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Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987
www.elsevier.com/locate/sandf

Development and improvement effectiveness of sand compaction

pile method as a countermeasure against liquefaction
Kenji Harada ⇑, Jun Ohbayashi
Geotechnical Department, Fudo Tetra Corporation, Japan

Received 19 October 2016; received in revised form 16 June 2017; accepted 3 August 2017
Available online 11 November 2017

Abstract

The sand compaction pile (SCP) method was developed in Japan to improve soft grounds. One of the major features of the SCP
method is that it can be applied to all soil types found in Japan, from sandy to clayey soils; and therefore, it has been widely used
for the improvement of soft grounds. Recently, the SCP method has been mainly adopted as a countermeasure against liquefaction,
and its effectiveness in preventing liquefaction has been confirmed through past large earthquakes. This paper provides an outline of
the conventional SCP method, including its principle, history, equipment, and implementation, and also describes other methods derived
from the SCP method as liquefaction countermeasures. Furthermore, several examples are reported to confirm the effectiveness of the
methods through past large earthquakes.
Ó 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Keywords: Ground improvement; Sand compaction pile; Countermeasure against liquefaction

1. Introduction
The sand compaction pile method (hereinafter abbrevi-
ated as the SCP method) is a method for improving soft
grounds by means of installing well-compacted sand piles
in the ground. It combines such fundamental principles
for ground improvement as densification and drainage. It
can be applied to all types of soil found in Japan, from
sandy to clayey soils, by commonly using a single piece
of equipment; therefore, it has been widely used for the
improvement of soft grounds. In sandy grounds, the SCP
method is mainly used as a countermeasure against lique-
faction, and its effectiveness in preventing liquefaction
has been confirmed through past large earthquakes, show-
ing that this method is one of the most reliable ground
improvement methods in Japan.
This paper describes the principle, the history, and the
equipment of the conventional SCP method as well as out-
lines two other methods derived from the SCP method in
accordance with the needs of the times as liquefaction
countermeasures including the procedure, the equipment,
and the material used for each method. Some cases are also
shown that demonstrate the difference between an unim-
proved ground and a ground improved by the SCP method
based on the degree of damage brought about by past large
earthquakes.
2. Outline of SCP method

2.1. Principle and purpose of the SCP method

Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
⇑ Corresponding author. The SCP method is effective in improving the perfor-
E-mail addresses: kenji.harada@fudotetra.co.jp (K. Harada), jun. mance of all the types of ground for different reasons.
ohbayashi@fudotetra.co.jp (J. Ohbayashi). The reasons for such effectiveness in three representative

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2017.08.025
0038-0806/Ó 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987 981

soil types, i.e., sandy grounds, clayey grounds and soft clay
deposits which is typically formed at offshore sites, are
described. The principle of the SCP method for clayey
grounds is based on the theory for composite grounds pro-
posed by Murayama (1957). Composite grounds consist of
soft cohesive grounds and compacted sand piles formed
therein; the composite ground formed has high shear
strength and drainage capability owing to the presence of
the sand piles. Through the formation of these compacted
sand piles, the bearing capacity of the ground can be
increased due to ‘‘replacement effect” and ‘‘stress concen-
tration effect”. ‘‘Stress concentration” means that external
load is concentrated mainly on the sand piles, as shown
in Fig. 1(a). Furthermore, by including ‘‘drainage effect”
(see Fig. 1(a)), an increase in the stiffness of the whole
ground as well as a decrease in lateral spreading and in
consolidation settlement can be expected.
On the other hand, the principle of the SCP method for Fig. 2. Vibratory SCP equipment.
sandy grounds is primarily to decrease the void ratio and to
densify the ground as a result of the sand pile installation,
as shown in Fig. 1(b). Accordingly, the purpose of the SCP
method is to increase the bearing capacity, to decrease the
compression settlement, to prevent the occurrence of lique-
faction, and to increase horizontal resistance. For sandy
grounds, Ogawa and Ishido (1965) suggested a practical
design procedure related to the increase in density due to
the installation of sand piles.
Conversely, for soft clay deposits which are typically
encountered in offshore works, thicker sand piles are
installed into the clay at the sea bottom, as shown in
Fig. 1(c). ‘‘Forced replacement” is the major principle for
the improvement of offshore works, rather than the forma-
tion of ‘‘composite ground” where the sand piles replace
the cohesive soils. In such cases, the objectives of the
improvement are to increase the bearing capacity, to
reduce the consolidation settlement, and to increase the Fig. 3. Installation procedure for vibratory SCP method.
horizontal resistance.

Fig. 1. Concept for installation of compacted sand piles.

982 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987
2.2. Equipment and implementation process
An on-land type equipment for the vibratory SCP and
its installation procedure in a soft ground are illustrated
in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. The procedure is as follows.
(1) Positioning: Set the casing pipe at the predetermined
place.
(2) Penetration of a casing pipe: By operating the vibra-
tor, penetrate the casing pipe into the ground.
(3) Feeding sands through a hopper: After the casing pipe
has reached the required depth, feed sand into the
casing through the upper hopper.
(4) Drawing up the casing pipe: By drawing up the casing
pipe, the sand in the pipe is forced out through the
void by compressed air.
(5) Re-driving the casing pipe: Re-drive the casing while
compacting the sand pile pressed out by the vibra-
tions, resulting in its enlargement.
(6) Completion: Form each compacted sand pile to reach
the ground surface by repeating the above procedure.
3. Development of SCP method as liquefaction
countermeasure
3.1. Development of liquefaction countermeasures
Liquefaction countermeasures in Japanese engineering
practice are roughly classified according to three principles,
i.e., compaction (densification), solidification, and drainage
(pore water pressure dissipation). Table 1 summarizes the
history of major liquefaction countermeasures in Japan
based on the aforementioned principles. As shown in the
table, the densification method using vibratory hammers
was first introduced in the 1950 s as a ground reinforce-
ment method. In 1964, the Niigata earthquake resulted in
significant damage due to liquefaction. After the 1964 Nii-
gata earthquake, the SCP method was recognized as an
effective countermeasure against liquefaction (Fudo
Construction Co., Ltd., 2003). The gravel drain method,
which is one of a number of drainage methods, was
Table 1
History of liquefaction prevention.
developed in the 1970s as an environment-friendly measure
with low noise and vibrations. The lattice-type deep mixing
method, a shear strain restraint method, was developed as
an economical countermeasure in the 1980s.
The SCP method was recognized as a liquefaction pre-
vention/mitigation method after its effectiveness was veri-
fied by many case histories during large earthquakes,
such as the 1978 Miyagi-ken-Oki Earthquake and the
1983 Nihonkai-Chubu Earthquake. Examples of such case
histories are presented later in this paper. However, the
drawbacks of this method are the noise and the vibrations
generated by the vibro-hammer. Thus, it became necessary
to improve the SCP method such that it would have no
adverse influence on the surrounding environment. To
meet this demand, two new types of SCP methods, the
non-vibratory SCP method (Harada et al., 2004) and the
sand injection-type SCP method (Imai et al., 2009), have
been developed, as explained in the next section.
3.2. Methods derived from conventional SCP method
3.2.1. Non-vibratory SCP method
In the conventional SCP method (Vibratory SCP
method), the vibromotive force of a vibratory-hammer is
used for the ground penetration of a casing pipe, and a
winding wire is used to withdraw it. As the vibratory-
hammer causes excessive noise and vibration, the vibratory
SCP method cannot be used in urban areas. A non-
vibratory SCP method can form sand piles statically in
the ground. Instead of a vibratory-hammer, withdrawal
and re-driving of casing pipes are achieved by a forced lift-
ing/driving device that rotates the casing pipe, as shown in
Fig. 4. The operating procedure for the non-vibratory SCP
method, shown in Fig. 5, is identical to that of the vibra-
tory SCP method. A casing pipe, 400–500 mm in diameter,
is used to create well-compacted sand piles, 700 mm in
diameter, and the surrounding ground is densified as a
result. The system for the implementation of this method
involves the application of vertical movement of the casing
pipe, as indicated by a wave pattern with a shorter wave
pin rack rack
Sprocket pinion gear
(a) Pin rack and sprocket type (b) Rack and pinion type
Fig. 4. Main components of forced lifting/driving device.
 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987 983

(a) (b)
10cm
40cm
Casing Rod

Withdrawal Redriving Withdrawal

Compaction Compaction Compaction Compaction

Enlarging Enlarging

Existing sand pile

Existing sand pile

70cm 70cm

Fig. 7. Mechanism for installation of compacted sand piles.

Fig. 5. Installation procedure for non-vibratory SCP method.

length than the one of a vibratory SCP, as shown in Figs. 3
and 5. The recordings of noise and vibration levels associ-
ated with the vibratory SCP and the non-vibratory SCP
methods made at five sites, A to E, are shown in Fig. 6.
It is clear from the figure that both noise and vibration
levels are greatly reduced in the non-vibratory method
compared with the vibratory SCP method, making it suit-
able for applications in urban areas and at sites close to
existing structures.
3.2.2. Sand injection-type SCP method
The sand injection-type SCP method is a method to den-
sify the target ground by pumping and injecting fluidized
sand into the ground through a small-sized equipment. A
mixture of sand and a fluidizing reagent is forcibly ejected
by pumping from the tip of the rod which is penetrated into
the ground to densify the surrounding ground. To form a
dense ground, the fluidity of the ejected sand is well-
controlled. The fluidity gradually disappears due to the
combination of dehydration of the mixture and chemical
process of the retarding plasticizer. Fig. 7 shows a compar-
ison of the mechanism for enlarging the diameter of the
sand piles between (a) the vibratory/non-vibratory SCP
method and (b) the sand injection-type SCP method. The
procedure for applying the sand injection-type SCP
method is as follows (see Fig. 8):
(1) Positioning: Set the rod at the prescribed position and
insert it into the ground.
(2) Feeding the fluidized sand through a rod: After the rod
has reached the required depth, pump out the flu-
idized sand.

(Position Set) (Penetration Complete) (Pile formation completed)

Move Penetration Pile formation

Rod
Equipment

trace of rod

Fig. 6. Decrease over distance of noise and vibration with non-vibratory

SCP method. Fig. 8. Installation procedure for sand injection type of SCP method.
984 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987

100

90 Performance range
Percentage finer by weight (%)

80
70
Performance range
60
50
40 Achievement of SCP
30
20
10
0

Grain size D (mm)

Fig. 9. Grain distribution curves of used material.

Photo 1. Examples of implementation under limited space.

4. Verification of effectiveness of method through past

earthquakes
40m

Fig. 11 shows the epicenter locations and characteristics

30m of the 1964 Niigata Earthquake and eleven other large-
scale earthquakes in Japan, including the 2011 Off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, as well as informa-
20m
tion on the performance of SCP-improved grounds during
these earthquakes. As shown in the figure, there has been
10m no report of any major damages to the structures con-
structed on SCP-improved ground, such as by vibratory
and non-vibratory SCP methods, confirming in a qualita-
tive sense the effectiveness of the compaction-type ground
improvement techniques against strong earthquakes.
Detailed information for some of these cases is given
Vibratory SCP
below.
Non-vibratory SCP
Sand injection type SCP
4.1. Example of tank foundation (Fudo Construction Co.,
Ltd, 1994)
Fig. 10. Equipment of each SCP method.
Following the 1994 Hokkaido Toho-Oki Earthquake, a
remarkable difference was observed between the areas of
(3) Drawing up the rod: Draw up the rod to the next step. improved ground, including the SCP-improved tank foun-
(4) Completion: Form each compacted sand pile up to the dation ground, and the adjacent unimproved areas. Fig. 12
surface by repeating the above procedure. shows the locations of the sand boil trace in the improved
tank foundation ground and in the adjacent non-improved
Fig. 9 indicates the grain size distribution curves of sev- ground areas. The tanks themselves were installed on a
eral kinds of sand used for this method at numerous sites, ground improved against liquefaction by the vibratory
in order to compare the applicable grain size range of the SCP method and did not suffer any damage. However, evi-
sand injection-type SCP method and the conventional dence showed that sand boil was observed at a location
SCP method (PHAJ, 2007). Fig. 10 shows the size of the just 10 meters away from the improved section. The
equipment used in the vibratory, the non-vibratory, and improvement specifications consisted of a triangular
the sand injection-type SCP methods. Recently, a small- arrangement with the spacing of 1.8 m (replacement ratio
sized equipment has been developed for use in narrow as = 15%) and the pile length of 8–10 m, similar to the
spaces, such as under bridge girders and/or close to existing depth of the reclaimed layer. The increase in SPT N-
structures. In such cases, only the sand injection-type SCP values was over 10 at this site, as shown in Fig. 13. An
is applicable. Photo 1 shows an example of the sand area close to this site was hit again by the Tokachi-oki
injection-type SCP method being used at a narrow space earthquake in 2003. The unimproved areas liquefied again,
where it is surrounded by an existing factory building in stark contrast to the non-occurrence of liquefaction in
and a revetment. the improved areas.
 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987 985

Hokkaido Nansei-oki Earthquake (July'93;M=7.8) Hokkaido Toho-oki Earthquake (Oct.'94;M=8.1)

Effectiveness of SCP improvement for Effectiveness confirmed of SCP method at site
storage tank site at Hakodate confirmed. (Fudo, 1993) where it was adopted for restoration work after
'93 Kushiro-oki earthquake (Nishikawa
(Nishikawa et
et al.,
al., 1995)
1995)
Nihonkai Chubu Earthquake (May'83;M=7.7) Kushiro-oki Earthquake (Jan'93;M=7.8)
Effectiveness of SCP improvement for
Okitate storage tank site confirmed. (JSCE, 1986)
1986) Effectiveness confirmed of SCP and gravel drain
method used for Kushiro's West Harbor (Iai et al., 1993)
Niigata Earthquake (Jun.'64;M=7.5) SCP used in restoration work of Kushiro and
Effectiveness of vibro floatation for Tank Tokachi Rivers (Sasaki
(Sasaki et
et al.,
al., 1995)
1995)
at Ohse confirmed. (Watanabe, 1966)
Nemuro-Hando-oki Earthquake (Nov.'04;M=7.1)
Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake (Jan.'95;M=7.2) Tokachi-oki Earthquake (Sep.'03;M=8.0)
Earthquake-resistant effect of ground
improvement confirmed(Yasuda
(Yasudaetetal.,
al.,1996)
1996) Effectiveness of vibratory SCP improvement for quaywall at
Hanasaki Port confirmed(Iida
(Iidaetetal.,
al.,2005)
2005)
Sanriku Haruka-oki Earthquake (Dec.'94;M=7.5)
Effectiveness of SCP improvement confirmed
at Hachinohe storage tank site (JGS,
(JGS, 1996)
1996)
Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake (Mar.'11;M=9.0)
Effectiveness of SCP Vibratory and non-vibratory SCP improvement
for residential area at Urayasu and Koto-ku confirmed(Yasuda
(Yasudaetetal.,
al.,2012)
2012)

Miyagi-ken-oki Earthquake (Jun.'78;M=7.4)

Tottori-ken Seibu Earthquake (Oct.'00;M=7.3) Effectiveness of SCP improvement confirmed at
Effectiveness of non-vibratory SCP improvement storage tank site near Ishinomaki fishing port (Ishihara
(Ishihara et
et al.,
al., 1980)
1980)
for embankment at Abe Sanryu line confirmed.
(Fudo,
(Fudo, 2000)
2000)

Fig. 11. Case histories verifying the effectiveness of compaction methods through past earthquakes (modified after Ohbayashi et al. (1998)).

27m SPT N-values

Depth Soil
profile 00 10 20 30 40 50
(m)
15m

approx.10m
0
5m Sand boil
average
SCP
8m

spacing: 1.8m 2

Sand
pile
4

Sand before
improvement
(Fill)
6 after
improvement
Sand
boil
8

10

Fig. 12. Plane and cross section of the site. Fig. 13. SPT N-values before and after improvement.

4.2. Example of quay wall backfill (Iida et al., 2005)
Fig. 14 shows the distribution of improved and unim-
proved grounds and locations where liquefaction was
observed behind the quay wall at Nemuro Port after the
2003 Tokachi-Oki Earthquake. The vibratory SCP method
was adopted at this site as a liquefaction countermeasure.
The improvement specifications consisted of a square
arrangement of sand piles with spacing of 1.9 m (as =
10.6%) in Area A and 1.3 m (as = 22.7%) in Area B. The
increase in SPT N-values was from 10 to 15 at the site,
as shown in Fig. 15. The area of improvement extends
about 30 m from the normal line of the quay wall with
the maximum pile length of 8.5 m. Traces of sand boils
were observed at locations about 50 m from the quay wall
along a line running roughly parallel to it. In other words,
there was a gap of some 20 m between the boundary of the
improved zone and the liquefied unimproved area. In the
following year, the 2004 Nemuro Hanto-oki Earthquake
occurred near the site. In spite of the re-liquefaction of
the unimproved areas, there was no damage observed at
the improved area.
986 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987

A
Improved area
Area A 57m Area B 185m
1.3m×1.3m 1.9m×1.9m

13m 17m
Apron

30m
Boring before application Boring before application
and after application and after application
Boring before
application Boring after
application

50m
Road Sand boil
Asphalt pavement
No.1 No.2 No.3

A´

(A-A´ section)
approx. 50m

approx. 30m approx. 20m

SCPs Sand boil

spacing: 1.9m max=8.5m

caisson backfill

Fig. 14. Plane and cross section of the site.

SPT N-value
injection-type SCP method are presented, in addition to the
Depth Soil
(m) profile 00 10 20 30 conventional SCP method. Therefore, the SCP method is
now applicable for various soil types, such as sandy or
0
clayey grounds and soft clay deposits, as well as for narrow
working spaces.
2
References

Fudo Construction Co., Ltd, 1994. Investigative Report on the 1994

4 Silty Sand
Sand pile
(Fill)
6 Case histories and recent development of the sand compaction pile
8 Iida, K., Kogai, Y. and Ohbayashi, J., 2005. Improvement effectiveness of
before improvement (Boring No.2)
after improvement (Boring No.1)
Clay
10
Fig. 15. SPT N-values before and after improvement.
5. Summary
This report deals with progress and improvement of the
sand compaction pile (SCP) method in Japan. At first, the
SCP method was developed in 1950s as a ground reinforce-
ment method. But several case histories in Japan show that
the SCP is effective as a countermeasure against soil lique-
faction, because no major damages due to those large
earthquakes were reported so far. Now, the SCP is recog-
nized as a leading countermeasure against soil liquefaction.
Two case histories are explained in this paper to support
this claim.
For wider application of the SCP method, two modified
versions, i.e., the non-vibratory SCP method and the sand
Hokkaido Toho-oki Earthquake (in Japanese).
Fudo Construction Co., Ltd, 2003. History of Fudo’s Ground Improve-
ment – Compozer (in Japanese).
Harada, K., Tsuboi, H., Tanaka, Y., Takehara, Y. and Fukada, H., 2004.
method as a countermeasure against liquefaction, Proceedings of the
5th International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical
Engineering, CD 8.43.
sand compaction pile method as a countermeasure against liquefaction
at Nemuro Port. In: Proceedings of 40th Technical Meeting of the
Japanese Geotechnical Society, 2191–2192 (in Japanese).
Imai, Y., Ohbayashi, J., Fukushima, S., Itoh, T., 2009. Improvement
effectiveness and application example of sand ejection type SCP. In:
Proceedings of 54th Symposium for Japanese Geotechnical Society (in
Japanese).
Murayama, S., 1957. Soil improvement by sand compaction pile (Com-
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Japanese)
Ogawa, M., Ishido, T., 1965. Application of vibro-compozer methods on
sandy ground. Tuchi-to-kiso 13 (2), 77–82 (in Japanese).
Ohbayashi, J., Harada, K., Yamamoto, M., Sasaki, T., 1998. Evaluation
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1416 (in Japanese).
Ports and Harbors Association of Japan, PHAJ, Technical Standards for
Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan, 729 (in Japanese).
Further reading
Fudo Construction Co., Ltd, 1993. Investigative Report on the 1993
Hokkaido Nansei-oki Earthquake (in Japanese).
 K. Harada, J. Ohbayashi / Soils and Foundations 57 (2017) 980–987
Fudo Construction Co., Ltd, 2000. Investigative Report on the 2000
Tottori-ken Seibu Earthquake (in Japanese).
Iai, S., Matsunaga, Y., Morita, T., Sakurai, H., Ohishi, H., Ogyra, H.,
Ando, Y., Tanaka, Y., Kato, M., 1993. Effects of remedial
measures against liquefaction at 1993 Kushiro-oki Earthquake. In:
Proceedings of the 5th US-Japan Workshop on Earthquake
Resistant Design of Lifeline Facilities and Countermeasures against
Soil Liquefaction.
Ishihara, K., Kawase, Y., Nakajima, M., 1980. Liquefaction character-
istics of sand deposits at an oil tank site during the 1978 Miyagiken-
Oki Earthquake. Soils Found. 20 (2), 97–112.
Japanese Geotechnical Society, JGS, 1996. Investigative Report on the
1996 Sanriku Haruka-oki Earthquake (in Japanese).
Japan Society of Civil Engineering, JSCE, 1986. Investigative Report on
the 1983 Nihonkai-chubu Earthquake (in Japanese).
987
Nishikawa, J., Kamata, T., Kaji, M., 1995. Damage to highways, railways
and river embankments from the 1994 Hokkaido Toho-oki Earth-
quake. Tuchi-to-kiso 43 (4), 7–10 (in Japanese).
Sasaki, Y., Tamura, T., Yamamoto, M., Ohbayashi, J., 1995. Soil
improvement work for river embankment damaged by the 1993
Kushiro-oki Earthquake. In: Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 43–48.
Watanabe, T., 1966. Damage to oil refinery plants and a building on
compacted ground by the Niigata Earthquake and their restoration.
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Yasuda, S., Harada, K., Ishikawa, K., Kanemaru, Y., 2012. Character-
istics of the liquefaction in Tokyo Bay Area by the 2011 Great East
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Yasuda, S., Ishihara, K., Harada, K., Shinkawa, N., 1996. Effect of soil
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