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Immersed tunnel foundation on marine clay improved by sand compaction

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Article  in  Marine Georesources and Geotechnology · March 2017

DOI: 10.1080/1064119X.2017.1300615

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 MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY
2018, VOL. 36, NO. 2, 218–226
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2017.1300615

Immersed tunnel foundation on marine clay improved by sand compaction piles

Hongtao Hea, Yougao Lina, Jianyu Lia, and Nan Zhangb
a
CCCC-FHDI Engineering Co., Ltd, Guangzhou, P. R. China; bDepartment of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The sand compaction pile (SCP) method can be applied to soft marine clay ground that is a reinforcement Received 28 August 2016
of composite ground consisting of compacted sand piles and surrounding clay. The application of SCP Accepted 24 February 2017
method in the immersed tunnel of Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge verify SCP method is a robust KEYWORDS
solution to limit the total settlement and differential longitudinal settlement and to promote smooth Consolidation; immersed
transition from immersed tunnel to artificial island. The SCP method has significant settlement reduction tunnel foundation; marine
effect on marine clay. The SCPs can also function as a drainage path to accelerate the consolidation clay; sand compaction piles;
process in marine clay. It is also found that the consolidation rate of SCP-improved ground is delayed settlement
compared with that predicted program which is most probably because of the soil disturbance effect
during the installation of SCPs.
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Introduction The installation method of SCP at sea was first developed

in Japan at 1967 (Jung, Lee, and Lee 1999). As the construc-
The sand compaction pile (SCP) method is a technique of
tion period of ground improvement and the strength of
placing granular material (usually sand) into a ground through
ground are greatly increased by SCP method as compared
a casing pipe, and the sand is compacted by vibration, dynamic
with other methods, SCP method has become one of the main
impact, or static excitation to construct a compacted sand pile
ground improvement methods for offshore and onshore
in soils (Aboshi et al. 1979, Kitazume 2005, He, Lin, and Li
structures in Japan since 1970s. For the marine installation
2016). A casing pipe with a plug of sand at its tip was driven
method of SCP, the maximum improvement depth of the
to the bottom of improved ground by a vibrator method. After
method increases to 700 mm, and the diameter ranges from
pouring sand into the casing pipe, the casing pipe was
1.66 to 2.00 mm. The replacement area ratio for applications
withdrawn partly and again driven down to compact the sand
on clayey soils ranged from 0.3 to 0.8. To accelerate the rate
column and enlarge its diameter. This process is repeated until
of consolidation, reduce the settlement, and increase the
SCP reaches to the ground surface (Jung, Lee, and Lee 1999).
bearing capacity for soft ground under immersed tunnel,
This method can be applied to sandy soils or soft clayey soils.
SCP method has been applied for the immersed tunnel of
A reinforcement of composite ground consisting of compacted
the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge (HZMB) in China.
sand piles and surrounding clay is for clayey soils ground. The
This study presents the characteristics of marine clay
mechanism of ground improvement by SCP method in the case
(He et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2016), the basic design principles,
of clayey soils is different from the sandy ground, which is
arrangement, settlement performance, and construction
mainly to densify the surrounding soil. The replacement effect
issues of immersed tunnel foundation improved by SCP
and function as drainage path to accelerate the consolidation
methods.
process in clayey soils are mainly improvement principles
for SCP-improved clayey soils. The improvement purpose
for clayey soils by SCP method is to assure stability, reduce
ground settlement, enhance drainage function, and increase Improvement of clay ground
horizontal resistance of pile. Because the SCP is stiffer than
Clayey soils improved by the SCP method can be considered
the surrounding soil, vertical stresses are concentrated in
to be a composite ground consisting of compacted sand piles
the sand pile material with an accompanying stress reduction
and surrounding clay using a unit cell model as schematically
in the less stiff soil surrounding the column. These compacted
shown in Figure 1.
sand piles behave as piles in soft clay ground and carry more
The replacement area ratio, m, is defined as the ratio of the
load than surrounding clayey soils. Due to external load
sectional area of the sand piles, As, to the improved ground
that is concentrated mainly on the sand piles and higher
area, A, which is formulated as Eq. (1) (Kitazume 2005):
compressive stiffness of sand piles, the settlement of soft clay
ground can be reduced significantly. At the same time, the SCPs
As
can work as vertical drains to accelerate consolidation of clayey m¼ ð1Þ
soils. A

CONTACT Hongtao He heht@fhdigz.com CCCC-FHDI Engineering Co., Ltd, Guangzhou 510230, P. R. China.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/umgt.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
 MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 219

Table 1. Soil parameters of marine clay (Ahn and Kim 2012).

Stress
concentration Replacement
ratio, n area ratio, m Remark Reference
3 0.15–0.40 φ ¼ 30° Japanese Geotechnical
2 0.40–0.60 φ ¼ 30° Society (1988)
1 >0.70 φ ¼ 35°
2.5–3.5 Aboshi and Suematsu
(1985)
2.5 0.40, 0.71 Busan New Port Corp.
(1999)
2–6 Usually Mitchell (1981)
3–4

1
Figure 1. Schematic of composite foundation consisting of compacted sand For m < 50% b ¼ lc ¼ ð6Þ
piles and surrounding clay. 1 þ ðn 1Þm

For m < 50% b ¼ 1 m ð7Þ

Because the compressive stiffness of sand piles is much
higher than that of the surrounding clay ground, more exter- De r
nal load is applied on the top of sand piles, whereas relatively s0 ¼ H ¼ mv � r � H ¼ H � Cc � log ð8Þ
1 þ e0 r0
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less load is applied on the clay among the sand piles. The stress
concentration ratio, n, is defined as the ratio of the vertical
stress acting on sand piles, σs, to that on the surrounding clay,
σc. A simple analytical approach provides a formulation to
calculate above stresses as expressed in Eqs. (2)–(4) (Kitazume
2005), which are derived from the stress equilibrium between
sand piles and surrounding clay.
rs
n¼
rc
n by the replacement effect for a high-replacement composite
rs ¼ r ¼ ls r
1 þ ðn 1Þm
1 depend on the stress reduction coefficient n or the replace-
rc ¼ r ¼ lc r
1 þ ðn 1Þm
where m is replacement area ratio; A is cross-sectional area of
clay ground and sand pile (m2); As is cross-sectional area of
sand pile (m2); n is stress concentration ratio; σ is average
vertical stress (kN/m2); σs is vertical stress on sand pile
(kN/m2); σc is vertical stress on clay ground (kN/m2); μs is
stress concentration coefficient of sand pile; and μc is stress
concentration coefficient of clay ground.
The improvement principle of the SCP method for soft clay
ground is described in the following aspects:
Reduction of settlement
For the soft clay ground, SCPs are formed by driving a casing
into the soft ground to a predetermined depth. Sand is then
forced through the casing into the ground to displace the soft
soils, and thereby, dense and large-diameter sand piles are
being formed. Because mostly soft clayey soils have been
replaced by SCP, the ground settlement has been reduced
greatly.
It is usually assumed that compacted sand piles and
surrounding clay ground settle uniformly, and the settlement
s of SCP-improved ground can be expressed by (The Overseas
Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan 2009)
s ¼ b � s0
where β is settlement reduction factor; s0 is settlement of
unimproved ground (m); s is settlement of SCP-improved
ground (m); Cc is compressive index of clayey soils; e0 is initial
void ratio of clay ground; H is ground thickness (m); mv is
coefficient of volume compression of clayey soils (m2/kN).
The settlement reduction factor β in Eq. (6) is considered
by the stress concentration effect for a low-replacement com-
ð2Þ posite ground, and the factor β that is in Eq. (7) is considered
ð3Þ ground. It is indicated that the settlement is considered to
ð4Þ ment area ratio m. Table 1 presents typically recommended
stress concentration ratios; typical values range from 1 to 6.
The stress concentration ratio may be affected by various
factors including surround soft clay, surcharge load, degree
of consolidation, area replacement ratio, and depth.
Acceleration of consolidation
The compacted sand piles can function as a drainage path to
accelerate the consolidation process in the soft clay ground.
Combined with the preloading method, the total settlement
of the soft clay ground with compacted sand piles will be
reduced in long operation period.
The SCP is assumed to function as vertical drains to
increase the rate of consolidation of clayey soils. The method
to determine the degree of consolidation with SCPs is similar
to vertical drains based on the Barron solution (1948). The
reduction in radial flow due to the presence of smear can be
correctly handled mathematically using hydraulically equiva-
lent system without smear for sand drains (Richart 1959).
Han and Ye (2002) developed a simplified solution for consoli-
dation degree of a stone column-reinforced soft foundation
unit cell with smear and well resistance.
A soil cylinder having a drain well for SCP is schematically
illustrated in Figure 2.
The horizontal consolidation Uh can be expressed as
ð5Þ (Barron 1948)
 220 H. HE ET AL.

diameter of sand pile (m); de is equivalent diameter of the zone

of influence of a drain, 1.13 � drain spacing or 1.05 � drain
spacing for square grid.

Increase of bearing capacity

Load acting on the improved ground leads to a stress concen-
tration in the material of higher stiffness, i.e., in the SCPs,
which results in a stress relief of the soft surrounding soil.
For the load-carrying mechanism of composite ground of pile
and surrounding soil, the load is transferred into the ground
by toe resistance and friction at the pile perimeter, and SCPs
transmit their load into the soil by stimulating its horizontal
earth pressure without relative displacement between column
and soil. Owing to SCP’s high density and stiffness, the
improved ground will carry more load with surrounding soil.

Soil conditions
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The immersed tunnel of the HZMB is located at a site in Pearl

River Delta. As the soft marine clay requires special attention
and necessitates special foundation solutions, extensive geo-
technical investigations including field tests and laboratory
tests have been performed. The field tests comprised boreholes
with soil sampling, field vane shear tests, SPT tests, and
piezocone (CPTU) tests.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of soil cylinder with vertical drain (Jung 1998). The seabed level in the site varies between 88 and
� � 155 mm. The geotechnical investigations indicate that a
8Th quaternary deposit marine clay with average of 255 mm along
Uh ¼ 1 exp ð9Þ
F ðNÞ with most of the alignment locally reaches a thickness of
Ch � t 355 mm that was found below the seabed, and overly alluvium
Th ¼ ð10Þ clay or sand layer with a thickness that varies between 355 and
de2
1,000 mm. Underneath the bedrock is encountered. Figures 3
N2 3N 2 1 and 4 show the results of typical piezocone (CPTU) test that
F ðNÞ ¼ ln N ð11Þ
N2 1 4N 2 performed at the transition zone of immersed tunnel near west
de artificial island and east artificial island, respectively.
N¼ ð12Þ Based on the piezocone test results, the soil profile at the
dw
site can be divided into two major layers: the upper soft mar-
where ch is modified horizontal coefficient of consolidation of ine clay layer extending to approximately 255–355 mm below
a soil layer improved by SCP; dw is equivalent diameter of a the seabed and underlain by the soft, firm, and stiff alluvium
cylindrical drain column with the same circumference or clay or dense alluvium sand.

Figure 3. Typical piezocone test results at transition zone of immersed tunnel near west artificial island.

Figure 4. Typical piezocone test results at transition zone of immersed tunnel near east artificial island.
Cone resistance ranges between 0.1 and 2.0 MPa in the
marine clay deposits. Undrained shear strength as low as
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5 kPa and increasing at the rate of about 1 kPa/m in depth
have been measured. It can be found that the 355 mm
thickness of marine clay at the transition zone of immersed
tunnel near east artificial island is larger than 255 mm at west
transition zone.
Table 2 summarizes the results of typical laboratory tests
for water content, weight, void ratio, plasticity index (PI),
compression index, and coefficient of consolidation for marine
clay at immersed tunnel area.
Based on the laboratory test results, the range of the liquid
limit (LL) is 34.7–76.5% (average 59.3%), and the range of the
plasticity index is 16.6–45.4% (average 32.3%). The water
contents of marine clay are from approximately 34 to 90%,
reaching or exceeding the liquid limit. The saturated unit
weight c varies between 14.6 and 17.6 kN/m3 (average 16.2
kN/m3), and the void ratio e0 is between 1.205 and 2.501
(average 1.723). Oedometer tests have shown ranges of the
compression index Cc of 0.42–1.05 (average 0.69), and the
coefficient of consolidation cv is approximately 2.3 m2/year.
The laboratory test results reveal that the location of immersed
tunnel foundation consists of very soft marine clay with
considerably high compressibility.
Immersed tunnel foundation
A 6 km long tunnel forms part of the HZMB in China, which
connects Hong Kong to the East with Zhuhai and Macao to
the West. Because the link crosses the main navigation chan-
nels in Pearl River Delta and height restrictions from Hong
Kong International Airport, the immersed tunnel has been
selected. The immersed tunnel consists of two short cut and
cover tunnel access ramps and 33 tunnel elements. The
Table 2. Typical results of laboratory test for marine clay at immersed tunnel area.
Water Weight c Void
Test content x (%) (kN/m3) ratio e0
Min 34 14.6 1.205
Max 90 17.6 2.501
Average 61.3 16.2 1.723
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 221
schematic plan and longitudinal profile of the tunnel are
shown in Figure 5.
Immersed tunnel method has a general concept that the
self-weight of elements is offset using buoyancy, so that load
transferred to ground can be reduced. However, the
immersed tunnel in HZMB will be placed at a very deep depth
and consequently has to accommodate large water and
ground loads, varying soft soil conditions. The displacement
behavior of the segmental tunnel structure in varying ground
conditions represents a complex soil–structure interaction
problem.
At island approaches where the immersed tunnel elements
were constructed over soft ground, the ground would settle dur-
ing construction and after completion of the work. There was a
potential for large differential settlements to occur at the tran-
sition area between piled bridge abutment and nonpiled
immersed tunnel. This differential settlement would have an
adverse impact on the adjacent piles supporting the bridge abut-
ment resulting in loss of serviceability. To eliminate the impact
of longitudinal differential settlement, a series of composite
foundation methods were used in the transition area adjacent
to the bridge abutment. This was an integrated solution
combining SCP, CDM, and jet grouting pile, and composite
foundation methods (He, Lin, and Li 2016, Kasper, Rotwitt,
and Jackson 2009). The SCP with replacement area ratio that
varies from 40 to 70% was installed at the transition areas.
When most of the immersed tunnel sections are placed in
a trench where the maine clay has been dredged, however,
the transition zones near artificial island approach have
remained 10–300 mm thick soft marine clay and alluvium
clay. To ensure the water tightness of the joints and to limit
the forces in the shear keys, the total and differential longi-
tudinal settlements have to be limited. Without ground
improvement of marine clay below the tunnel, long-term
Liquid Plasticity Compression Coefficient of
limit LL (%) index PI (%) index Cc consolidation cv (m2/yr)
34.7 16.6 0.42 1.9
76.5 45.4 1.05 3.1
59.3 32.3 0.69 2.3
 222 H. HE ET AL.
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Figure 5. Schematic plan and longitudinal profile of the immersed tunnel.
tunnel settlements of over 1.00 mm and too large differential
settlements were predicted by calculations in an early stage
of the project. SCP method has been proposed to mitigate
these settlement issues and to avoid the opening of joins.
The SCPs have been used to perform ground improvement
for the transition zones near two artificial islands with
varying marine clay ground. Figure 6 shows the comparison
of the immersed tunnel settlements before and after ground
improvement using SCP method based on settlement
analysis. The settlement comparison reveals that the SCP
method has a significant settlement reduction effect on
marine clay. With the application of SCP method in the
immersed tunnel, the total and differential longitudinal
settlements can be limited, and transition from immersed
tunnel to artificial island becomes smooth.
Figure 6. Comparison of the immersed tunnel settlements before and after ground improvement.
In the transition zone between immersed tunnel and
artificial island, two SCP schemes have been adopted for the
ground improvement considering additional overburden from
immersed foundation loads and backfills. For additional over-
burden loads less than preconsolidation pressure of underlying
soils, the SCP without preloading scheme is applied. When
overburden loads are larger than preconsolidation pressure of
underlying soils, the SCP-combined preloading scheme is
applied. The arrangement of SCP schemes was based on the
design method of The Overseas Coastal Area Development
Institute of Japan (2009). The diameter of the SCPs was typically
1.66 mm but in some case as small as 1.22 mm in the deeper
firm marine clay and alluvium clay. The sand piles were
installed on a regular grid with spacing ranging between 1.88
and 2.22 mm with replacement area ratio that varies from 40

Figure 7. Typical cross section of sand compaction pile combined preloading.
to 70%. Full depth SCPs were generally installed down to the
soil condition in which dense or stiff alluvium layer was found.
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The typical cross sections of SCP combined preloading and SCP
without preloading are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
As illustrated in Figure 9, casing pipes are driven into the
ground by vertical vibratory excitation from the vibro-ham-
mer mounted on top of the casing. During penetration, the
casing is filled with sand. After reaching the prescribed depth,
the casing pipe is pulled approximately 1 m to feed the sand
into the ground with the help of compressed air. The sand is
compacted by the vertical vibratory excitation, and the degree
of compaction is controlled such that the required diameter of
the sand pile is achieved. This procedure continues until the
sand piles are completed. The depth of the casing pipes and
the sand levels in the casing pipes are continuously monitored
(Kitazume 2005).
Settlement performance
Extensive field monitoring was performed using surface
settlement plates and deep settlement gauges installed at
different levels along the SCP-improved ground, which
provide sufficient and important information to ensure a safe
construction and to evaluate the performance of ground
improvement. Because the distance between sand piles is too
Figure 8. Typical cross section of sand compaction pile without preloading.
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 223
small to exactly install piezometers within the soil surrounding
SCP, the piezometers were not considered in field monitoring
arrangement.
Figure 10 shows the results of the field settlement measure-
ments from surface settlement plate and different deep gauges
for SCP-improved ground during preloading period near west
artificial island at K12 þ 486.750. The level of settlement plate
and gauges is 19.55 (top of SCP), 277, 300, 333, 366
(toe of SCP), and 422 mm (top of dense alluvium sand). At
the location of the settlement measurements in transition zone
of immersed tunnel near west artificial island, 1.55 mm diam-
eter sand piles were installed at 1.88 mm spacing grid down to
a depth of 177 mm with replacement area ratio of 55%. The
soil conditions of the location are shown in Figure 3. The mea-
sured total settlements of SCP-improved ground with 255 mm
thick marine clay and soft alluvium clay which are in the order
of 50 mm compared with values of over 0.55 mm without
improvement by SCP method imply a settlement reduction
factor β of approximately 0.1. It clearly indicates that SCP
method has significant effect on settlement reduction of mar-
ine clay. The field settlement results also reveal that few settle-
ments with the order of 10 mm have occurred within
underlying competent stratum below toe of SCP. It is found
that most of this settlement took place during embankment
construction period and no significant settlements were
 224 H. HE ET AL.
Figure 9. Implementation procedure of the sand compaction pile method.
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measured after a period of about three months and thereafter.
It implies that SCPs can function as a drainage path to accel-
erate the consolidation process in marine clay.
Figure 11 shows the greater field settlements for SCP-
improved ground during preloading period near east artificial
island at K7 þ 171.570 with 355 mm thick marine clay and soft
alluvium clay. At the location of the settlement measurements
in east transition zone, 1.55 mm diameter sand piles were
installed at 1.88 mm spacing grid down with replacement area
ratio of 55%, which were installed at upper soft marine clay,
and 1.11 mm diameter sand piles were installed at 1.88 mm
Figure 10. Field settlement against time curves for SCP-improved ground near west artificial island at K12 þ 486.750.
spacing grid down with replacement area ratio of 29%, which
were installed at lower firm marine clay and alluvium clay. The
soil conditions of this location are as shown in Figure 4. The
total settlement of SCP-improved ground is approximately
70 mm compared with values of 0.3–0.55 mm without
improvement by SCP method, which implies a settlement
reduction factor β of approximately 0.1–0.2 similar to west
transition zone. Meanwhile, the consolidation time of
SCP-improved ground with a period of approximately
4 months is longer than 3 months of west island transition
zone. Combined SCP replacement area ratio of 55% and
minimum of 29%, and thicker soft clay are considered to cause
longer consolidation time. Similarly, it is observed that the
settlement below 544 mm is approximately 5 mm, which
reflects the SCP terminate at a firm or dense stratum.
However, it is also found that the consolidation rate of
improved ground by SCP method is delayed compared with
the estimated consolidation time. The average delayed time
is approximately 1–2 months. The reason for the delay in con-
solidation is most probably because of the soil disturbance
effect during the installation of SCPs, which decreases the
permeability of surround clay between SCPs.
When the SCP-improved ground with preloading reach
required degree of consolidation, the preloading material will
be removed to install the immersed tunnel. Nowadays, the
immersed tunnel is still under construction, and 31 elements
out of 33 elements have been successfully placed from 2013
to 2016. By then, the total length of HZMB immersed tunnel
had reached 5,130 m. Based on the field monitoring for
immersed tunnel foundation with improvement by SCP, the
measured settlements of as built immersed tunnel are typical

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Figure 11. Field settlement against time curves for SCP improved ground near east artificial island at K7 þ 171.570. Note: SCP, sand compaction pile.
in an order of 5 cm, which indicate that no significant settle-
ments have been found after the placement of immersed
tunnel.
Discussions
The conventional foundation solution for immersed tunnels is a
simple foundation with a gravel bed placed on the underlying
firm or dense soil. However, this soft maine clay foundation
was found to be insufficiently robust mainly due to the sensitivity
to the changes in load caused by construction tolerances and due
to settlements, which are difficult to predict. To make the
immersed tunnel foundation more robust, ground improvement
with SCP method was adopted.
During the installation of SCP, a heaving of soil up to
55 mm was encountered in the vicinity of SCP zone.
Additional dredged works are essential to the heaving soil
before installation of immersed tunnel. It is indicated that
most of maine clay has been replaced and disturbed, which
decreases the permeability of maine clay and delay in the con-
solidation time of SCP-improved ground.
Compared with conventional ground improvement meth-
ods, the primary advantages of the SCP method are as follows:
(a) applicable to a variety of ground, including sandy, and
clayey ground; (b) wide range of filling materials that is usable,
such as crushed stone; (c) possible to execute deep improve-
ment up to 700 mm by marine barge for offshore structure
foundation; (d) sand, which is often considerably cheaper than
stone, in used in construction compared with stone column
method. However, the SCP method also has several disadvan-
tages: (a) the installation of SCP method with a high replace-
ment area ratio causes obvious upheaval soil to be removed or
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 225
treated; (b) SCP has a lower angle of internal friction and a
lower stiffness than stone column.
Conclusion
The SCP method can be applied to soft marine clay ground
that is a reinforcement of composite ground consisting of
compacted sand piles and surrounding clayey soil. It is a
robust solution to adopt SCP method for immersed tunnel
foundation with underlying soft marine clay ground that is
verified in the immersed tunnel of HZMB. The SCP-improved
ground can limit the total settlement and differential longi-
tudinal settlement, ensure the water tightness of the joints,
and limit the forces in the shear keys.
The measured settlements of SCP-improved ground during
preloading period and after the placement of immersed tunnel
are typical in an order of magnitude of centimeters, implying
that the SCP method has significant settlement reduction
effect on marine clay compared with other areas without
improvement by SCP method.
The SCPs can function as a drainage path to accelerate the
consolidation process in marine clay. It is also found that the
consolidation rate of improved ground by SCP method is
delayed compared with that predicted program.
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