutions provided an
accurate estimation from a practical view point.
Recently, Nawagamuwa and Imai (2007) proposed an
intermediate zone between the remolded and undisturbed
zone for taking the smear eŠect into account. They com-
pared their calculations with the results by Barron's and
Hansbo's solutions and concluded that they could pro-
vide a better solution for higher de/ds values. According
to the horizontal coe‹cient of permeability measured in-
situ, Madhav et al. (1993) introduced three distinct zones
for discussing the smear eŠect; an inner smear zone con-
sisting of highly remolded soil, an outer transition zone,
and soil unaŠected zone by drain installation. They mo-
deled a two dimensional consolidation consisting of the
three distinct zones, and solved the problem numerically
to obtain the consolidation degree and time factor curves.
They also carried out parametric calculations to highlight
the eŠect of the permeability of the inner zone on the con-
solidation phenomenon.
As computers developed, several ˆnite element ana-
lyses have been applied to the vertical drain method.
Among them, Asaoka et al. (1992, 1995) carried out
elasto-plastic FEM analyses to investigate the eŠect of the
permeability of ground and the embankment loading in-
tensity on the settlement behavior of the improved
ground. They introduced the mass permeability concept
in the analyses to discuss the ground settlement at the
ends of loading and consolidation. According to their
analyses, the time-settlement behavior of improved
ground with a given drain conˆguration was equivalent to
the non-improved ground with an improved mass
permeability, and could be predicted once the original or
improved mass permeability was estimated.
Buckling and kinking deformation of a prefabricated
vertical drain may take place when the amount of ground
settlement is quite large in magnitude, which can cause
considerable decrease in the discharge capacity of drain
and in turn delay in consolidation. Ali (1993) carried out
laboratory model tests on various types of PVD and were
able to determine the discharge capacity of PVD. Aboshi
et al. (2001) also carried out laboratory tests and ˆeld
measurements to discuss the kinking eŠect on the consoli-
dation phenomenon, where two kinds of PVD, ordinal
plastic drain and ˆbredrain, were tested. They compared
the consolidation behavior of two drains and showed the
high applicability of the ˆbredrain as a countermeasure
to the kinking deformation.
Gravel Drain Method
The gravel drain method has been applied to loose
sandy deposits for liquefaction mitigation to speed up the
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
dissipation of excess pore water pressure generating dur-
ing an earthquake. Sasaki and Taniguchi (1982) carried
out large-scale model tests on the gravel drain method.
They also carried out FEM calculations and showed the
high applicability of the method for liquefaction preven-
tion. Onoue (1988b) carried out ˆnite diŠerence analyses
to discuss the well resistance eŠect on the gravel drain
method. Based on his calculations, he provided the de-
sign charts of drain spacing in which the well resistance
eŠect was able to be taken into account.
Densiˆcation
Dewatering/compaction and compaction are included
in the category of densiˆcation, These methods were de-
veloped individually in the 1950s to 1970s as shown in
Table 1. Several research papers on the sand compaction
pile method and the dynamic compaction method were
published in Soils and Foundations, but few papers on
the other methods were published. Therefore, the
research activities on the sand compaction pile method
and the dynamic compaction method are only brie‰y in-
troduced in this section.
Sand Compaction Pile Method and Stone Column
Method for Clay
The SCP method was developed in 1956, and has been
frequently adopted in many construction projects in
Japan, and involves sand being fed into the ground be-
fore being compacted by either vibration, dynamic im-
pact or static excitation to construct a compacted sand
pile in the ground. This method was originally developed
in order to increase the density of loose sandy ground and
to increase the uniformity of sandy ground, but has also
been frequently applied to soft clay ground to assure sta-
bility and/or to reduce ground settlement. Ogawa and
Ichimoto (1963) presented the application of the vibo-
compozer method to cohesive foundation soil. They
measured the ground settlement and the strength change
of clay ground at several sites and concluded that the
amount of ground settlement could be decreased due to
preconsolidation eŠect by sand pile installation and the
stress concentration eŠect. They also showed that the
strength of the clay decreased by sand piles installation
but increased thereafter. Based on a a background of
much research and ˆeld experience, the design method
was established in 1989 in Japan, where a slip circle anal-
ysis with composite ground concept was incorporated
(Ministry of Transport, 1999). The applicability of the
design method was conˆrmed by the full-scale ˆeld load-
ing test (Okada, 1993) and centrifuge model tests (e.g.,
Terashi et al, 1990). Rahman et al. (2000) carried out a s-
eries of centrifugal model tests to investigate the short
and long-term behavior of a gravity type of caisson on the
SCP improved ground subject to backˆll loading. They
found the rotational behavior of the caisson during back-
ˆlling, which was in‰uenced by the loading rate. Matsuo
and Suzuki (1983) discussed their ˆnding that the reliabil-
ity-based design of SCP improved ground under embank-
ments. They carried out multiple regression analyses to
969
ˆnd out a simple engineering method and provide some
numerical examples to verify the usefulness of the simple
engineering method.
Asaoka et al. (1994) focused on clay ground behavior
during sand piles installation, and carried out a series of
numerical calculations to investigate the strength behav-
ior between sand piles subjected to heavy lateral pressure
during installation. They examined the increase of un-
drained shear strength due to sand piles driven in two
stages; the soil-water coupled rigid plastic ˆnite element
analyses and a linear elastic consolidation computation.
They found that the soft clay was extensively improved
particularly at very large depths of the soft clay proˆle.
Nakano et al. (2008) carried out a series of FEM analyses
to evaluate the deformation and bearing capacity charac-
teristics of the intermediate reclaimed land subjected to
installation of sand compaction piles. In the analyses, the
two dimensional ground was calculated where three-
dimensional sand piles were simulated by two dimen-
sional soil wall. The sand pile construction procedure by
static method was simulated in the calculation, where
``pull out'' and ``driven in'' procedures were repeated in
a stepwise manner in the calculations to investigate the
stress condition of the clay between the sand piles. They
also carried out the calculations on the deformation and
bearing capacity of improved ground and concluded that
the bearing capacity of the improved ground increases by
1.5 to 2 times that of the unimproved ground, which indi-
cated that the displacement characteristics and bearing
capacity of the composite ground improved signiˆcantly.
Sand Compaction Pile and Stone Column for Sand
The SCP method is often applied to improve the
mechanical properties of sand, in particular for liq-
uefaction mitigation. During installation, sand compac-
tion piles are well compacted and expanded horizontally,
which compresses the surrounding soils horizontally.
Regarding the extent of the improvement eŠect, Nishi-
da and Hoda (1960) performed theoretical studies on the
expansion mechanism of sandy ground and concluded
that the in‰uence of the installation of sand piles was ex-
tended to the surroundings by up to a diameter of 8 times
the sand pile diameter. Farias et al. (2005) also conducted
FEM simulation of static sand pile installation using a
sophisticated model. They found that compacted sand
piles installation densiˆes the surrounding soil not only
horizontally but also vertically to a depth of ˆve di-
ameters from the pile tip. Nakayama et al. (1973) studied
some accumulated SPT N-values before and after im-
provement. They found that the improvement eŠect was
relatively small at a shallow depth of less than 2 m and it
was dependent upon the sand/gravel contents of the
original ground. According to these investigations, it has
been assumed that the SPT N-value in the improved
ground is the largest in the sand piles and decreases with
horizontal distance toward the midpoint of sand piles
(Ohbayashi et al., 1998).
A design procedure was proposed in 1965 (Ogawa and
Ishidou, 1965), where, the void ratios of original and im-
970 KITAZUME AND OKAMURA
proved grounds were estimated by the SPT N-value where
the eŠect of the uniformity coe‹cient, Uc, and the over-
burden pressure are taken into account. The design
procedure was modiˆed based on accumulated ˆeld data
on the relationship between void ratios, relative density
and SPT N-value in 1971 (Fudo Construction Co., Ltd.,
1971). In the method, the relative density was calculated
by the SPT N-value and by taking into account the maxi-
mum and minimum void ratio of the soil, and the eŠect
of overburden pressure was incorporated in the SPT N-
value to calculate the void ratio. Due to its simplicity, this
design method has frequently been adopted to sandy
ground with a ˆnes content of less than 20z. In the de-
sign, the improvement ratio was determined so that SPT
N-value at the midpoint between piles was assured to the
target value. The replacement ratio of SCP as a liq-
uefaction countermeasure is typically lower than 25z,
which is somewhat lower than that encountered in clay.
Okamura and Tamura (2004) reported that the design
concept was more or less appropriate but that the SPT N-
values in improved soil were highly heterogeneous ir-
respective of the depth and the ˆnes contents of the sand.
Regarding the eŠect of the ˆnes content, Tokimatsu
and Yoshimi (1983) accumulated ˆeld SPT N-value data
and found that the improvement eŠect decreased when
the ˆnes content of the original ground exceeded about 20
z. The design procedure was again modiˆed by taking
the eŠect of the ˆnes content into account, where a reduc-
tion factor to incorporate the eŠect of the ˆnes content on
the SPT N-value was introduced. Shamoto et al. (1997)
developed a design method capable of taking the eŠects
of a variety of in‰uential factors into account, including
the soil density and ˆnes contents, the overburden pres-
sures, the replacement ratio, surface heaving, and non-
uniform densiˆcation. They pointed out that backˆll
materials, restrictions of construction site and space, and
the skill of the operators may aŠect the density of im-
proved ground. Since then, the design procedures have
been modiˆed several times to take the eŠect of ground
heaving into account. More recently, Tsukamoto et al.
(2000) carried out a series of torsional hollow cylindrical
shear tests to investigate volumetric strain of improved
soils associated with the complex sequence of stress
change during installation of SCP. They developed a de-
sign chart based on the test results and veriˆed through
comparisons with ˆeld test data.
In the design, the mechanical properties of improved
sand in practice have been estimated based on SPT N-
values. Recently, Tokimatsu et al. (1990), Okamura and
Tamura (2004) and Hatanaka et al. (2008) investigated
the mechanical properties of sand improved by both the
vibratory and the non-vibratory SCP methods. They ob-
tained high quality undisturbed samples by using the in-
situ ground freezing technique (Yoshimi et al., 1978), and
they conˆrmed that in-situ liquefaction resistance of SCP
improved sand can also be evaluated by the same empiri-
cal relationship between normalized SPT N-value, N1,
and liquefaction resistance ratio as the natural ground.
The deformation characteristics, that is G/G0-g and h-g
relationships, of the improved sand are also essentially
the same as sand in natural deposits.
By accumulating the case histories, it was found that
the improvement eŠect of improved ground was more
than expected at some sites. One such example was identi-
ˆed in the 1978 Miyagiken-Oki earthquake, where an
SCP improved area of 36 m in diameter and 13 m in
depth and an oil tank did not show any damage, despite
the existence of sand volcanoes and ground ˆssures just
outside the improved area (Ishihara et al., 1980).
Reclaimed land in Rokko island was subjected to a strong
earthquake in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu Earthquake,
and some areas in the island without any ground im-
provement technique liqueˆed. On the other hand, areas
of foundation soil improved with SCP where an average
SPT N-value was 18 did not liquefy even though the max-
imum ground acceleration was strong enough to liquefy
ground with an SPT N-value of 18 (Yasuda et al., 1996).
Another interesting case history was that of the Naruse
river levee, which was subjected to an earthquake on July
26, 2003. Pore pressures and acceleration observatory
recorded the responses clearly showed that the measured
excess pore pressure was signiˆcantly lower than that at
adjacent unimproved area (Takahashi and Sugita, 2009).
These case histories suggested that the safety margin in
the design of the SCP may be considerable. Okamura and
Soga (2006) pointed out the eŠect of a de-saturation dur-
ing sand piles installation as a margin. Okamura et al.
(2003, 2006) carried out in-situ tests and undrained cyclic
shear tests on high-quality undisturbed samples of SCP
improved ground. They found in their in-situ tests that
the SPT N-value at the midpoint of the sand piles does
not always provide a conservative evaluation of the liq-
uefaction resistance of the improved ground. They rev-
ealed that the degree of saturation of sands at six sites was
unusually low and that unsaturation had remained for
more than 26 years. They considered the reason for this
and concluded that the sand in the casing pipe expelled
into the ground from the casing tip with an aid of pressu-
rized air of the order of 500 kN/m2 supplied from the top
of the casing. They are investigating the possibility of
desaturation as a countermeasure to liquefaction.
Dynamic Compaction Method
The dynamic compaction method, which consists of
dropping a mass of 10 to 25 tons from a height generally
between 10 to 25 m onto the soil in a predetermined pat-
tern, was developed in 1973. The method is also termed
heavy compaction or dynamic compaction. Chow et al.
(1992) presented a theoretical framework based on a one-
dimensional wave equation model in conjunction with
standard penetration test results for the dynamic compac-
tion analysis of loose sand deposits. They analyzed two
reported case histories and demonstrated that the pound-
er penetration, the degree and depth of improvement, can
be reasonably predicted using their method. Mullins et al.
(2000) presented a semi-empirical computational tech-
nique for predicting the depth of craters formed by dy-
namic compaction pounders after the ˆrst impact on the
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
basis of impact energy per unit contact area and the soil
strength obtained from the routinely conducted cone
penetration tests.
Solidiˆcation (Admixture Stabilization)
In the category, the mechanical mixing and jet mixing
are included. Several methods in this category were devel-
oped individually in the 1970s to 1980s as shown in Table
1.
In-situ Mixing
The magnitude of the strength increase of stabilized
soil by lime or cement is in‰uenced by a number of fac-
tors, because the basic strength increase mechanism is
closely related to the chemical reaction between the soil
and the stabilizing agent. Terashi (1997) made roughly
four categories: the characteristics of stabilizing agent,
the characteristics and condition of the soil, the mixing
conditions, and the curing conditions. Signiˆcant
research has been done on the eŠect of these factors and
the results have been published in several proceedings of
international conferences.
The eŠect of the type of binder on the stabilized soil
strength was investigated and published in Soils and
Foundations, where quicklime, oil shale, Albumin and
eggshell powder and ‰y ash were investigated. Kasama et
al. (2006) carried out a series of isotropic consolidation
and undrained triaxial compression tests on cement stabi-
lized clays. After discussing the consolidation and shear
properties of the soils, they concluded that the undrained
shear strength of stabilized soils can be represented as a
power law relation of the yield stress ratio and the aug-
mented consolidation stress. The strength property of ce-
ment stabilized gravelly soil was extensively investigated
and their results were published (Lohani et al. 2004; Kon-
gsukprasert and Tatsuoka, 2007; Kongsukprasert et al.
2007). They performed comprehensive laboratory tests
on cement stabilized gravelly soil to investigate the eŠects
of compaction, water content, cement gravel ratio, cur-
ing period and stress condition on the strength of cement
stabilized soil.
Cement stabilized soil is in general categorized as brit-
tle material, and is characterized by high strength and
stiŠness, and low residual strength. Namikawa and
Koseki (2006) carried out three-point bending tests and
plane strain compression tests on cement stabilized soils
to investigate the strain softening behavior of cement
stabilized soil. They obtained the tension-softening rela-
tion by the energy balance approach, and proposed an
idealized model to explain the energies consumption in
tensile and shear failures. Namikawa and Koseki (2007)
carried out a series of direct tension test, splitting tension
test and bending test to investigate the tensile strength of
cement stabilized soil. They clariˆed the diŠerence in ten-
sile strength by these tests and compared them with previ-
ous data. They also performed numerical calculations to
simulate the laboratory tests to explain the diŠerences
and showed that the direct tension tests yield reliable
values of the actual tensile strength of stabilized soil.
971
Kamon et al. (1996, 1999, 2005) investigated the en-
gineering properties from a geoenvironmental perspec-
tive. They investigated changes in the properties of lime
and cement stabilized soils subjected to acid rain and the
eŠect of chlorides and sulphates on the properties. Ka-
mon et al. (1996) tried to explain the erosion mechanisms
by imitating the permeation process of acid rain on the
subsoil proˆle, and concluded that the eŠect of acid rain
on the lime and cement stabilized soils has been consi-
dered to date and that there is an urgent need to develop
countermeasures.
Field stabilized soils in general have a relatively large
scatter in strength even if the execution is carried out with
sophisticated machinery, in the best manner and with the
best care. Omine et al. (1998) discussed the estimation of
the in-situ strength of a cement stabilized soil column
where in-situ stabilized soil is regarded as a kind of two-
phase mixture consisting of stabilized and unstabilized
parts, and a two-phase mixture model was adopted based
on the stress distribution and strain energy in the mixture.
Following this research, Omine et al. (2005) studied the
scale eŠect of cement stabilized soil strength theoretically
in which the weakest link model and the bundle model
were combined to simulate the brittle characteristics of
the stabilized soil. They found good agreement of their
model and those in the mix model tests and in-situ stabi-
lized soil by the deep mixing method.
El Nahas and Takemura (2002) carried out centrifuge
model testing on the external stability of DM self-sup-
ported walls subjected to horizontal earth pressure due to
excavation. They found that the failure of the wall took
place suddenly without marked pre-failure soil and wall
movements and found that the stability was in‰uenced by
the dimension of the wall and the soil properties of the
surrounding clay ground. Recently Khan et al. (2008,
2009) carried out static and dynamic centrifuge model
tests on a sheet pile quay wall stabilized by stabilized soil
and proposed a design method for the dimension of a
stabilized soil block based on the soil reaction theory. In a
study on internal stability, Kitazume (1998) carried out a
series of centrifuge model tests on the failure behavior of
stabilized soil mass, and found that the failure behavior
was characterized by vertical tension cracks and shear
failure, which was diŠerent from that of clay and sand
ground. Kitazume et al. (2003) carried out similar tests by
subjecting samples to seismic motion and found similar
failure behavior under the seismic condition. They
proposed a calculation method of earth pressure of stabi-
lized ground by incorporating the failure behavior.
For a group column type improved ground, Kitazume
et al. (2000) and Kitazume and Maruyama (2006, 2007)
carried out series of centrifuge model tests to investigate
the failure behavior of improved ground, combined
failure of tensile crack and shear failure. Kitazume and
Maruyama (2006, 2007) carried out a series of centrifuge
model tests to investigate the external and internal stabili-
ties of column type deep mixing improved ground sub-
jected to embankment loading. In their investigation,
several failure patterns were found; the collapse failure
972 KITAZUME AND OKAMURA
pattern in the external stability, and the bending failure
pattern in the internal stability, which diŠered from those
assumed in the current design procedure. They empha-
sized that the current design procedure overestimates
both the external and internal stabilities, and that it is
necessary to revise the procedures by incorporating the
appropriate failure patterns of improved ground.
The DMM has been applied to sandy ground as a coun-
termeasure of liquefaction. The aim of the block type im-
provement is to increase liquefaction potential by
stabilizing the liqueˆable soil as a whole. The grid type
improvement, on the other hand, has been adopted in
some cases to increase the liquefaction potential of un-
treated soil left within the grid where its shear deforma-
tion during seismic motion is reduced by the conˆnement
eŠect of the grid walls. The high applicability of the
method was demonstrated in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu
Earthquake, where negligible damage took place on the
piles installed in untreated soil grid walls (Tokimatsu et
al., 1996). Namikawa et al. (2007) carried out ˆnite ele-
ment analyses to investigate the in‰uence factors on the
liquefaction potential of the untreated soil, and took into
account the dimensions, the aspect ratios and stiŠness of
the grid wall, the liquefaction resistance of the soil, and
also the magnitude of earthquake motion.
For the remediation of existing structures and founda-
tions, Koga et al. (1993), Okamura and Matsuo (2002) in-
vestigated the eŠect of stabilization at the toe of embank-
ment on reducing the lateral ‰ow deformation of founda-
tion soil and settlement of embankment. Following their
research, Okamura and Tamura (2004) carried out a
number of centrifuge shaking tests on embankment on
the DM improved ground to provide the basis for de-
veloping a practical prediction method for embankment
settlement due to foundation liquefaction. They estab-
lished an empirical relationship between the crest settle-
ment and the displacement of the remedied zone, and
then developed a calculation method for the displacement
of the remedied zone. They validated the method through
a comparisons of their calculated results with centrifuge
test observations.
Plant Mixing
According to the social demand for beneˆcial use of
dredged soils and subsoil, several papers were published
in Soils and Foundations in the 2000s which dealt with the
soil—binder mixture with several materials, such as air-
foams, expanded poly-styrol (EPS) beans or ‰aked poly-
ethylene terephthalate. Watabe et al. (2004) discussed the
one dimensional compression property of the air-foam
stabilized soil. Based on consolidation and compression
tests, they found that the e-ln p? relationship of the soil
showed a reversed ``S'' shaped curve, and that this was
particularly clear in the case of lower density soils, and
the observable air-foam bubbles primary decreases when
compression pressure increased. They were able to evalu-
ate the one-dimensional compressibility from a
microscopic point of view, with the distortion of the air-
foam bubbles of particular interest. Tsuchida et al. (2007)
carried out a series of laboratory tests on the eŠect of
water pressure during curing on the mechanical proper-
ties of the stabilized soil with air-foam and EPS beans.
They found no inhibition eŠect of the pressured curing
circumstances on the development of compressive
strength despite the inevitability of the lighter compres-
sion of the high water pressures, and the consequent in-
crement in unit weight. Kamei et al. (2008) investigated
the eŠects of the initial high temperature curing on the
strength property and microstructure of foamed mixture
lightweight soil containing ‰aked polyethylene terephtha-
late. They found that the unconˆned compressive
strength of the soil decreased with increases in both the
PET-cement ratio and the initial temperature.
Jet Mixing
The grouting technique in Japan was a technology in-
troduced to Japan after World War II. Since then, grout-
ing technologies have been developed by trial and error
and several execution guidelines have been established.
Iwade et al. (1974) carried out a laboratory test on the
basic factors ofexecution techniques with a particular fo-
cus on the cohesion change of grout due to temperature
and the pumping capability. Based on his test results, the
cement grouting technique was applied in tunnel con-
struction. Kaga and Yonekura (1991) carried out labora-
tory tests to study the unconˆned compressive strength of
chemical grouted sands of a variety of grain size distribu-
tions. They concluded that the unconˆned compressive
strength of the grouted sand could be estimated by ex-
amining the physical properties of the sand and the
strength of the grout material.
Mori et al. (1989, 1991, 1993; 1994a, b) performed a
research project on chemical grouting to investigate the
distribution and injected shape of porous media. They
carried out several laboratory model tests to investigate
the execution conditions on the shape and strength of in-
jected grout. They also carried out ˆeld injection tests in
the sandy ground where several types of injection chemi-
cals and execution procedures were tested. After injec-
tion, the blocks of solidiˆed grouted soil were excavated
and their shapes were investigated.
Tsukamoto et al. (2006) carried out a series of triaxial
tests on the cyclic resistance of sand improved with per-
meation grouting, where non-destructive wave propaga-
tion tests and destructive cyclic loading tests were carried
out on sand samples prepared by various methods.
One paper on displacement grouting was submitted by
Schweiger et al. (2004). They proposed a ˆnite element
model for simulating the soil displacement by the volu-
metric expansion of elements representing the grouted
area, and showed the potential of their model by back-
analyzing the eŠects of the compensation grouting opera-
tions in the ˆeld and by a case history of fracture grouting
for the re-leveling of a storage tank.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
There has been a wealth of papers on various ground
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
improvement techniques. The authors have provided an
overview of the developments in improved soil proper-
ties, in the design and also in the execution of several
major ground improvement techniques by introducing
the major papers published in Soils and Foundations
together with those in other journals and conference
proceedings. As the perceived need for the application of
the ground improvement techniques grew, a considerable
amount of research and practical eŠort has been put into
the design, execution and quality control of various
methods. Assurances have been conducted and the results
of the many investigations have been published widely. It
needs to be noted, still, that ground improvement tech-
niques, remain ˆeld based, and techniques have been de-
veloped to cope with the di‹culties encountered in situ.
Therefore, quite a large number of technical papers on
ground improvement techniques, especially on case histo-
ries, on the development of execution machinery, and on
QA/QC, have been published in business and commer-
cial journals rather than academic journals. It is our hope
that more papers of this nature will be published in Soils
and Foundations in the future.
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 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
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