UNIT & DIMENSION

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 UNIT & DIMENSION

Preface

IIT - JEE Syllabus : Unit & Dimension

Unit & Dimensions, Dimensional analysis, Least count, Significant figure, Methods of measurement
and Error analysis for physical quantities.

Fundamental concepts of the Physics start from this chapter. Basically the terms &
concepts which are illustrated in this topic will be used in so many ways because all Physical
quantities have units. It is must to measure all Physical quantities so that we can use them. In this
chapter we will have an over view of different units of different Physical quantities. We will learn
the dimension and dependence of the unit of any Physical quantity on fundamental quantities or
unit. Entire topic is illustrated very systematically with respective examples so that the students
can understand the fundamentals very easily & quickly. Students are advised to read every point of
supplementary very carefully which is given at the end of the topic. Generally, students are not
able to find out the Dimension of unseen or new quantity as their basic concepts are not clear &
then they read the dimensions like a parrot. It should be avoided & they should develope themselves,
so that they can find out the dimensions of any given quantity.

Total number of Questions in Units & Dimension are :

In chapter Examples .......................................... 27

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Physics : There are three types of units
Physics is the study of the laws of nature from 2.1 Fundamental or base units
the observed events. 2.2 Derived units
2.3 Supplementary units
1. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
2.1 Fundamental or base units:
The quantities by means of which we describe Units of fundamental quantities are called
the laws of physics are called physical quantities. fundamental units.
There are two type of physical quantities.
1.1 Fundamental quantities 2.1.1 Characteristics of fundamental units:
1.2 Derived quantities (i) they are well defined and are of a suitable size
(ii) they are easily reproducible at all places
1.1 Fundamental quantities:
(iii) they do not vary with temperature, time
Physical quantities which are independent of each pressure etc. i.e. invariable.
other and cannot be further resolved into any
(iv) there are seven fundamental units.
other physical quantity are known as fundamental
quantities. There are seven fundamental 2.1.2 Definitions of fundamental units:
quantities. 2.1.2.1 Metre :
Fundamental Units Symbol The distance travelled by light in Vacuum in
quantity 1
(a) Length Metre m 299 ,792 ,458 second is called 1m.
(b) Mass Kilogram kg
2.1.2.2 Kilogram :
(c) Time Second s
(d) Electric current Ampere A The mass of a cylinder made of platinum iridium
alloy kept at international bureau of weights and
(e) Thermodynamic Kelvin K
measures is defined as 1kg.
temperature
2.1.2.3 Second :
(f) Luminous Candela Cd
intensity Cesium -133 atom emits electromagnetic radiation
of several wavelengths. A particular radiation is
(g) Amount of Mole Mol.
selected which corresponds to the transistion
substance between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
1.2 Derived Quantities : state of Cs - 133. Each radiation has a time
period of repetition of certain characteristics. The
Physical quantities which depend upon
time duration in 9, 192, 631, 770 time periods of
fundamental quantities or which can be derived
the selected transistion is defined as 1s.
from fundamental quantities are known as derived
quantities. 2.1.2.4 Ampere :
Suppose two long straight wires with negligible
2. UNITS cross-section are placed parallel to each other in
Definition : Things in which quantity is measured vacuum at a seperation of 1m and electric
are known as units. currents are established in the two in same
direction. The wires attract each other. If equal
Measurement of physical quantity currents are maintained in the two wires so that
= (Magnitude) × (Unit) the force between them is 2 × 10–7 newton per
Ex.1 A physical quantity is measured and the result meter of the wire, then the current in any of the
is expressed as nu where u is the unit used wires is called 1A. Here, newton is the SI unit of
and n is the numerical value. If the result is force.
expressed in various units then : 2.1.2.5 Kelvin :
(A) n ∝ size of u (B) n ∝ u2
1
1 The fraction of the thermodynamic
(C) n ∝ u (D) n ∝ 273.16
u temperature of triple point of water is called 1K.
Answer : (D)

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2.1.2.6 Mole : independent of temperature. But the length
The amount of a substance that contains as many of object varies with temperature and is given
elementary entities (Molecules or atoms if the by the relation .
substance is monoatomic) as there are number L t = L0 (1 + αt)
of atoms in .012 kg of carbon - 12 is called a ∴ We usually specify the temperature at
mole. This number (number of atoms in 0.012 kg which measurement is made.
of carbon-12) is called Avogadro constant and its Ex.4 Which of the following sets cannot enter into
best value available is 6.022045 x 1023 . the list of fundamental quantities in any
2.1.2.7 Candela: system of units
The S.I. unit of luminous intensity is 1cd which (A) length ; mass ; velocity
is the luminous intensity of a blackbody of (B) length ; time ; velocity
1 (C) mass ; time; velocity
surface area m 2 placed at the (D) length ; time, mass
600,000
temperature of freezing platinum and at a pressure length
Sol.[B] Since velocity = i.e. in this set a
of 101,325 N/m2, in the direction perpendicular to time
its surface. quantity is dependent on the other two
quantities Where as fundamental quantities
Examples
based on Definition of fundamental Units are independent.

Ex.2 A man seeing a lighting starts counting 2.2 Derived units :

seconds until he hears thunder. He then Units of derived quantities are called derived units.
claims to have found an approximate but Physical quantity units
simple rule that if the count of second is Ιllustration Volume = (length)3 m3
divided by an integer, the result directly gives
Speed = length/time m/s
in km, the distance of the lighting source.
t in s
What is the integer if the velocity of sound is 2.3 Supplementary units :
330 m/s n
The units defined for the supplementary quantities
Sol. If n is the integer then according to the namely plane angle and solid angle are called
the supplementary units. The unit for plane angle
problem = dist in km. is rad and the unit for the solid angle is steradian.
Note :
t in s The supplemental quantities have only units but
= (v) t
n no dimensions (will be discussed later)

1 1 3. PRINCIPAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

n = = = 3
v 330 x 10 −3
3.1 C.G.S. system [centimetre (cm) ; gram (g) and
Ex.3 In defining the standard of length we have to second (s)]
specify the temperature at which the 3.2 F.P.S system [foot ; pound ; second]
measurement should be made. Are we 3.3 M.K.S. system [meter ; kilogram ; second]
justified in calling length a fundamental 3.4 S.I. (system of international)
quantity if another physical. quantity,
In 1971 the international Bureau of weight and
temperature, has to be specified in choosing
measures held its meeting and decided a system
a standard.
of units. Which is known as the international
Sol. Yes, length is a fundamental quantity. One system of units.
metre is the distance that contains
1650 763.73 wavelength of orange-red light of
Kr - 86. Hence, the standard metre is

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 Examples 4. DIMENSIONS
based on Units
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers
Ex.5 The acceleration due to gravity is 9.80 m/s2.
to which the fundamental quantities must be
What is its value in ft/s2 ?
raised to represent the given physical quantity.
Sol. Because 1 m = 3.28 ft, therefore
Ι llustration :
9.80 m/s2 = 9.80 × 3.28 ft/s2
Force (Quantity) = mass × acceleration
= 32.14 ft/s2
velocity length
Ex.6 A cheap wrist watch loses time at the rate of = mass × = mass ×
8.5 second a day. How much time will the time ( time) 2
watch be off at the end of a month ? = mass × length × (time)–2
Sol. Time delay = 8.5 s/day So dimensions of force : 1 in mass
= 8.5 × 30 s/ (30 day) 1 in length
= 255 s/month = 4.25 min/month. –2 in time
and Dimensional formula : [MLT–2]

5. DIMENSIONAL FORMULA
It is an expression which shows how and which of the fundamental units are required to represent the unit
of physical quantity.
Different quantities with units. symbol and dimensional formula,

Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit D.F.

Displacement s — Metre or m M0LT0
Area A l × b (Metre)2 or m2 M0L2T0
Volume V l × b × h (Metre)3 or m3 M0L3T0

∆s
Velocity v v = m/s M0LT–1
∆t
Momentum p p = mv kgm/s MLT–1

∆v
Acceleration a a = m/s2 M0LT–2
∆t
Force F F = ma Newton or N MLT–2
Impulse – F × t N.sec MLT–1
Work W F. d N.m ML2T–2
1
Energy KE or U K.E. = mv2 Joule or J ML2T–2
2
P.E. = mgh

W
Power P P = watt or W ML2T–3
t
Density d d = mass/volume kg/m3 ML–3T0

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 Pressure P P = F/A Pascal or Pa ML–1T–2
Torque τ τ = r × F N.m. ML2T–2
arc
Angular displacement θ θ = radian or rad M0L0T0
radius

θ
Angular velocity ω ω = rad/sec M0L0T–1
t

∆ω
Angular acceleration α α = rad/sec2 M0L0T–2
∆t

Moment of Inertia I I = mr2 kg-m2 ML2T0

kgm 2
Angular momentum J or L J = mvr ML2T–1
s

1
Frequency ν or f f = hertz or Hz M0L0T–1
T
Stress — F/A N/m2 ML–1T–2
∆l ∆A ∆V
Strain — ; ; —- M0L0T0
l A V

F/A
Youngs modulus Y Y = N/m2 ML–1T–2
∆l / l
(Bulk modulus)

F W N J
Surface tension T or ; ML0T–2
l A m m2
Force constant (spring) k F = kx N/m ML0T–2
 dv 
Coefficient of viscosity η F = η   A kg/ms(poise in C.G.S) ML–1T–1
dx
Gm1m2 N − m2
Gravitational constant G F = M–1L3T–2
r2 kg 2
Fr 2
⇒ G =
m1m 2

PE J
Gravitational potential Vg Vg = kg M0L2T–2
m
Temperature θ — Kelvin or K M0L0T0θ+1
Heat Q Q = m × S × ∆t Joule or Calorie ML2T–2
Joule
Specific heat S Q = m × S × ∆t kg.Kelvin M0L2T–2θ–1

Joule
Latent heat L Q = mL kg M0L2T–2

KA (θ1 − θ 2 )t Joule
Coefficient of thermal K Q = m sec K MLT–3θ–1
d
conductivity

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 Joule
Universal gas constant R PV = nRT mol.K ML2T–2θ–1
Mechanical equivalent J W = JH — M0L0T0
of heat

Q
Charge Q or q I = Coulomb or C M0L0TA
t
Current I — Ampere or A M0L0T0A

1 q1q2 (coul.) 2 C2
Electric permittivity ε0 F = 4 πε . 2 or M–1L–3A2T4
0 r N. m 2 N − m2

∆W
Electric Potential V V = Joule/coul ML2T–3A–1
q

Intensity of electric field E E = N/coul. MLT–3A–1

Capacitance C Q = CV Farad M–1L–2T4A2

Dielectric constant ε
or relative permittivity εr εr = ε — M0L0T0
0
Resistance R V = IR Ohm ML2T–3A–2
1
Conductance S S = Mho M–1 L–2T–3A2
R
RA
Specific resistance ρ ρ = Ohm × meter ML3T–3A–2
F
µ0 l
qπ
4 or resistivity
1
Conductivity or σ σ = ρ Mho/meter M–1L–3T3A2

specific conductance

Magnetic induction B F = qvBsinθ Tesla or weber/m2 MT–2A–1

or F = BIL
dφ
Magnetic flux φ e = Weber ML2 T–2A–1
dt
Magnetic intensity H B = µ H A/m M0L–1T0A

Magnetic permeability N
Idl sin θ
of free space or medium µ0 B = MLT–2A–2
r2 amp2

Coefficient of self or dI
Mutual inductance L e = L . Henery ML2T–2A–2
dt
Electric dipole moment p p = q × 2l C.m. M0LTA

Magnetic dipole moment M M = NIA amp.m2 M0L2AT0

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 Examples Sol. Dimensionally
Dimensions
based on F = MLT–2
Ex.7 (a) Can there be a physical quantity which In C.G.S system
has no unit and dimensions 1 dyne = 1g 1 cm (1s)–2
(b) Can a physical quantity have unit without In new system
having dimensions 1x = (10g) (10 cm) (0.1s)–2
Sol. (a) Yes, strain
−2
(b) Yes, angle with units radians 1dyne 1g 1cm  10s 
= ×  
Ex.8 Fill in the blanks 1x 10g 10cm  1s 
(i) Three physical quantities which have same 1
dimensions are ............................ 1 dyne = × 1x
10,000
(ii) Mention a scalar and a vector physical 104 dyne = 1x
quantities having same dimensions
10 x = 105 dyne = 1 N
...........................
1
Sol. (i) Work, energy, torque x = N
10
(ii) Work, torque
Ex.12 If the units of length and force are increased
Ex.9 Choose the correct statement (s) four times, then the unit of energy will
(A)all quantities may be represented (A) increase 8 times
dimensionally in terms of the base
(B) increase 16 times
quantities
(C) decreases 16 times
(B) all base quantity cannot be represented
dimensionally in terms of the rest of the (D) increase 4 times
base quantities Sol. Dimensionally
(C) the dimension of a base quantity in other E = ML2T–2
base quantities is always zero. E = (MLT–2) (L)
(D) the dimension of a derived quantity is E' = (4) (MLT–2) (4L) veloc
never zero in any base quantity. E' = 16 (ML2T–2) time
Sol. [A,B,C] Note :
(B) all the fundamental base quantities are 5.1 Two physical quantities having same dimensions
independent of any other quantity can be added or subtracted but there is no such
(C) same as above restriction in division and multiplication. (Principle
of homogeneity)
Ex.10 If velocity (V), time (T) and force (F) were chosen
as basic quantities, find the dimensions of mass. Ι llustration : Using the theory of dimensions,
Sol. Dimensionally : determine the dimensions of constants ‘a’ and ‘b’
Force = mass × acceleration  a 
in Vander Wall’s equation.  P + 2  (V – b) = RT
 V 
Force = mass ×
a
Sol. must have the same dimensions as that of
Force × time V2
Mass = velocity
mass = FTV–1 P (because it is added to P)
Ex.11 In a particular system, the unit of length, Dimension of b must be same as that of V.
mass and time are chosen to be 10cm, 10gm [a]
and 0.1s respectively. The unit of force in = ML–1T–2
L6
this system will be equivalent to
[a] = ML5T–2
1
(A) N (B) 1N [b] = L3
10
(C) 10N (D) 100 N

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 5.2 Expressions such as sinx ; cosx (trigonometric Conversion of units from one
functions) ex, ax, log x, lnx , have no dimensions. Example
based on system to other system of units
In these quantities ‘x’ has also no dimensions.
Ex.15 Conversion of Newton to Dyne
Examples
based on Remarks (MKS) (C.G.S.)
Ex.13 The time dependence of physical quantity P Dimensional formula of F = MLT–2
is found to be of the form
1kg × 1m 1000 g × 100 cm
P = P e– αt
2
0 1N = 2 =
(| sec | ) (| sec |)2
Where‘t’ is the time and α is some constant.
Then the constant α will
g.cm
(A) be dimensionless = 105
(B) have dimensions of T–2 sec 2
(C) have dimensions of P 1N = 105 Dyne
(D) have dimensions of P multiplied by T–2 Ex.16 Conversion of G from SI system to C.G.S.
Sol. Since in ex, x is dimensionless
Dimensional formula = M–1L3T–2
∴ In ; αt2 should be dimensionless m3
αt2 = M0L0T0 G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
kg.s 2
α = M0L0T–2

6. APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (100cm)3

G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
1000 g.(1sec) 2
6.1 To find the unit of a given physical quantity
in a given system of units
10 6 cm3
Ιllustration F = [MLT–2] G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
6.2 In finding the dimensions of physical constants 10 3 g. sec 2
LM OP
Gm 2m
e t11 2or coefficients.
M
−α
cm 3
N Q2
Mr 2Examples
based on Application of dimensional analysis
G = 6.67 × 10-8
g. sec 2
Ex.14 To find the dimensions of physical constants, Ex.17 If the units of force, energy and velocity in a
G, h, η etc. new system be 10 N, 5J and 0.5 ms –1
Sol. Dimension of (Gravitational constant) respectively, find the units of mass, length
and time in that system.
[G][M2 ] Sol. Let M1, L1 and T1 be the units of mass,
G : F = ⇒ [MLT–2] =
L2 length and time in SI and M2, L2 and T2 the
G = M–1L3T–2 corresponding units in new system.
Dimensions of h : Plank’s constant The dimensional formula for force is
E = hν (M1 L1 T–2)
Hence the conversion formula for force
1
ML2T–2 = h . becomes
T
h = ML2T–1
n2 = n1
LM M OP LM L OP LM T OP
1
1
1
1
1
−2

Dimension of η : Coefficient of viscosity.

F = 6πηvr
NM Q NL Q N T Q
2 2 2

Here n1= 10 N, n2 = 1, Substituting we get

[MLT–2] = η[LT–1][L]
η = [ML–1T–1]
1 = 10
 L1 
 
1
LM T OP
1
−2

...(1)
6.2.1 To convert a physical quantity from one system L2  NT Q 2
to the other

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 The dimensional formula for work is Examples
(M1 L2 T–2) Ex.18 The density of a substance is 8 g/cm3. Now
we have a new system in which unit of length
n2 = n 1
LM M OP LM L OP LM T OP
1
1
1
2
1
−2
is 5cm and unit of mass 20g. Find the density
NM Q N L Q N T Q
2 2 2 in this new system
Sol. In the new system ; Let the symbol of unit
n1 = 5 J, n2 = 1
of length be La and mass be Ma.
Substituting values we get
1 La

1 = 5
LM M OP LM L OP LM T OP
1
1
1
2
1
−2

...(2)
Since 5cm = 1 La ⇒ 1cm =
5
NM Q N L Q N T Q
2 2 2
20g = 1Ma ⇒ 1g =
1 Ma
Similarly the dimensional formula for velocity 20
is (Mº L1 T–1).
 1 
Hence, conversion formula for velocity is 8× Ma
 20 
D = 8 g/cm3=
n2 = n1
LM M OP LM L OP LM T OP
1
0
1
1
1
−1
 1La 
 
3

NM Q N L Q N T Q
2 2 2 D = 50 Ma/(La)3
 5 

Here n1 = 0.5 ms–1 , n2 = 1, = 50 units in the new system

Substituting values we get 6.3 To check the dimensional correctness of a
given relation
1= 0.5
LM L OP LM T OP
1
1
1
−1

...(3)
NL Q N T Q
2 2
Examples
based on Dimensional correctness
LM L OP ,1 Ex.19 Find the correct relation
Dividing (2) by (1),1 =
NL Q 2
mv 2
L1 1 F = or 1 2
L2 = = m = 0.5 m r mv
2 2 22
Sol. Checking the dimensionally correctness of r
L L OP relation
Substituting value of M
1

NL Q 2
in (3), we get
mv 2
F =

1= 0.5 × 2
LM T OP 1
−1
T1
, T = 1, T2 = 1s
r2

NT Q
2 2
L.H.S. = MLT–2
M (LT −1)2
L L OP LM T OP R.H.S. =
L2
= ML0T–2 ; LHS ≠ RHS
Substituting value of M
1 1

N L Q and N T Q in (1) 2 2
F =
Mv 2

1= 10
LM M OP × 2 × 1,
1
r
LHS = MLT–2
NM Q2
M (LT −1)2
LM M PO ,
1 RHS =
L
= MLT–2 ; LHS = RHS
1= 20
NM Q
2
Hence dimensionally second relation is correct
M2 = 20 M1 as M1 = 1kg, M2 = 20 kg.
Limitation :
Hence units of mass, length and time are It is not necessary that every dimensionally
20 kg, 0.5 m and 1 sec respectively correct relation, physically may be correct
6.2.2 Conversion of a quantity from a given system 6.4 As a research tool to derive new relation
to new hypothetical system

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 Examples 7.2 Since numerical constant have no dimensions.
based on Deriving new relation

Ex.20 To derive the Einstein mass - energy relation Such as , 1, 6π etc, hence these can’t be
Sol. E = f ( m , c) deduced by the methods of dimensions.
E = k MxCy 7.3 The method of dimensions cannot be used to
ML2 T–2 = Mx (LT–1)y derive relations other than product of power
ML2T–2 = MxLyT–y functions.
Comparing the coefficients 1 2
Ι llustration : S = ut + at , y = asinωt
x = 1 ; y = + 2 2
Through experiments ; k = 1 Note :
∴ E = mc2 However the dimensional correctness of these
Ex.21 When a small sphere moves at low speed can be checked
through a fluid, the viscous force F opposing 7.4 The method of dimensions cannot be applied to
the motion, is found experimentaly to depend derive formula if in mechanics a physical quantity
on the radius ‘r’, the velocity v of the sphere depends on more than three physical quantities.
and the viscosity η of the fluid. Find the force As then there will be less number (=3) of
F (Stoke’s law) equations than the unknowns. However the
Sol. F = f (η ; r ; v) dimensional correctness of the equation can be
checked
F = k . η . r. v
MLT–2 = (ML–1T–1)x (L)y (LT–1)z I
Ιllustration : T = 2π
MLT–2 = Mx L–x + y + z T–x–z mg l cannot be derived by
theory of dimensions.
comparing coefficients
7.5 Even if a physical quantity depends on three
x = 1 , –x + y + z = 1 ; – x – z = – 2
physical quantities, out of which two have same
x = y = z = 1 dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by
5
1 F = kηvr theory of dimensions.
6
2 F = 6πηvr Ι llustration : Formula of the frequency of a
As through experiments : k = 6π  d
tunning fork f =  2  v
L 
Ex.22 A gas bubble from an explosion under water, Note :
oscillates with a period T proportional to However the dimensional correctness can be
padbEc where p is the static pressure, d is checked.
the density of water and E is the total energy
of explosion. Find the values of a,b, and c. 8. SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
1 1
Sol. a = – ; b = and c = 8.1 Normally decimal is used after first digit using
2 3
powers of ten,
7. LIMITATIONS OF THE APPLICATION OF Ιllustration :3750 m will be written as 3.750 x103 m
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 8.2 The order of a physical quantity is expressed in
power of 10 and is taken to be 1 if ≤ (10)1/2 = 3.16
7.1 If the dimensions are given, then the physical
quantity may not be unique as many physical and 10 if > 3.16
quantities can have same dimensions. Ιllustration :speed of light = 3 x 108, order = 108

Examples
Mass of electron = 9.1 x 10–31, order = 10–30
Limitation of dimensional analysis
based on 8.3 Significant digits : In a multiplication or division
Ex.23 If there is a physical quantity whose of two or more quantities, the number of
dimensional formula is [ML2T–2 ]. Determine significant digits in the answer is equal to the
the physical quantity. number of significant digits in the quantity which
Sol. It may be torque, work or energy. has the minimum number of significant digit

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 Ι llustration : 12.0/7.0 will have two significant (d) 14.650 × 1012 will become 14.6 × 1012
digits only. because the digit to be rounded is even and
8.4 The insignificant digits are dropped from the result the digit next to it is 5.
if they appear after the decimal point. They are
25 . 2 × 1374
replaced by zeroes if they appear to the left of Ex.25 Evaluate . All the digits in this
two decimal point. The least significant digit is 33 . 3
rounded according to the rules given below. expression are significant.
Rounding off : If the digit next to one rounded
25 . 2 × 1374
as more then 5, the digit to be rounded is Sol. We have = 1039.7838 .....
33 . 3
increased by 1; if the digit next to the one
rounded is less than 5, the digit to be rounded is Out of the three numbers given in the
left unchanged, if the digit next to one rounded expression 25.2 and 33.3 have 3 significant
is 5, then the digit to be rounded is increased by digits and 1374 has four. The answer should
1 if it odd and is left unchanged if it is even. have three significant digits. Rounded
8.5 For addition and subtraction write the numbers 1039.7838 .... to three significant digits, it
one below the other with all the decimal points in becomes 1040.
one line now locate the first column from left that Thus , we write.
has doubtful digits. All digits right to this column
are dropped from all the numbers and rounding is 25 . 2 × 1374
= 1040.
done to this column. The addition and subtraction 33 . 3
is now performed to get the answer.
Ex.26 Evaluate 24.36 + 0.0623 + 256.2
8.6 Number of 'Significant figure' in the magnitude of
Sol. 24.36
a physical quantity can neither be increased nor
decreased. 0.0623
256.2
Ιllustration :: If we have 3.10 kg than it can not
Now the first column where a doubtful digit ∆x e
exp
be written as 3.1 kg or 3.100 kg.
occurs is the one just next to the decimal x
Examples based on significant digits point (256.2). All digits right to this column
Ex.24 Round off the following numbers to three must be dropped after proper rounding. The
significant digits table is rewritten and added below
(a) 15462 24.4
(b) 14.745 0.1
(c)14.750 256.2
——–
(d) 14.650 × 1012.
280.7 The sum is 280.7
Sol.(a) The third significant digit is 4. This digit is to
be rounded. The digit next to it is 6 which is SUPPLEMENTRY
greater than 5. The third digit should,
therefore , be increased by 1. The digits to 9. FRACTIONAL AND PERCENTAGE ERRORS
be dropped should be replaced by zeros 9.1 Absolute error
because they appear to the left of the = |experimental value – standard value|
decimal. Thus, 15462 becomes 15500 on 9.2 If ∆x is the error in measurement of x, then
rounding to three significant digits. ∆x
Fractional error =
(b) The third significant digit in 14.745 is 7. The x
number next to it is less than 5. So 14.745 Percentage error = × 100%
becomes 14.7 on rounding to three significant
Percentage error in experimental measurement
digits.
(c) 14.750 will become 14.8 because the digit to = × 100%
be rounded is odd and the digit next to it is 5.

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 9.3 Propagation of error (Addition and 10. MEASURMENTS OF LENGTH, MASS & TIME
Subtraction) :
10.1 Distance of a hill :
Let error in x is ± ∆x, and error in y is ± ∆y, then
To find the distance of a hill, a gun is fired towards
the error in x + y or x – y is ± (∆x + ∆y). The
the hill and the time interval t between the instant
errors add.
of firing the gun and the instant of hearing the
9.4 Multiplication and Division : echo of the gun is determined. Clearly, during
this time interval sound first travels towards the
Let errors in x, y, z are respectively ± ∆x, ± ∆y
hill from the place of firing and then back from
and ± ∆z. Then error in a quantity f (defined as)
the hill to the place of firing. If v be the velocity
of sound, and s the distance of hill from the
f = is obtained from the relation place of firing , then
2 s = v × t
∆f ∆y ∆z
= | a | + | b | + | c | . The v×t
f y z or s =
2
fraction errors (with proper multiples of exponents)
10.2 Distance of moon :
add. The error in f is ± ∆f.
A laser beam is a source of very intense,
9.5 Important Points :
monochromatic and unidirectional beam. By
9.5.1 When two quantities are added or subtracted sending a laser beam towards the moon instead
the absolute error in the result is the sum of of sound waves, the echo method becomes useful
the absolute error in the quantities. in finding the distance of moon from the earth. If
9.5.2 When two quantities are multiplied or divided, t is the total time taken by laser beam in going
the fractional error in the result is the sum of
the fractional error in the quantities to be towards moon and back, then distance of moon
multiplied or to be divided. c×t
9.5.3 If the same quantity x is multiplied together n from the earth’s surface is given by : S =
2
∆l a Tb times (i.e. xn), then the fractional error in xn is Where c = 3 × 108 m/s ; is the velocity of laser
x∆Examples
2∆ lxy
based on n times the fractional error in x, beam.
lxzT
gc
∆x 10.3 Thickness of matter sheet :
i.e. ± n
x For finding the
thickness of some
Errors matter sheet, a signal
from point A on the
Ex.27 In an experiment to determine acceleration front surface of sheet
due to gravity by simple pendulum, a student is sent to the back
commit positive error in the measurement of surface. The signal
length and 3% negative error in the gets reflected from
measurement of time period. The percentage point C on the back surface and is again received
error in the value of g will be- back at point B on the front surface. If the time
(A) 7% (B) 10% interval between the instants of sending the signal
(C) 4% (D) 3% from point A and receiving the signal back at B,
is t, then thickness of sheet
Sol. We know T = k
C×t
S= (where C is the velocity of signal)
l l 2
∴ T2 = k'   ⇒ g = k' 10.4Distance of submerged objects or submarines in
g T2
sea (Sound navigation and ranging - Sonar)
∆g Sonar in a instrument which uses ultrasonic
× 100 = × 100 + × 100 waves (waves having frequency > 20,000 Hz) to
g
detect and locate the submerged objects,
= 1% + 2 x 3% = 7%
submarines etc. in sea. Ultrasonic waves
Hence correct answer is (A) produced from a transmitter are sent towards the

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 distant objects under water. When the object This method is useful in cases when it becomes
comes in the direction of ultrasonic waves, then impossible to measure the distance between the
the waves are reflected back from it. Measuring object and the observation point.
the time interval t between the instants the
ultrasonic waves are sent and received back, the AB h
distance S of the object can be calculated by tanθ1 = =
BC BC
the relation.
BC = h cot θ1
C×t
S= (where C is the velocity of ultrasonic AB
2 Similarly tan θ2 =
waves) BD
BD = h cot θ2
10.5Distance of aeroplane (Radio detection and
Ranging - Radar). Radar is an instrument which BD – BC = x = h (cot θ2 – cot θ1)
uses. radiowaves for detecting and locating an 10.7 Parallax method :
aeroplane. Radiowaves produced by a transmitter
Parallax (Definition) : When we observe the object
at the radar station, are sent towards the
aeroplane in space. These waves are reflected P by closing our right and left eye alternately, we
from the aeroplane. The reflected waves are observe a shift in the position of object w.r.t the
received by a receiver at the radar station. By background. This is known as parallax.
noting the time interval between the instants of
transmission of waves and their detection,
distance of aeroplane can be measured. If t is
the required time interval and C the velocity of
light (=equal to velocity of radio waves) then
distance of aeroplane LR b
θ= = (assuming distance LR as a circular
C×t x x
S =
2 arc of radius x)
10.6 Triangulation method : b
This method uses the geometry of the triangle x =
θ
and is useful for measuring the heights in 10.7.1 ≈
following cases P1P2
10.6.1 Determination of distance of moon from earth. θ
Height of a tower or height of an accessible θ = θ1 + θ2
object. P1PP2
Because θ =
PM
P1PP2
Hence PM =
θ
As astronomical bodies are at very large
distances from earth

M
AB h
tanθ = =
BC x
θ1+ θ2
h = x tanθ
10.6.2 θ1 θ2
Height of a mountain or height of an accessible O
P1
object : P2
P

P1PP2 P 1 P2 PM MO

OM =

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 10.7.2 (L) and time (T). In heat and
Determination of size of an astronomical object thermodynamics, power of temperature (θ)
(Moon) comes in addition to powers of M, L and T.
In electricity and magnetism, dimensions are
P D O given in terms of M, L, T and I, the current.
5. Only like quantities having the same
d dimensions can be added to or subtracted
θ
from each other.
6. The dimensional formula of a physical
D quantity does not depend upon the system
θ = =
d of units used to represent that quantity.
D = θd
7. The value (magnitude) of a physical quantity
10.8 Measurement of very small distances : remains the same in all systems of
Various devices are used to measure very small measurement. However, the numerical value
distances like vernier calliper, screw gauge, changes.
spherometer, optical microscopes,
electron-microscopes, X-ray diffraction etc. In general, n1u1 = n2u2 = n3u3 = ......
8. All of the following have the same dimensional
formula [M 0 L 0 T –1 ]. Frequency, angular
POINTS TO REMEMBER
frequency, angular velocity and velocity
gradient.
1. Relation between some practical units of the
standard of length 9. All of the following are dimensionless. Angle,
(i) 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m Solid angle, T-ratios, Strain, Poisson's ratio,
PO Relative density, Relative permittivity,
(ii) 1 par sec = 3.06 × 1016 m
d Refractive index and Relative permeability.
= 3.26 light year
10. Following three quantities have the same
(iii) 1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m
dimensional formula [M0L2T–2]. Square of
(iv) 1 X-ray unit = 10–3 m velocity, gravitational potential, latent heat.
2. Relation between some practical units of the 11. Following quantities have the same
standard mars
dimensional formula [ML2T–2]. Work, energy,
(i) 1 C.S.L. (chandra shekhar limit) torque, heat.
= 1.4 time the mass of sun
12. Force, weight, thrust and energy gradient
= 2.8 × 1030 kg have the same dimensional formula [MLT–2].
(ii) 1 amu = 1.67 × 10–27 kg 13. Entropy, gas constant, Boltzmann constant
(iii) 1 slug = 14.57 kg and thermal capacity have the same
3. Relation between some practical unit of dimensions in mass, length and time.
standards of time 14. Light year, radius of gyration and wavelength
(i) 1 solar day's = 86400 sec have the same dimensional formula [M0L1T0]
(ii) 1 Lunar Month = 27.3 days 15. Rydberg constant and propagation constant
(iii) 1 solar year = 365.25 average solar day have the same dimensional formula [M0L–
= 366.25 sedrial day 1T0].

(iv) 1 shake = 10–8 sec 16. The decimal point does not separate the
4. In mechanics, dimensions of a quantity are certain and uncertain digit, only last digit may
given in terms of powers of mass (M), length be uncertain.

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17. Significant figures indicate the precision of
measurement which depend on least count
of the measuring instruments.
18. So far as significant figures are concerned,
in mathematical operations like addition and
subtraction, the result would be correct upto
minimum number of decimal places in any of
the quantities involved. However, in
multiplication and division, number of
significant figures in the result will be limited
corresponding to the minimum number of
significant figures in any of the quantities
involved.
To represent the result to a correct number
of significant figures, we round off as per the
rules already stated.
19. Whenever two measured quantities are
multiplied or divided, the maximum possible
relative or percentage error in the computed
result is equal to the sum of relative or
percentage errors in the observed quantities.
Therefore maximum possible error in

A mB n
Z = is :
Cp

∆Z ∆A ∆B ∆C
× 100 = m × 100 + n × 100 + p × × 100
Z A B C

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