TWO-DAY COURSE ON: “RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN GROUND

IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES AND CASE HISTORIES”; 10-11

AUGUST 2010

Part II
Vertical Drain Techniques
2-1. Introduction
2-2. Design and analysis method
2-3. Installation
2-4.
4 Quality control and practical considerations

Assoc Prof Chu Jian

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Tel: 65-
65-67904563; Email: cjchu@ntu.edu.sg

Section 2
2--1
Introduction

1
 1960s:
1960s: 580 km2
2000s:
2000s: 710 km2

3
3

Kansai Airport
Kansai Airport
to settle 11.5 m
over 50 years

4
4

2
 Offshore Land Reclamation Process

5
5

Purpose of Preloading
„ To increase the bearing capacity and reduce the
compressibility
ibili off weakk ground d by
b forcing
f i l
loose
cohesionless soils to densify or clayey, silty soil to
consolidate..
consolidate
„ Achieved by placing a temporary surcharge prior to
the construction of the planned structure.
structure.
„ The surcharge can be applied using fill weight or
vacuum pressure.
pressure.
„ Soft soil is improved (or consolidated) mainly by
squeezing out the water in soil.
soil.

6
6

3
 Preloading
reduces
settlement
(after Hausmann
1990)

7
7

Mechanism of preloading

8
8

4
 Preloading
increases
shear
st e gt
strength
and thus
allows
savings in
foundations
(after Hausmann
1990)

9
9

Preloading
„ Advantages:
„ Inexpensive if large area is improved.
improved
„ Disadvantages:
„ Time consuming.
consuming. Need a few months if not a
few years
years.. Therefore, prefabricated vertical
drains (PVDs) are normally used to cut down
the drainage path and thus accelerate the
consolidation process.
process.

10
10

5
 Why PVDs
cv t
U = f (T) Tv =
H dr2

11
11

Vertical drains

„ Vertical drains are used to accelerate

primary consolidation of cohesive soil by
cutting down the drainage path.
path.
„ Types of vertical drains
„ Cylindrical Sand Drains: Boreholes filled with sand
without
ith t or with
ith a sock,
k 65 – 450 mm in
i diameter.
di t
„ Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs): Band drains with
a core and filter sleeve made of paper, PVC, PE
(polyethylene), PP (polypylene), and PES (polyester).

12
12

6
 13
13

Vertical drains accelerate settlement, but do not reduce final settlement

14
14

7
 Design problems
„ Calculate the ultimate settlement and
settlement at a given time
time;;
„ Estimate the rate of consolidation, i.e.,
how long will it take to achieve a given
degree of consolidation
consolidation;;
„ Design for vertical drains,
drains e.g., the drain
spacing required to achieve a given
degree of consolidation
consolidation..

15
15

List of references
„ Chu, J., Bo, M. W., Chang, M. F., and Choa Choa,, V. (2002
2002)). “The consolidation and
permeability properties of Singapore marine clay clay..” Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. Vol. 128,
128, No.
No. 9, 724-
724-732.
732.
„ Chu, J., Bo, M. W., and Choa Choa,, V. (2004
2004)). “Practical considerations for using
projects.” Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
vertical drains in soil improvement projects.
Vol.. 22,
Vol 22, 101-
101-117.
117.
„ Bo, M. W., Chu, J., Choa Choa,, V. (2005
2005)). “Changi East Reclamation and Soil
Project..” Chapter 9, In Ground Improvement – Case Histories,
Improvement Project
Eds.. B. Indraratna and J. Chu, Elsevier, 247-
Eds 247-276.
276.
„ Chu, J., Bo, M. W. and ChoaChoa,, V. (2006
2006)). “Improvement of ultra ultra--soft soil using
drains.” Geotextiles and Geomembranes
prefabricated vertical drains. Geomembranes,, Vol. Vol. 24,
24, 339-
339-
348.
„ Chu, J., Bo, M.W.,and Arulrajah,
Arulrajah, A. (2009
2009)). “Soil improvement works for an
reclamation..” Geot
offshore land reclamation Geot.. Eng, Proc . ICE, Vol
Vol.. 162,
162, GE1
GE1, 21-
21-32.
32.
„ Chu, J., Yan, S. W., and Yang, H. (2000 2000)). "Soil improvement by vacuum
preloading method for an oil storage station" station".. Geotechnique, Vol.Vol. 50,
50, No.
No. 6,
625--632.
625 632.
„ Chu, J. and Yan, S. W. (20052005)). “Application of the vacuum preloading method
in land reclamation and soil improvement projects projects..” Chapter 3, In Ground
Improvement – Case Histories, Eds Eds.. B. Indraratna and J. Chu, Elsevier, 91- 91-118.
118.
„ Chu, J. and Yan, S. Y. (2005 2005)). “Estimation of degree of consolidation for
projects.” Int
vacuum preloading projects. Int.. Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE, Vol. Vol. 5, No,
2, 158-
158-165.
165.
„ Yan, S. W. and Chu, J. (20052005)). “Soil improvement for a storage yard using the
combined vacuum and fill preloading method” Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol.. 42,
Vol 42, No.
No. 4, 2094-
2094-1104.
1104.
16
16

8
 Section 2-
2- 2
Design and Analysis methods
2.2.1 Settlement calculation
2.2.2 Rate of settlement calculation
1). Terzaghi’s (vertical) consolidation theory
2). Radial consolidation theory and vertical drain design
3). Combined vertical and radial flow

2.2.3 Design for vertical drain with smear zone

17

2.2.1 Settlement Calculation

Ground settlement consists of 3 components:

δ = δi + δc + δs

Initial settlement Consolidation Secondary

settlement compression

For soft clay,

clay consolidation settlement dominates.
dominates
With preloading, secondary compression is small.
The compressibility of sand fill is normally ignored.
Settlement calculation is assumed to be a 1D problem.
This is reasonable for reclamation problems.
18
18

9
 Consolidation Settlement Calculation

Δσz = q = 50 kPa

σvo’=? Water table

H=4 m A
σp’=?, Cc=?, eo=?, γ=?

When q is applied, what is the

ultimate settlement Sc ?
19
19

Consolidation Settlement Calculation

Δσz = Δσv = q = 50 kPa

σvo’=? Water table

A
H=4 m
Cc=1.2, σp’=10 kPa, eo=1.5, γ=15 kN/m3

The effective overburden stress at the middle of the clay layer:

σvo’ = 2*15 - 2*10 = 10 kPa.

20
20

10
 Settlement Calculation –NC Soil
σvo’= σp’= 10 kPa q=50 kPa
1
σvo’
e H=4 m σp’=10 kPa Water table
Cc A
Cc=1.2, eo=1.5, γ=15 kN/m3
2

q=50 kPa 1.2*4 10+50

10 60
ΔΗ = log
log σv’ 1+1.5 10

Cc = Δe/[log(σvo’+q)-log σvo’] = 1.48 m

ΔeH CcH [log(σ ’+q)-log σ ’]

ΔΗ = εvΗ = = vo vo (1)
1+eo 1+eo
21
21

Settlement Calculation –OC Soil

σvo’= 10 kPa q=50 kPa
σp’= 30 kPa
Cr
σvo’
e Cc H=4 m σp’=30 kPa
A
Water table

Cc=1.2, Cr=0.2, eo=1.5, γ=15 kN/m3

0.2*4 30
q=50 kPa ΔΗ = log
1+1.5 10
10 60
log σv’ 1.2*4 10 + 50
+ log
1+1.5 30
Cc = Δe/[log(σvo’+q)-log σp’]
= 0.12 + 0.56 = 0.68 m
CrH
ΔΗ = [logσp’-log σvo’] + CcH[log(σvo’+q)-log σp’] (3)
1+eo 1+eo
22
22

11
 Settlement can be induced by ground
water variations

Settlement due to NEL MRT construction in

front of People’s Park Complex
23
23

Remarks on ultimate consolidation

settlement calculation
„ The above calculations are for ultimate
consolidation settlement only
only..
„ It is important to determine σp’ reliably, as σp’
affects settlement calculation considerably
considerably..
„ For multiple soft clay layers or a single soft clay
layer but with large variations in σp’ or Cc,
subdivision is required
q for more accurate results
results..
„ For thick clay layer, subdivision may also be
required, as the effective stress changes is too
large..
large

24
24

12
 e ~ log σv’ Curves for KFC at Different Depths

B D01-3m

3.2 B D02-4.5m

B D03-4.5m
03 5
2.7
Void Ratio ( e )

B T30-4.5m

2.2 B D03-6m

B D02-7.5m

1.7 B T26-9.5m

B D01-10.5m
1.2
B T32-14m

0.7

0.2
1 10 100 1000
Load ( KPa ) 25
25

2.2.2 Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi’s 1D
Consolidation Theory

Excess pore
∂ue ∂ 2ue
water pressure
(pwp) = cv 2 (2-1) (1)
∂t ∂z
Vertical distance
Time below the ground
surface
⎛ 2.30σ z ' k ⎞⎛ 1 + e ⎞
cv = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ γ w ⎠⎝ c ⎠
C

Coefficient of consolidation
26
26

13
Excess pore What’s For?
water pressure Fig. 2.1
(pwp)
⎛ z ⎞ 2u z − M 2Tv
ue = Δσ z f ⎜⎜ Tv , dr ⎟⎟ = ∑ 0 (sin M )e (2 2)
(2.2)
Change in ⎝ H dr ⎠ M Hd
vertical
effective For uniform
Vertical distance
π
stress M = ( 2 m + 1)
pwp distribution from point to
2
nearest drainage
boundary
cv t
Time factor: Tv =
H dr2

Hdr = H, single drainage

Drainage path:
Hdr = H/2, double drainage

27
27

⎛ ⎞
Solution
z
ue = Δσ z f ⎜⎜ Tv , dr⎟⎟
⎝ H dr ⎠
ct
Tv = v2
H dr
Fig 2.1
ue/Δσz for
various
values with
double
drainage.
(For the single
drainage case,
Isochrones use only the
upper half of
this diagram.)

28
28

14
 Average Degree of Consolidation
Consolidation settlement

S c (t ) (4Tv / π ) 0.5
Uv = 100% = (2.3)
( S c ) ult [1 + (4Tv / π ) 2.8 ]0.179
Average degree Ultimate consolidation cv t
of consolidation settlement Tv =
H dr2

Sc (t ) = U ( Sc )ult (2.3a)

29
29

Uv versus Tv Relationship
Uv Tv
0.1 0.008
0.2 0.031
0.3 0.071
0.4 0.126
0.5 0.197
0.6 0.287
0.7 0.403
0.8 0.567
0.9 0.848
0.95 1.163
1.0 ∞

30
30

15
 Radial Consolidation Theory

⎛ ∂ 2u 1 ∂u ⎞ ∂u kh
ch ⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟ = ch = (2.4)
⎝ ∂r r ∂r ⎠ ∂t mvγ w
ch is the coefficient of consolidation in the horizontal direction.

For combined vertical and radial flow

∂ 2u ⎛ ∂ 2 u 1 ∂u ⎞ ∂u (2.5)
cv 2 + c h ⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟ =
∂z ⎝ ∂r r ∂r ⎠ ∂t
31
31

Consolidation due to combined

vertical and radial flow
Carillo’s
Carillo s equation
In practice, the excess pore pressure ratios ue/uo are
computed separately based on vertical flow (Eq. 1.1) and
radial flow (Eq. 1.4) alone, and then combined using
Carillo’s equation:

(1 − U vh ) = (1 − U z )× (1 − U h ) at a point (2.6)

(1 − U ) = (1 − U )× (1 − U )
vh v h average value (2.7)

32
32

16
 Barron’s theory for pure radial drainage
de
a
d w = 2(a + b ) / π Eq. (2.8)

b
Equivalent cylindrica ⎡ - 8Th ⎤
U h = 1 - exp ⎢ ⎥
dw ⎣ F (n ) ⎦
Eq. (2.9)
n2 (3n 2 − 1)
ln(n) −
F (n) = 2
( )
Tributary clay
Band draiin

n −1 4n 2
≈ ln(n) − 0.75
al drain
c

ch t de
Th = n= Eq. (2.10)
cylinder

d e2 dw
Fig 2.2 Barron’s equal-strain
solution for a unit cell 33
33

An Alternative Formula
(Terzaghi, Peck & Mesri (1996)

⎡ - 2Tr ⎤
U h = 1 - exp ⎢ ⎥
⎣ F (n ) ⎦ Eq. (2.11)

F (n) ≈ ln(n) − 0.75

ch t de
Tr = re =
re2 2
Equations 2.9 and 2.11 are identical.
34
34

17
 Calculation of de
The diameter of the equivalent clay cylinder tributary to a vertical drain is based on
equivalent cross-sectional area. If the vertical drains are installed in a square grid
pattern, the equivalent drainage diameter is obtained as follows:
2
de
Square grid: spacing 2 = π , hence d e = 1.128 × spacing (2.12)
(2.21)
4
If the vertical drains are spaced in a triangular grid pattern, the equivalent drainage
diameter is:
2
d
Triangular grid: spacing 2 × sin 60° = π e , hence d e = 1.05 × spacing (2.13)
(2.22)
4

de

de

35
35

Equal-strain consolidation with no smear

0

0.1
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n = 100
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40
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20
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0.3
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15
iimage, or th
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t d
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0.4
h
U v and U

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or the image may hav e been corrupted. Restart y our computer, and then open the file again. If the

n = 10
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0.5 The image cannot be display ed. Your

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7
memory to open the image, or the
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computer may not hav e enough

5
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n = de / dw
0.8
Vertical flow
0.9 Horizontal flow
1
0.01 0.1 1

Time factors, T v and T h

Fig 2.3 Solutions to Eq. (2.3) & Eq. (2.9) 36

36

18
 Design charts for combined vertical and radial
⎡ − 8Th ⎤
(1 − U ) = (1 − U )× (1 − U )
vh v h
U h = 1 − exp ⎢ F ( n) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
U vh = 1 − (1 − U v )× exp[− 8Th F (n )]
⎡ T ⎤
= 1 − (1 − U v )× exp ⎢− 8 h Tv F (n )⎥
⎣ Tv ⎦
= 1 − (1 − U v )× exp[− λTv ] (2.14)

2
8 Th 8 ch d e
where λ= =
F (n ) Tv F (n ) cv H d 2
(2.14a)

37
37

0
2
8 ch d e
0.1 λ =
F (n ) c v H 2
0.2 Fig 2.4
0.3
10 5 λ=0
Solution to
0.4
30
2015 combined
Uv h 0.5 50
200
100
80
60 40 25 drainage
g
0.6
150
300
0.7
1000
500 After Bo et al.
0.8 (2003)
0.9

1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Tv

Tv = c v t H 2 c v = coefficient of cons olidation (vertical flow)

c h = coefficient of cons olidation (horizontal flow)
F (n ) ≈ ln (n ) − 0.75 H = Maxim um length of vertical drainage path

n = de dw (Note: λ = 0 if no horizontal drainage)

d e = 1.13s for s qaure grid
1.05s for triangular grid Note: λ = 0 for cases with no vertical
s = drain s pacing drains or horizontal drainage layer.
38
38 d w = drain diam eter

19
 Example -1
EXAMPLE:
Given: Saturated clay layer 8 m thick, low er boundary impermeable,
70 mm diameter pref abricated vertical drains at 2 m centres in
a square pattern, c v = 2.0 m2 /year , c h = 3.0 m2 /year.
To Find: Time required f or 90% consolidation of the clay layer as a result of
an extensive f ill. ⎡ - 2T ⎤
r
U = 1 - exp ⎢ ⎥
Solution: de = 1.13 × 2 m = 2.26 m h
⎣ F (n ) ⎦
F (n) ≈ ln(n) − 0.75 2
n = 2.26 m / 0.07 m = 32.3 λ=
8 Th
=
8 ch d e
F (n ) Tv F (n ) c v H d 2
F(n) ≈ ln(32.3) − 0.75 = 2.73
λ = (8 / 2.73)
2 73) × (3 / 2.26
2 262 ) ⁄ (2 / 82 ) = 55 (using the above λ eqn.) eqn )
Enter chart w ith λ = 55 and Uvh = 90%,
n=de/dw get Tv = 0.038
then, required t = TvH2 / c v = 1.2 years.

39
39

Example -1 (Cont’d)
In Example 1, if H = 20 m,
λ = (8/2.73)x(3/2.26
(8/2 73)x(3/2 262)/(2/202) = 344
Tv = 0.006, then t = TvH2/cv = 0.006x202/2 = 1.2 yr
Therefore, radial drainage controls when the clay layer is thick.

An alternative method is to calculate Uv and Uh using the

equations
q ((2.3),
), ((2.8 – 2.10)) or the chart,, Fig. g 2.3.
However, the solution has to be done by trial and error. For
example, you can assume t =1 yr, then calculate Uv and Uh
and then Uvh. If Uvh is less than 90%, increase t and
calculate again. This is illustrated using the next example.

40
40

20
 Example -2
As in Example 1, given cv = 2.0 m2/yr, ch = 3.0 m2/yr, H = 8
m, PVD 104 x 5 mm at a spacing of 2 m in square pattern.
Calculate the degree of consolidation achieved in 1 yr.

Tv = cvt/Hdr2 = 2x1/42 = 0.125

Uv = sqrt (4Tv/π) = sqrt (4x0.125/3.14) = 0.4

dw = 2(a + b)/π = 2(0.104+0.005)/3.14 = 0.07 m

de = 1.13s
1 13s = 11.13x
13x 2 = 2.26
2 26 m,
m n = 2.256/0.07
2 256/0 07 = 32.3
32 3
F(n) = ln(n) – 0.75 = ln(32.3) – 0.75 = 2.73
Th = cht/de2 = 3x1/2.262 = 0.587
Uh = 1 – exp[-8Th/F(n)] = 1 – exp[-8x0.587/2.73] = 0.82
Uvh =Uv +Uh – UvUh = 0.4 + 0.82 – 0.4x0.82 = 0.89 or 89%

41
41

Design for Vertical Drain with

Smear Zone
dw

Vertical Drain

Smear Zone
L
Perfect Drain

D/2
Undisturbed
Clay

ds

42
42

21
 Smear effect
An annulus of smeared clay around the drain.
Within this annulus of diameter ds, the remolded
soil
il has
h a coefficient
ffi i t off permeability
bilit ks which
hi h is
i
lower than the kh of the undisturbed clay.

⎛n⎞ ⎛k ⎞
Fs (n) = ln⎜ ⎟ − 0.75 + ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ ln(s) ds
⎝s⎠ ⎝ ks ⎠
kh
(Eq. 2.15)
ks
where s = smear zone ratio ds/dw
43
43

The new boundary condition between the undisturbed zone and the smeared annulus
affects the above solution for U h by changing the factor F(n) which becomes:

⎛n⎞ ⎛k ⎞
Fs (n) ≈ ln⎜ ⎟ − 0.75 + ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ ln(s ) ((2.16))
(2.24)
⎝ ⎠
s ⎝ ks ⎠
⎛ kh ⎞
or, equivalently, Fs (n) ≈ ln(n ) − 0.75 + ln(s)⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ (2.24a)
⎝ ks ⎠
(2.17)

⎡ − 8Th ⎤
so that Eq. 2.16 becomes U h = 1 − exp ⎢ ⎥ (2.18)
(2.25)
⎣ Fs (n) ⎦

where s = smear zone ratio ds/dw (2.18a)

(2.25a)

The two additional parameters, s and kh/ks, are difficult to estimate.

44
44

22
 Example -3
As in Example 1, given cv = 2.0 m2/yr, ch = 3.0 m2/yr, H = 8 m,
PVD 104 x 5 mm at a spacing of 2 m in square pattern. Calculate
the degree of consolidation achieved in 1 yr. Assume that
permeability
bilit iin th
the smear zone iis 1/2 off th
the undisturbed
di t b d clay
l and
d
the smear zone diameter is 2 time of the drain diameter.
Tv = cvt/Hdr2 = 2x1/42 = 0.125,
Uv = sqrt (4Tv/π) = sqrt (4x0.125/3.14) = 0.4

dw = 2(a + b)/π = 2(0.104+0.005)/3.14 = 0.07 m

de = 1.128s = 1.128x 2 = 2.256 m, n = 2.256/0.07 = 32.3
S = ds/dw = 2, kh/kv = 2
⎛n⎞ ⎛k ⎞
F (n) = ln⎜ ⎟ − 0.75 + ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ ln(s ) = ln(32.3/2) – 0.75 + 2ln2 = 3.4
⎝s⎠ ⎝ ks ⎠

Th = cht/de2 = 3x1/2.2562 = 0.589

Uh = 1 – exp[-8Th/F(n)] = 1 – exp[-8x0.589/3.4] = 0.75
Uvh =Uv +Uh – UvUh = 0.4 + 0.75 – 0.4x0.75 = 0.85 or 85% 45
45

A B C D E F G H I J
3 time 1.000 year SquareGrid? de n Tv Th F(n)
4 cv 2 2
m /yr Square 2.256 32.229 0.125 0.58944 3.416
5 Hd 4 m (y or n)
2
6 ch
3 m /yr Carillo
7 Spacing 2.000 m Uv Uh Uvh
8 dw 0.07 m 0.3985 0.7485 0.849
9 s 2 (smear diameter ratio)
10 kh/ks 2 (smear k ratio)
11
12 Formulas: de = Spacing*IF(E4="y",1.128,1.05)
13 n = de/dw
14 Tv = cv*time/Hd^2
15 Th = ch*time/d
time/de^2
16 F(n) = LN(n)-0.75+LN(s)*(kh/ks-1)
17 Uv = SQRT(4*Tv/PI())/(1+(4*Tv/PI())^2.8)^0.179
18 Uh = 1-EXP(-8*Th/F(n))
19 Uvh = Uv+Uh-Uv*Uh

46
46

23
 Example -4
EXAMPLE: A wide sand fill is to be placed on a layer of soft clay. The clay is 8 m
thick and underlain by impermeable hard stratum. The coefficients of consolidation
of the clay are cv = 2.0 m2/year and ch = 3.0 m2/year. Assume that the placement of
fill to its final thickness will occur gradually over 6 months. To accelerate
consolidation of the clay layer,
layer it is proposed to install vertical prefabricated band
drains (of cross-section 100 mm × 5 mm) all the way to the bottom of the clay layer.
The drains will be installed when the fill reaches half its final thickness. Determine
the horizontal spacing of the vertical drains (installed in a triangular-grid layout) so
as to achieve 90% of primary consolidation in 1.5 years after the commencement of
fill placement. Assume that the installation of the band drains results in an annulus
of smeared zone in which the coefficient of permeability (ks) for radial flow is 1/3
that of the undisturbed clay. The smear zone ratio is s = 2. Assume negligible well
resistance.
(4Tv π )
Note: Uv ≈ for 0 ≤ U v ≤ 100%
[1 + (4Tv π )2.8 ]0.179
U h = 1 − exp(− 8Th / Fs (n ))

where Fs (n ) = ln n ( s )− 0.75 + ⎛⎜⎝ k h ⎞ × ln (s )

k s ⎟⎠
47
47

Available consolidation time = 18 months – 0.5*6 months = 1.25 years

A B C D E F G H I J
A B C D E F G H I J K L
3 Average 1.250
time degree year SquareGrid?
of consolidation
de vertical flow,
for combined radial and
Tv effect. Th
n with smear F(n)
1
4 2 cv 2 m 2
/yr Triangular 1.9211 27.444 0.0391 1.01611 3.94844
3 time 1.250 year SquareGrid? de n Tv Th F(n)
5 4 Hd cv 8 2 m 2
m /yr (yn or 1.9023
n) 28.392 0.0309 1.0363 3.9824

ch Hd 3 9 m m2 (y or n)
6 5
2
/yr Carillo
6 ch 3 m /yr Carillo
Spacing1.830
7 Spacing
7 1.812 mm Uv UhUv Uvh Uh Uvh
8 8 dw dw 0.07
0.067 mm 0.223 0.8724
0.1982 0.8753 0.900 0.901
9 s 2 (smear diameter ratio)
9 10 ksh/ks 2 3 (smear diameter ratio)
(smear k ratio)
11
10 kh/ks 3 (smear k ratio)

48
48

24
 For Layered soils

The rate of consolidation is controlled by

the soil layer with a smaller ch
49
49

Summary
(1) Vertical drainage:
For Uv < 0.60, Tv = (π/4)Uv2
For Uv > 0.60, Tv = – 0.933log(1-Uv) – 0.085
(4Tv π )
Or Uv ≈ for 0 ≤ U v ≤ 100%
[1 + (4T
v π) ]
2.8 0.179

(2) Radial drainage:

Where: F(n) ≈ ln(n) -0.75 For case of no smear and no well resistance
⎛n⎞ ⎛k ⎞
F (n) = ln⎜ ⎟ − 0.75 + ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ ln(s) For smear case
⎝ ⎠
s ⎝ ks ⎠

n = de/dw s = ds/dw dw = 2(a + b)/π

de = 1.128 x spacing For square grid
de = 1.05 x spacing For triangular grid
ds = outer diameter of the smear zone annulus
(3) Carillo’s Equation:
(1 – Uvh) = (1 – Uv) x (1 – Uh)
50
50

25
 Section 2
2--3
Installation

51

Installation of PVD

Installation equipment Driving mandrel Extracting mandrel Cutting drain

After “www.americanwick.com/graphics/stickrigb.gif”
52
52

26
 53
53

Types of vertical drain installation rigs

Type of Weight Penetration Height Max Mechanism Max production
base of base Power (t) of Rig penetration of / day (m/14 hrs)
machine (t) (m) depth (m) Penetration
Cofra O & K 70 - 110 20 - 30 36 - 55.5 50.5 Hydraulic 30,000
Excavator motor
Econ O&K 70 - 120 20 - 30 36 - 56.1 51.2 - do - 27,000
Excavator
Yuyang Crane 77 - 100 25 - 30 52.5 - 52.8 Hydraulic 10,000
55.8 motor
sprocket &
chain
Chosuk Daewoo - 45 25 54.6 51 Hydraulic 12,000
Solar motor
450 - multi
Excavator pulley
system
Dae Daewoo - 33 - 55 20 - 34 42 -56 51 Hydraulic 13,500
Y
Yang S l
Solar motor
t
450 - Push in
Excavator roller
and clamp
B+B Excavator - - 31 – 47 29 - 45 Hydraulic 19,200
sprocket &
chain
B+B Excavator - - 43 – 50 41 - 48 Vibro push 8,600
in
54
54

27
 Installation of Vertical Drains
55
55

56
56

28
 Types of mandrels 57
57

Types of
Mandrels and
Anchors

58
58

29
Attaching Anchor Plate

Nilex

Cutting PVD

Nilex

30
 The mandrel can bend! 61
61

Splicing

Colband drain

After Bo et al. (2003) 62

62

31
 Splicing

Mebra drain

After Bo et al. (2003) 63

63

Mud flow is observed

during drain installation in
ultra soft soil.

64
64

32
 Area Installed with Vertical Drains
65
65

Counters to record
Installation Depth

66
66

33
Preloading using fill
or vacuum pressure

67
67

Development of design codes

or guides
„ Code of Practice for Installation of
Prefabricated Drains (JTJ/T
JTJ/T256
256--96
1996)) & Quality Inspection Standard
1996
for Prefabricated Drains (JTJ/T
JTJ/T257
257--96
1996) in China.
1996) China.
„ European
p Standard on Execution of
Special Geotechnical Works — Vertical
Drainage (prEN 15237,
15237, 2005)
2005).

34
 New types of PVDs

Integrated drain

Liu and Chu (2008; 2009)

Section 2-
2- 4
Quality Control and Practical
Considerations
2.4.1 Terminology
2.4.2 Properties
ope t es o
of PVD
2.4.3 Factors control the PVD selection
2.4.4 Quality control tests
2.4.5 Practical Considerations
70

35
 2.4.1 Terminology -1

„ Permittivity of filter,
filter Ψ = kn / t , 1/s
(permeability of the filter/ thickness)

t
Flow
Ψ

71
71

Terminology -2

„ Transmissivity of filter , Θ = kd t , m2/s

(In--plane permeability x thickness)
(In
t

Flow
Θ

72
72

36
 Terminology -3

„ Discharge capacity of drain

drain, qw = Q / i,
i m3/s

Discharge
velocity
qw

73
73

Terminology -4

„ Discharge factor

qw
D= 2
k hlm

The efficiency of PVD in discharging water is

controlled not only by the discharge capacity, but
also by the permeability of the soil and the length
of the drain.
74
74

37
 Terminology -5

„ Apparent opening size (AOS)

AOS is usually defined as the size that

is larger than 95% or 90% of the fabric pores,
denoted as O95 or O90.

75
75

Terminology -6

„ D85 of soils
D85 is used to measure the particle size of soil.
It is defined as the size that is larger than 85%
of soil particles as measured from the particle size
distribution curve.

Sometimes, D90, D50, or D15 may be used.

76
76

38
 2.4.2 Properties of PVD
With pure radial flow, the average degree of consolidation, Uh, reached
at a certain depth, z, can be calculated by:
Coefficient of consolidation of
8c t soil in the redial direction
Permeability U h = 1 − exp(− h 2 )
of soil μD Diameter of
smeared zone

⎛ D ⎞ kh ⎛ d s ⎞ 3 k Well
μ = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − + πz (2l m − z ) h
⎝ ds ⎠ ks ⎝ dw ⎠ 4 qw resistance

Discharge capacity of PVD

Permeability of
d w = 2(a + b) / π
smeared soil

Equivalent drain diameter

77
77

2 4 3 Factors Affecting the

2.4.3
Performance of PVD

Discharge capacity
Tensile strength
Filter

78

39
 Discharge Capacity

„ Normally the well resistance is ignored in

design. Therefore, we must ensure the
discharge capacity of the drain is sufficient
so that well resistance is negligible.

„ How large is sufficient?

79
79

Discharge Capacity (Cont’d)

„ The condition for well resistance to be

insignificant is:
qw
D= ≥ 7.85
k h l m2

q req ≥ 7.85Fs k h l m2

Fs = factor of safety, Fs = 4~6

80
80

40
 Discharge Capacity (Cont’d)
1000
k = 10-9 m/s
100
equired discharge capacity

10-10 m/s
(x 10 m /s)

10
3

10-11 m/s
-6

1
Re

0.1

0.01
0 20 40 60 80
Maximum drain length (m)

81
81

Discharge Capacity (Cont’d)

If we take Fs = 5
5, ks = 10-10
10 m/s,
m/s and lm = 25 m,
m
then qw = 2.45 x 10 m /s, or 82 m /yr.
-6 3 3

If lm = 50 m instead of 25 m,
then qw = 9.81 x 10-6 m3/s, or 327 m3/yr.

If ks = 10-9 m/s instead of 10-10 m/s,

th
then qw = 98.1
98 1 x 10-6 m3/s,
/ or 3 3,270
270 m3/yr.
/

82
82

41
 Tensile Strength
„ To sustain the tensile load applied to PVD
during installation.
„ Commonly, it is required the drain to have
a tensile strength of larger than 1 kN at a
tensile strain of 10% at either dry or wet
conditions
conditions.
„ Sometimes, permanent necking can occur.
This will reduce the discharge capacity.

83
83

Filter
„ Soil retention ability
O95 ≤ (2 ~ 3) D85 (D85=0.01~0.03mm)
=0 01~0 03mm)
and
O50 ≤ (10 to 12) D50 (D50=0.001~0.002mm)
„ Permeability
kf ≥ 10 ks (normally not a problem)
„ Clogging resistance
„ n ≥ 30%
„ O95 ≥ 3 D15
„ O15 ≥ (2 to 3) D10

84
84

42
 Filter design
criteria

Terzaghi and Peck

(1948) suggested:
For retention:

filter D15(F) < 4D85(S)

For permeability:
D15(F) > 4D15(S)
soil

85
85

How
filter
works

86
86

43
 2.4.4 Quality Control Tests
Discharge Capacity
Tensile Strength
Permeability and AOS of Filter

87

Need for Quality Control Tests

„ Several million meters of PVDs can be used in

one project and the supplies are over a few
months. We have to know the consistence of the
product. The only way to check is to conduct
quality control tests.

„ It is NOT possible to make direct comparison

among qw given by suppliers unless the drains
are tested in the same way.
88
88

44
 Discharge Capacity

„ Normally measured under straight and

deformed conditions.

„ Types of Tests
„ Straight drain tester
„ Buckled drain tester
„ Kinked drain tester

89
89

Discharge Capacity Tests

„ ASTM 4716 is NOT the standard for this
test, although it is often used
used..

„ The drain to be tested MUST be

embedded into soil.
soil.

„ MUST have independent water head

measurement..
measurement
90
90

45
 Straight Drain Tester

91
91

Straight Drain Tester (Cont’d)

92
92

46
 Straight Drain Tester (Cont’d)

93
93

Buckling of Drains

Sand fill H1

Soft
clay H2

94
94

47
 Buckled
Drain
Tester

95
95

Buckled Drain Tester (Cont’d)

96
96

48
 Example - Discharge Capacity
160

140

120 Drain 1
Discharge 100 – Straight
capacity – Buckled
(10-6 m3/s) 80
60

40 Drain 2
20 – Straight
– Buckled
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Pressure applied (kPa)

97
97

Kinked Drain Tester

98
98

49
 Discussion on qw Measurement

„ The measurement of qw is affected by hydraulic

gradient i. The greater the i the smaller the qw.
It appears i =0.5 is the most suitable value for
qw measurement.
„ qw is a measure of the in-
in-plane flow capacity of
the drain. The measurement is not affected by
the smear effect. For the same reason, it is NOT
affected by the size of the soil media used to
embed the drain.

99
99

Discussion on qw Measurement
(Cont’d)
„ In practice
practice, the drain wells work together.
together
It is the overall effect which matters.
Therefore, the drains should be tested
under typical, not the most severe
conditions.
„ The qw reduces with time
time, but so does the
rate of consolidation.

100
100

50
 Tensile
Strength
Test

101
101

Example -Tensile Strength Test

2.4
Drain 1 Dryy
2
Wet

1.6 Dry
Drain 2
Tensile
Wet
stress 1.2
(kN)
0.8

0.4

0
0 10 20 30 40
Tensile strain (%)
102
102

51
 Permeability of Filter
Qδ
k= Rt
AΔht

As specified by ASTM
D4491-96, the
permeability is taken as
the value corresponding
to a 50 mm water head.

103
103

AOS of Filter

104
104

52
 AOS of Filter (Cont’d)
B = 100 P / T

Where: B = beads passing through specimen, %

P = mass of glass beads in the pan, g, and
T = total mass of glass beads used, g.
Table Cumulative size distribution percent of
spheres with diameters less than the size indicated

Weight 2.7 10.9 19.2 24.7 28.9 33.3 36.8 38.4 40.1 43.6
(%)
Diameter 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76
(μm)

105
105

Quality Control of PVD

106
106

53
 Quality Control of PVD (Cont’d)

Devices to measure the length of the drain

107
107

2.4.5 Practical Considerations

„ Select drain with discharge capacity matches the need:

q req ≥ 7.85Fs k h l m2
„ Select the filter with AOS matches the soil to be
improved. For Singapore marine clay: O95 ≤(4
≤(4--7.5)D85.
D85 =0.01
=0.01––0.02mm. By experience, thicker filters are
better. The mass/area > 90 g/m2.
„ If the drain spacing is smaller, the smear effect will be
more significant.
„ Complete penetration of drain into soft clay may not be
necessary.

108
108

54
 Reduction of consolidation time through
application of higher surcharge

109
109

Summary--1
Summary

„ The selection of PVD is controlled not only

by the drain itself, but also by the length
of the drain and the permeability of the
soil.. Therefore, one cannot borrow
soil
specifications without considering the site
conditions
di i and
d the
h nature off the
h project
project.
j .

110
110

55
 Summary--2
Summary

„ The discharge capacity qw must be

adequately large so the well effect can be
ignored..
ignored
„ The drains also must have sufficient
tensile strength
strength.. The AOS of the filter
should match the grain size of the soil
soil..
The permeability of the filter should also
have sufficiently large.
large.
111
111

Summary--3
Summary

„ Quality control tests need to be conducted

during a project to (a) compare & verify
the properties of different PVD, (b) to
ensure the design assumptions are met,
and (c) to ensure the quality consistency.
consistency.
„ Some simple testing devices and methods
for quality control tests for PVD have been
introduced..
introduced
112
112

56
 Concluding Remark
„ For the successful implementation of a drain
project
j the
h d i
design must take
k i
into
consideration many factors such as the site
and soil conditions, the client’s requirements,
the quality control of the drains, the method
of installation, the experience of the
contractor and the evaluation and
interpretation of the soil instrumentation,
instrumentation
laboratory and in-situ test data. A holistic
approach to drain design has therefore to be
adopted and experience plays an essential
role in achieving the desired results.
113
113

57