Computer Fundamentals

1. Computer Fundamentals
1.1. What is Computer?

A computer is a machine that computes data according to a list of instructions. It consists of two
parts: hardware and software. The hardware is the physical part of the computer. The software is
the brain of the operation. It consists of special instructions (programs) that tell the hardware exactly
what to do. Unlike hardware, software is tough to describe.

The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely
versatile and distinguishes them from calculators. Any computer with a certain minimum capability
is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.
Therefore, computers with capability and complexity ranging from that of a personal digital assistant
to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks given enough time and
storage capacity.

The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (1940–1945),
although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers existed earlier. Early
electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred
modern personal computers. Modern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and are
millions to billions of times more capable while occupying a fraction of the space. Today, simple
computers may be made small enough to fit into a wristwatch and be powered from a watch battery.
Personal computers, in various forms, are icons of the Information Age and are what most people
think of as "a computer"; however, the most common form of computer in use today is the
embedded computer. Embedded computers are small, simple devices that are used to control other
devices — for example; they may be found in machines ranging from fighter aircraft to industrial
robots, digital cameras, and children's toys.

1.2. Characteristics of a Computer

Speed: A Computer is a high-speed device. It can perform a task in seconds for which manual
manpower may require a year or even more.

Accuracy: A computer maintains high degree of accuracy provided there is no human mistake i.e.
faulty programming or inaccurate data’s.

Consistency: A Computer can work for hours without lack of concentration, tiredness or emotional
feelings.

Versatility: The most wonderful feature of a computer is its versatility. It can change over to various
types of jobs within a very short span of time.

Remembrance Power: Human trains are volatile and remember only important information that
may be lost as the time passes. A computer has permanent storage device where each and every
piece of information can be retained for a long period.

No Feelings: Since computer is a machine it is free from emotional and sentimental feelings.

Lack of I.Q: Unlike human beings computer lacks I.Q. power. This is human being only who
decides what a computer has to do. Human intelligence works behind the performance of a
computer.
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Computer Fundamentals

1.1. Components of a Computer

The basic organization of a computer system is shown in figure. Computer system performs the
following five basic operations:

 Inputting
 Storing
 Processing
 Outputting
 Controlling

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1.2. Block Diagram of a Computer

CU – Control Unit
ALU – Arithmetic & Logical Unit

1.3. Data Flow in a computer

A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the control
unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are
interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

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The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these)
is collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many
separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single
integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

A computer essentially consists of the following five hardware units.

 Input Device
 Output Device
 Other Peripheral Devices
 Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 Secondary Storage Device

1.3.1. Input Device

Typical Keyboard

Mouse

Scanner

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Computer Fundamentals

1.3.2. Output Device

1.3.3. Other Peripheral Devices

 Modem

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 Network Card

 Graphic Card

 Sound Card

 Speakers

 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

1.3.4. Control & Processing Unit

1.3.4.1. Control unit

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various components
of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by one. The control
system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that operate the other

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parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some
instructions so as to improve performance.

The control system's function is as follows — note that this is a simplified description, and some of
these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of
the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware
to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an
output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).

1.3.4.2. Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and
subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and
square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to
represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of
performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex
operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to
perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly
support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return Boolean truth values (true or
false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than
65?").

1.3.4.3. Memory

Memory is a storage device where we can store data and instructions temporarily or permanently.

The data and instructions can be stored into storage devices up to the capacity of the device. We
can measure the capacity of memory by bits and bytes.

Measurement Units of Storage Devices:

A Bit is the basic storage unit of computer. Bits stand for (Binary digits).

8 bits = 1 byte
210 Byte = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
220 Byte = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
230 Byte = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
240 Byte = 1 TB (Tera Byte)

Magnetic core memory was popular main memory for computers through the 1960s until it was
completely replaced by semiconductor memory.
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A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read.
Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell
1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in
memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be
placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types
of information, it is up to the software to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a
series of numbers.

Memory is divided into two parts:

Main/Primary Memory:

The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have to be
stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. The storage unit or the primary/main
storage of a computer system is designed to cater to all these needs.

Primary memory is essential to do any work on computer. Secondary memory is

optional for computer.

1.3.4.4. Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage where large volumes of information can be conveniently stored for future
retrieval.

Hard disks, Pen Drives, Magnetic Disks and Optical Disks can be cited as the example of secondary
storage devices. Hard Disks and Pen Drives are mostly used as secondary storage devices. CD’s
are also used.

Hard Disk

It is a secondary storage device which is use to store large amount of

data permanently.

Pen Drive

Pen Drive is used as a small storage device we can take back up & copy of
small amount of data using pen drive.

Optical Disks

CD-ROM DVD-ROM

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1.4. Process (computing)

In computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that is being sequentially executed by

a computer system that has the ability to run several computer programs concurrently.

1.5. Computer Hardware And Computer Software

Hardware: This comprises the Electronic, Electrical and mechanical components of the machine.
The physical parts, which can be seen, touched and felt about.

The term Software refers to the set of computer programs and associated documents that describe
how the computer is to be used.

Computer software is of two types:-

 System software
 Application software

System software is used to develop and manage application programs.

Application software is a program, used only for specific task.

1.5.1. Operating System (OS)

Operating system is a system software. It is responsible for managing the hardware and application
software. It is an interface between user and computer. Various operating systems are: MS-Dos,
Windows 98/Me/XP/Vista, Linux, UNIX etc.

A computer program itself is just a passive collection of instructions, while a process is the actual
execution of those instructions. Several processes may be associated with the same program; for
example, opening up several instances of the same program often means more than one process is
being executed. In the computing world, processes are formally defined by the operating system(s)
(OS) running them and so may differ in detail from one OS to another.

A single computer processor executes one or more (multiple) instructions at a time (per clock cycle),
one after the other (this is a simplification; for the full story, see superscalar CPU architecture). To
allow users to run several programs at once (e.g., so that processor time is not wasted waiting for
input from a resource), single-processor computer systems can perform time-sharing. Time-sharing
allows processes to switch between being executed and waiting (to continue) to be executed. In
most cases this is done very rapidly, providing the illusion that several processes are executing 'at
once'. (This is known as concurrency or multiprogramming.) Using more than one physical
processor on a computer, permits true simultaneous execution of more than one stream of
instructions from different processes, but time-sharing is still typically used to allow more than one
process to run at a time. (Concurrency is the term generally used to refer to several independent
processes sharing a single processor; simultaneity is used to refer to several processes, each with
their own processor.) Different processes may share the same set of instructions in memory (to
save storage), but this is not known to any one process. Each execution of the same set of
instructions is known as an instance— a completely separate instantiation of the program.

For security and reliability reasons most modern operating systems prevent direct communication
between 'independent' processes, providing strictly mediated and controlled inter-process
communication functionality.

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The way, in which operating system manages system resources, they can be classified as follows:

 Single tasking operating system run only single application program at a time. To switch from
one program to another we have to quit a program and then start another.

MS-Dos is an example of such type of operating system.

 Multitasking operating system enables a single user to work with two or more program during
a session. The CPU does not actually run two programs at a time; rather, it switches between
them as needed. In this type of operating system, one program is active (called foreground
program) while another is inactive (called background program) till it is called to the foreground
program.

 Multithreading operating system is recent development of multitasking, which enables the

computer to execute more than one program at a time. With multithreading users can work on
one task while other task keep running in the background.

E.g. Linux, Window98, Window XP etc…

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Operating Systems: Windows Vista and Windows 7

2. Microsoft Windows VISTA and Windows 7

2.1 OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPTS

An OS may be viewed as an organized collection of software extension of hardware, consisting of

control routines for operating a computer and for providing an environment for execution of
programs. Other programs rely on facilities provided by the OS to gain access to resources, such as
files and I/O devices. Programs usually invoke services of OS by means of Operating System calls
and users interact using the Operating System commands.

 OS acts as an interface between user and hardware of the computer.

 OS can also be considered as a resource allocator. Computer has many resources(

hardware and software) and the OS acts as a manager of these resources and allocates
them to specific programs and users.

 OS resolves conflicting requests for resources by deciding which requests are allocated
resources to operate the system efficiently.

 OS also controls the various I/O devices and user programs. It is a control program that
controls the execution of user programs to prevent improper usage of system.

 The primary goal of OS is convenience of users and efficient operation of the computer
system. This goal is particularly important for large, shared multi user system.

 Various operating systems are: MS-DOS, Windows 98/Me/XP/Vista, Linux, Unix etc.

2.2 Role of Operating System

Process Management
Memory Management
Input / Output Management
File Management

2.3 Windows Vista /Window 7 Recommended system requirements

Home Basic Home Windows 7

Premium/Business/Ultimate Home/Ultimate
1 GHz 32-bit(x86) or 64- 1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit(x64) 1 gigahertz (GHz) or
bit(x64) processor processor faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-
bit (x64) processor
512 MB Ram 1 GB Ram 1 gigabyte (GB) RAM (32-
bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit)

20GB hard drive with at 40GB hard drive with at least 15 GB 16 GB available hard disk
least 15 GB of available of available space space (32-bit) or 20 GB
space (64-bit)

Support for DirectX 9 Support for DirectX 9 graphics and Support for DirectX9
graphics and 32 MB of 32 MB of graphics memory graphics device with
graphics memory WDDM 1.0 or higher
driver Booting
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Operating Systems: Windows Vista and Windows 7

DVD-ROM Drive DVD-ROM Drive DVD-ROM Drive

2.4 New Features in Windows Vista/ Windows 7

Although Windows Vista is only scheduled for retail release on January 30th, 2007, there are
already a lot of reviews for Windows Vista, or you can have a feel on Windows Vista by test driving
Windows Vista Business for evaluation, where you can play around the Windows Vista desktop via
a virtual console, just like you remote control a Vista machine. With sleek and stunning graphic user
interface and lots of new features and improvements, Windows Vista has strives a more secure,
more usable, more user friendly and more attractive operating system. It’s no wonder the Windows
Vista system requirements, especially premium version will make your jaw dropped.

If you’re still unsure of whether to upgrade to Windows Vista, or still blur about what’s so unique
about features and functions in Windows Vista that not available somewhere else, an article on
vista-hq.com lists out the top 10 new features in Windows Vista that you cannot find in other
operating system such as Windows XP.

1. New User Experience, including Windows Aero

Windows Vista features four different levels of user experience—Basic, Windows Classic, Standard,
and Windows Aero. All controls are totally redesigned in Windows Vista and look even better now.
The Aero user interface is the top of the line and takes advantage of the latest advances in
computer hardware. On computers equipped with graphics hardware that supports the new
Windows Driver Display Model (WDDM), the Aero provides more stability and smoother window
handling. The main element of this interface is the transparent glass design, with subtle effects such
as dynamic reflections and smooth animations.

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2. Windows Sidebar

The Windows Sidebar can be positioned on the right or on the left side of your screen and its
associated with mini-applications called gadgets, that provide specific information. Like for example,
the gadgets can give you info on the weather, show you the calendar, games, a calculator or all
types of other tools. The Sidebar fits perfectly especially on widescreen monitors. It can be easily
customized and you can add different types of gadgets. Gadgets are a new concept introduced in
Windows Vista. They can connect to web services to deliver business data, weather information,
news updates, traffic maps, Internet radio streams, and even slide shows of online photo albums.
By default, the OS comes with a set number of gadgets to get you started, but you can always
download more from an online gadget gallery.

3. The Instant Desktop Search

The Instant Search is a new feature that will help you find
whatever you’re looking for. It is available almost everywhere
in Windows Vista, in the Explorer Dialogs, in the Start Menu,
pretty much in every system window. Using it, you can type a
filename, a property, or even text contained within a file, and
it returns pinpointed results. Besides that, the Instant Search
also arranges the results depending on your current activity,
whether it’s searching for music files in Media Player, or
looking over all your files and applications on the Start Menu.

On the Start Menu, the Instant Search box is located at the lower left corner, and instead of going
through all the programs installed in order to find the one you are looking for, you can just type its
name in the box and as you type, Windows Vista instantly searches file and application names,
metadata, and the full text of all files, and it displays the search results. It searches through
everything – Applications; Favorites/Internet History; Files, including documents and media; and
Communications, including email, events, tasks, and contacts.

4. Windows Defender

Windows Defender is a features that protects your computer from pop-ups, slow performance, and
security threats caused by spyware. It works by monitoring key system locations for changes that
signal the presence of spyware. The autoupdate option will make sure that the Defender has all the
latest spyware definitions from Microsoft. The interface is simple and easy to use, making daily
tasks like as scanning, blocking, and removing unwanted software easier than ever. It has a built in
Software Explorer that determines which software and services are running on your computer and
stops or disables “rogue” software.

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5. Performance Center

6. Backup and Restore

This new functionality makes it possible for you to keep your information safe from user error,
hardware failure, and other issues that can result in data loss. There are several layers of protection
to ensure maximum effectiveness. From the Backup and Restore control panel, you can enable the
auto feature which automatically caches previous versions of your files to an image-based backup
of your entire computer. Later, you can browse and search for files to restore from a backup.
Another great new feature allows you to access previous versions of files without even having a
backup. This is possible through the Volume Shadow Copy technology. If you want to do that
manually, then you will have to use the File Back Wizard in which you select the types of files you
want to backup, specify a storage folder and start the process at any point you want. There is also
an automatic scheduling function.
The system restore feature can reverse system changes, but still preserving your data in its current
state.

7. Network Map

The Network Map is a new feature inside the Network Center that displays graphically your
connectivity to the network and to the Internet. If a computer on the network loses Internet
connectivity, you can graphically see which connection is down and then use Network Diagnostics
to help determine the cause of the problem and find possible solutions.
This is especially useful if you have a network of wired and wireless PCs and devices. With the
Network Map you can increase the performance of the network and easily spot problems.

8. Windows ReadyBoost

ReadyBoost is a brand new technology that comes with Windows Vista. It’s a whole new concept
that will change they way people add memory to a system. With ReadyBoost, you can use USD
flash as RAM to extend system memory and improve performance. So instead of buying RAM and

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opening your computer, you can just plug the Flash. Plus, most motherboards have just two RAM
slots, which will be taken anyway.

Utilizing this technology is simple. Just plug the Flash in the USB slot and Windows Vista will check
to determine if its performance is fast enough to work with Windows ReadyBoost. If that’s the case,
then you’ll be asked if you want to use this device to speed up system performance. ReadyBoost is
reliable as well as secure. You won’t loose any data, and the system will restore to its original level
of performance when the Flash is removed. There is no wearing on the USB drive, because of the
specifically optimized algorithms used.

9. Windows ReadyDrive

Windows ReadyDrive takes advantage of the latest hybrid hard drives to provide faster boot-up,
hibernate, and resume. It works by writing data to the flash memory on the hybrid hard disk, which
lessens the amount of spinning for the mechanical hard drive, thus saving battery power. And also
increases the life of your hard drive. With a hybrid drive, Windows Vista can resume more quickly
from Sleep because data can be restored from flash memory faster than from the spinning
mechanical hard drive.

10. Windows Media Center

For a large number of users, the PC has become mostly a source of entertainment, that you can
enjoy by sitting back with a remote control in hand. That’s not something strange considering the
enormous amount of media files that you can download online. The Windows Media Center enables
you to enjoy live and recorded TV, music, photos, videos, and online entertainment on a single
device. It can also be connected to Xbox 360 allowing you to transfer this experience in other rooms
of your home.

2.5 Starting Windows Vista/Windows 7

To start Windows, you turn on your computer and monitor. As your computer boots, Windows loads
the files it needs to run. After the operating system is loaded, you will notice the Windows Logo
screen and may see a password dialog box asking for your user name and your password. That can
be possible when the systems are on LAN (Local Area Network) i.e. when the two or more
computers are connected to each other. If the system is stand alone this screen will not appear.

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2.6 Components of Windows Screen

After Windows starts, you will see various icons on the screen as shown in figure below. The icons
you see enable you to open applications, manage files, send and receive mail and perform many
other tasks throughout your workday. Depending on your installation you may or may not see the
entire icons shown in figure.

Desktop: This is the background on which all other elements appear.

Taskbar: The Taskbar is a row of buttons and icons that usually appears along the bottom of the
screen. Task bar contains start button, list of opened task, some icons and system clock

Start Task System System

Button Manager Tray Clock

The Task bar has several parts:

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 The Start Button, which is usually at the left end of the Taskbar.

 The Task Manager, which contains button for each Windows that is open on the desktop.

 The System Tray, which contains icons for some Windows programs and folders including
the system clock.

Icons: Icon is a little picture on your screen. These represent programs, folders, files, printer
information, computer information and so on, in both Windows and programs, designed to run under
Windows.

My Computer:
My computer icon represents the contents of our computer, including the Hard
Disk, Floppy Disk and CD Drive, Pen Drive Application, Folder, Files and so
on.

Recycle Bin:
Recycle Bin is a place in which deleted object remain until you empty the
trace.

Folder: A Folder contains files, programs or other folders, on your

computer; for example, the Online Services folder contains programs that let you
sign up for an online service like CompuServe. A folder is the same thing as a
directory.

Pointer: The pointer (usually an arrow) on an icon that represents your mouse, trackball, touched,
or other selecting device. You use it to select items and choose commands. You move the pointer
by moving the mouse or other device across your desk or mouse pad.

Start Button

Point the mouse at the start button, located on the taskbar, as shown in figure and click the button.

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The start menu appears. Your start menu may display more options than the one in the figure,
depending on what is installed on your computer. You can use the start menu to run almost any
program installed on your computer.

Sub Menu: An arrow after any menu command designated another menu, called a submenu (or
sometimes a “cascading” or “secondary” menu). It will appear if you choose that command Windows
supplies as many as four submenus starting from the start menu.

Click the task or command you want to display, as follows:

Programs displays a submenu that includes Windows Accessory programs, Online Services, the
Internet Explorer, and other programs on your computer.

Favorites display Web sites or programs you add to the Favorite folder, making access to those
pages quick.

Documents displays up to 15 of the most recently opened documents for quick and easy access
click the document name and the application. The documents open, ready to work.

Setting displays a secondary menu that includes the Control Panel and Printers folders, and the
taskbar command for customizing your Windows setup.

Find enables you to search for specific files, folders, or computers (if on LAN).

Help displays help for performing tasks and procedures in Windows as well as finding Windows
Help on the Internet.

Log off NIPSTec allows to log off or on to Windows so that another user can log on.

Run enables you to enter a command to run a program from hard/floppy disk, or CD Drive.

2.7 Managing Windows

Moving Taskbar: To move the taskbar, click the mouse anywhere on the bar-except on a button
and drag the taskbar to the right, the left or the top of the screen. As you drag, the taskbar relocates
to that area. You can easily drag the taskbar back to the bottom if you prefer it there.

2.7.1 Change the Desktop Background

1. Right Click on the DeskTop.

2. Click on the Personalize Option.
3. Click on the Desktop Background option.
4. Select the background you want.
5. Click on the OK Button.

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2.7.2 Set Up A Screen Saver

1. Right click on desktop and select Personalize from pop up menu.

2. On Personalize dialog box, click on the Screen Saver Option.
3. In Screen Saver option, select the screen saver you want to set.
4. Click on OK button.

2.7.3 Change the Desktop Look

1. Right click on desktop and select Personalize from pop up menu.

2. On Personalize dialog box, click on the Window Color and Appearance.
3. Select a particular Item from windows and buttons drop down list, and then change the
settings in Size and Color for selected item and its font.
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4. To change the appearance of all screen elements simultaneously, click on Color

Scheme.
5. Click Ok to finish.

2.7.4 Starting A Program From The Start Menu

1. Click on the Start button.
2. Point to Programs / All Programs.
3. Click on the program name.

2.7.5 Closing A Program

1. To quit an active application, use the combination key Alt+F4.
2. Choose the close command X from application’s control Menu.
3. Choose File Exit command from the file menu.

2.8 Windows Explorer

Windows explorer is a file and folder manipulating program.

To open windows explorer:

1. Click on the Start button.

2. Point to All Programs.
3. Click Accessories.
4. Click Windows Explorer.

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Tool Bar in Window Explorer

Text Label: A text label at the button of the button identifies each button on the tool bar.

Back: Takes the window back to the previous folder it displayed.

Forward: Takes you to the next folder on the recently opened folder list.

Sorting The File: The icons are generally shown in alphabetical order, but we can change the
order.

Steps: View > Arrange Icons >Select the order you want.

2.9 Windows Help

Microsoft Windows provides an external help system that can be used to find answer of the question
and to navigate through the system.
 Click Start  Windows Help and Support.
 Click on any Help topic or
 Type your topic in Search.

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2.10 File & Folder Manipulation

2.10.1 Move File and Folder

1. Select the File or Folder.

2. Select Edit Menu.
3. Click on Cut button or press Ctrl + X Shortcut keys.
4. Select the Target Folder.
5. Select Edit Menu.
6. Click on Paste button or Press Ctrl + V Shortcut keys.

2.10.2 To Find a File or Folder

1. Start  Search  All Files or Folders.

2. Type name of the file/folder in All or part of the file name.

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2.10.3 Create a Folder

1 Click the drive where you want to create the new folder.
2 Right Click on drive  New  Folder.
3 The new folder appears with a temporary name.
4 Type a name for the new folder and then press Enter.

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2.11 Disk Partitioning & Formatting

Disk partitioning is the creation of divisions of a hard disk. Once a disk is divided into several
partitions, directories and files can be grouped by categories such as data type and usage. Space
management, access permissions and directory searching are based on the file system installed on
a partition. First decide how many separate categories of data needed and the size of each.

One scheme is to separate the operating system files from user files. Having a partition for
swapping, separate from system utilities, keeps frequently used programs and data near each other.
Having browser cache files in a separate partition keeps them away from other files. The frequency
of update and access is an import consideration for categorizing files. Separating email from audio
or photos is a good idea. Files that can be retrieved from other sources can be group together.
Carefully consideration of the size of the partition is necessary as the ability to change the size
depends of the file system installed in the partition.

Now decide what file system to install in the partition. Choosing different file systems is a reason to
partition the disk because each file system has different characteristics related to performance and
access restrictions. Other benefits include:

1 The use of multi-booting setups, which allow users to have more than one operating system
on a single computer. For example, one could install Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows or
others on different partitions of the same hard disk and have a choice of booting into any
operating system (supported by the hardware) at power-up.
2 Sharing swap partitions between multiple Linux distributions, so such partitions use less hard
drive space.
3 Protecting or isolating files, to make it easier to recover a corrupted file system or operating
system installation.
4 Raising overall computer performance because smaller file systems are more efficient. For
instance, large hard drives with only one NTFS file system typically have a very large Master
File Table (MFT) and it generally takes more time to read this MFT than the smaller MFTs of
smaller partitions.
5 Higher levels of data organization, raising the user efficiency of the system, for example
separate partitions dedicated to digital movie processing, photos, email mailboxes or
browser cache.
6 Partitions may be customized to different requirements, for example, allowing for read-only
partitions to protect data: if one partition is damaged, none of the other file systems are
affected, and the drive's data may still be salvageable.

Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk or other storage medium for use, including
setting up an empty file system. A variety of utilities and programs exist for this task; pictured to the
right is the iconic FORMAT.COM of MS-DOS and PC-DOS.
Large disks can be partitioned, divided into logical sections that are formatted with their own file
systems. This is normally only done on hard disks because of the small sizes of other disk types, as
well as compatibility issues.
A corrupted operating system can be reverted to a clean state by formatting the disk and reinstalling
the OS, as a drastic way of combating a software problem or malware infection. Obviously,
important files should be backed up beforehand.

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2.12 Disk Defragmentation

In the context of administering computer systems, defragmentation is a process that reduces the
amount of fragmentation in file systems. It does this by physically organizing the contents of the disk
to store the pieces of each file close together and contiguously. It also attempts to create larger
regions of free space using compaction to impede the return of fragmentation. Some defragmenters
also try to keep smaller files within a single directory together, as they are often accessed in
sequence.
Fragmentation occurs when the operating system cannot or will not allocate enough contiguous
space to store a complete file as a unit, but instead puts parts of it in gaps between other files
(usually those gaps exist because they formerly held a file that the operating system has
subsequently deleted or because the operating system allocated excess space for the file in the first
place). Larger files and greater numbers of files also contribute to fragmentation and consequent
performance loss. Defragmentation attempts to alleviate these problems

Method 1: Use the Properties of Your Local Disk

1. Open My Computer.
2. Right-click the local disk volume that you want to defragment, and then click Properties.
3. On the Tools tab, click Defragment Now.
4. Click Defragment.

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2.13 Disk Cleanup

The Disk Cleanup tool helps you free up space on your hard disk by searching your disk for files
that you can safely delete. You can choose to delete some or all of the files. Use Disk Cleanup to
perform any of the following tasks to free up space on your hard disk:
 Remove temporary Internet files.
 Remove downloaded program files. For example, ActiveX controls and Java applets that are
downloaded from the Internet.
 Empty the Recycle Bin.
 Remove Windows temporary files.
 Remove optional Windows components that you are not using.
 Remove installed programs that you no longer use.
You can start Disk Cleanup, by doing any of the following:
 Click Start, and then click Run. In the Open box, type cleanmgr, and then click OK.
-or-
 Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, point to System Tools, and then
click Disk Cleanup.
-or-
 In Windows Explorer or My Computer, right-click the disk in which you want to free up space,
click Properties, click the General tab, and then click Disk Cleanup.

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 Remove Files Stored on Your Hard Disk

To remove files stored on your hard disk that you no longer use, follow these steps:

1. Click Start, and then click My Computer.

2. Right-click the disk in which you want to free up space, and then click Properties.
3. Click the General tab, and then click Disk Cleanup.

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4. Click the Disk Cleanup tab (if it is not already selected), click to select the check boxes next
to the files that you want to remove, and then click OK.
5. Click Yes to the proceed with this action, and then click OK.

2.14 Securing Files and Folders (Creating Passwords)

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2.15 Sharing Data and Resources

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2.16 COMPUTER NETWORKING

What Is Network

It is an interconnection of autonomous computer so that they can communicate to each other. The
term autonomous means that one computer in the network can not start or stop another one.

Computer Network can be setup as:

 Connection oriented
 Connection less

Type of Network

There are three types of network:

 Local Area Network (LAN).

 Wide Area Network (WAN).
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

If the computer installed in the same room or building are interconnected. It is called Local Area
Network.

If the computers are installed in different buildings/cities, it is called Wide Area Network.

If computers are within Metro cities, then it is called Metropolitan Area Network.

Goals of the Networking

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 Resource Sharing
 Data Sharing
 Centralized Computing
 Saving Time and Money
 Improving Security
 Managing Tasks and Applications

2.17 Types of the Network Computing

Client / Server Network:

Consist of two kinds of computer. The clients are usually computer workstations sitting on the
desks of employees in an organization. The servers are usually more powerful computers and are
held in a central location or locations within an organization.

Peer-to-Peer Networks:

have workstations connected to each other but do not have servers. Peer-to peer networks are
often much simpler to set up than client/server networks. However, they lack some of the
advantages normally associated with networks such as centrally managed security and ease of
backing up files.
Peer-to-peer networks would really only be set up among a few computers within an office or single
room.

2.18 Topology

 Ring Topology

In this configuration the computers are connected together to form a ring shape so that none of
the computers is more important than any of the others.
In this diagram the printers is attached to one of the computers in the network. This computer is
called the print server and it handles all the printing jobs on the network.
The main disadvantage of the ring topology is that the whole network will be affected if there is a
break anywhere in the network cabling.

 Star Topology

The star topology has one powerful computer (or a special junction box called a hub) that
controls the whole network. If the hub fails then the whole network fails. Another disadvantage of
the star topology is that it uses a lot of cable. This make it an expensive network to set up (not
only do you have to buy expensive network cables but you also have to install more trunking to
keep the cables out of harms way).
However, the big advantage of the star network is that it is fast. This is because each computer
terminal is attached directly to the central computer.

 Bus Topology

In this topology network messages are sent to each terminal on the network - so if one of the
terminals breaks then the others are not affected. If you want to send a message from computer
A to computer B then all the computers will receive the message, however because you have
included computer B's address, only computer B will pick it up and display it.
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Like the ring topology there is no special computer on this network. It is popular because it is a
simple as well as a relatively cheap and reliable

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