The Impact of Bullying in Adolescents at School

A research paper presented to the

Faculty of the English and Foreign Language Department

in partial fulfillment of the requirement

in English Communication 2

Submitted by:

1. Paulyn Gonzaga
2. Dennimar Domingo
3. Arcy Joy Ferreras
4. Nika Rochele Alcantara

5. Racel Anne Balagtas

6. Christine Shaira Sanchez

Submitted to:

Professor Danilo Escandor

February 6, 2013
 Acknowledgement

We profoundly would like to express our grateful to Adamson University (Adu) for

providing us great learning experiences.

Our special thanks go to our professor, Mr. Danilo Escandor, for teaching us on how to

conduct this research correctly. He always there for correcting us, to give us right direction, and to

provide us with his brilliant insights. We realized that without him, we would never have made this

work to come to a good end.

We also would like to thank the authors of different researches that give us different ideas in

conducting our research paper. They allow us to explore more about their ideas when it comes to the

topic that we‟re conducting.

Also our parents for giving us their confidence in ours, encouragement and love, through our

studies and our lives. They have made substantial sacrifices to help us attain our goals.

And last but not least, especially God for giving us enough strength, wisdom and knowledge

to do this research paper.

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Every day thousands of teens wake up afraid to go to school. Bullying is a problem that

affects millions of students, and it has everyone worried, not just the kids on its receiving end.

Yet because parents, teachers, and other adults don't always see it, they may not understand how

extreme bullying can get. Some bullies attack their targets physically, which can mean anything

from shoving or tripping to punching or hitting, or even sexual assault. Others use psychological

control or verbal insults to put themselves in charge.

Bullying is a behavior that can only be easily recognized when individuals experience

it. Bullying can happen to anyone at any age and anywhere whether at school, home, or even in a

workplace. So far, it is difficult to define bullying since it relates to both a wide range behavior

that may constitute bullying, and the characteristics of bullying behavior (Montgomery, 1994, p.

3). However, the definitions in use were adopted by Roland (1989) and Olweus (1991). Roland

defines bullying as “long standing violence, physical or psychological, perpetrated by an

individual or group directed against an individual who cannot defend himself or herself” (p. 21).

In line with this Olweus also defines bullying as “repeated, negative actions over time, including

hitting, kicking, threatening, locking in a room, saying nasty and unpleasant things, and teasing”

(p. 413).

Rigby, (2008) suggests that bullying is “the systematic abuse of power in interpersonal

relationship” (p. 22). In other words, bullying is when a person is picked on over and over again

by an individual or group with more power, either in terms of physical strength or social

standing. Rigby argues that the abuse of power is not restricted only to certain managerial or
“authority” positions, but that most individuals have “the opportunity to exercise power to

control over someone”. Thus, there are apparently imbalances in physical and psychological

strength between the bully and the victim (Olweus and Solberg, 1998, p. 7). Regarding the

recognition of bullying, Olweus and Solberg, (1998) have suggested some typical characteristics

to recognize bullying behavior. They said that “we generally speak of bullying when one or more

persons repeatedly and over a period of time say or do painful and unpleasant things to someone

who has problems defending himself or herself” (p.7). To address the terms “painful” and

“unpleasant” experience, Olweus and Solberg refer them as direct bullying and indirect bullying.

They argue that “the pain and unpleasantness may be due to direct bullying involving hitting,

kicking, insults, offensive and sneering comments or threat” while indirect bullying, which is just

as painful, is the experience of being socially isolated and excluded from group membership

(Olweus and Solberg, 1998, p. 7). Having said this, there is a quite reasonable assumption that a

psychological element is always present in most, if not all, bullying (Rigby, 2005, p. 26).

Young children who are first bullied during their pre-teen years appear to be less

negatively impacted in the long term than are the children who are first bullied as teens.

However, people who were first bullied as teens report longer term social withdrawal and more

reactively to violence than other groups. Bullying is the experience of most of the people. It can

happen to anyone at any age and anywhere whether at home, school, or even in the workplace.

Bullying can destroy the life of an individual because sometimes it can lead to suicide.

According to some findings, the existence of bullying in schools has become a

worldwide phenomenon and a problem that can create negative impacts for the general school

atmosphere and for the rights of students to learn in a safe environment without fear. Bullying
can also have negative lifelong consequences both for students who bully and for their victims.

Although formal research as well as intervention programs to prevent bullying have been taking

place for decades in some developed countries, the problems associated with bullying have been

also discussed all over the world wherever formal schooling environments exist.

Bullying can have a wide-ranging impact on teens – from victims, to those who witness

bullying, to the bullies themselves – and affect each one well into adulthood. “Bullying is a form

of abuse and it is a narcissistic sort of act” (Mark Dombeck, PhD, 2006). In the article of Mr.

Mark Dombeck, Ph.D (2007), “The Long term Effects of Bullying”, he said that both bullying

and traditional forms of abuse are selfish and/or sadistic, destructive, and often violent acts

perpetrated upon victim who do not in any way, shape or form deserve to be treated in that

manner.

Most bullying starts out as a small tease for the bully to examine the vulnerability of

their victim. Then they find the obvious or underline difference between them and their victim to

initiate the labeling, this includes anything from race, religion, sexuality, to physical disabilities,

skin colors and etc. 35% of kids were directly involved in bullying incidents, 85% of girls and

76% of boys reported having experienced sexual harassment, 24% race related bullying

(Coloroso, 2009).

In this research study, we will not discuss how to stop bullying, but rather, to explore

the reasons why bullies intend to bully other people, also the different types of bullying, how to

cope up with it and most importantly are the effect or impact of bullying to the students who are

being bullied by the bullies. This research paper tends to help other researchers who will conduct

further investigation about bullying.

 CHAPTER 2

DISCUSSION

Most people however have not been able to know what bullying or what it means to

bully. Bullying is not a simple as one terrorizing or tormenting others. That is not something that

a person can easily see and prevent the harm of others. Each person can easily find a way to

harass another by separating what makes them different from each other and use that difference

between each other to make it the advantage of the bully.

People bully because they think they are better than others because they find some

people having low self-esteem. Bullying happens when someone hurts or scares another person

on purpose and the person that‟s being a bully has a hard time or can‟t defend themselves. When

younger kids bully is normally named calling, teasing or making fun of them by the way they

look, speak or even how smart they are. Older age bullying is a topic that needs to be talked

about because it has the kind of level who‟s going to be more violent and is a lot more severe

than younger age bullying. And sometimes it ends up in a fight. This is crummy because the

children who are being bullied do not deserve what they are getting. Nobody deserves to be

harassed and manipulated or to be bullied for no reason or any reason because it‟s quite unfair,

illegal and injustice for the one who being bullied.

Most people think bullying only happens in schools among kids. Bullying can happen

within adults as well as it happens between children in other places besides school. The most

common place bullying can occur is at school. At school, children will bully each other for many

different reasons even if they are popular. It is hard to tell if kids are being bullied but whether
you believe it or not they are being bullied even if they don‟t show me or make it obvious to tell

because the bully will just hurt them some more.

As well as the general bullying described, there can be some way specific types that all

children should be aware of. Bullying isn‟t always so obvious, it can happen inside and outside

of school and these days there are more ways to upset people than before. Some types of bullying

are:

Physical Bullying. According to bullyingstatistics.com, “Physical bullying is a serious

problem, affecting not only the bully and the victim, but also the other students who

witness the bullying. Parents, teachers, and other concerned adults and young people

should be aware of what physical bullying is and some of the ways to handle it.”

Physical bullying is the most obvious type of bullying that cause a lot of

damage to their victims, physically. Bullies use force and body strength to overpower

their victims. Most of this type occurs in and around the schools. Physical bullying

includes kicking, punching, hitting, and other physical attacks.

Bullying can start at any age. It is a form of aggressive behavior that involves

an imbalance of power manifested by the use of force. It is often a warning sign that

children and teens are heading for trouble and are at risk for serious violence. Teens,

particularly the boys who bully are likely to engage in other antisocial/delinquent

behavior like vandalism, shoplifting, truancy and drug use into adulthood. Bullies have

a strong need to dominate others and usually have little empathy for their targets. Male

bullies are often physically bigger and stronger than their peers. Bullies tend to get in
trouble more often, and do more poorly in school than teens who do not bully others.

They are also more likely to fight, drink and smoke than their peers.

Cyber Bullying. Bullying also can happen to people online this is called cyber

bullying. It is when a child or a teen bully on the internet using a computer or mobile

phones. Things like sending text messages or e-mail, posting sick pictures or messages

about the others in blogs or on websites, using another person‟s name to spread rumors

or lies about someone else, in other words, bullying happens everywhere.

Every day we hear about bullying, whether it is in the news, at school, or from

our friends. What has developed as a common thing among people of all ages was

having serious effects and caused tragedy for many people. Students go to school and

sometimes don‟t realize the harm they are causing to other people when they make

jokes about others‟ disabilities, culture or physical appearances. As technology

advances, so do other aspects of life, such as bullying. Now, bullying has spread into

cyberspace and can attack individuals through the internet. Personally, I believe

bullying will only continue to expand along with technology and find ways to harm

people by any means necessary. Although it is evident bullying never be fully

controlled, it can moderated and reduced by enforcing strict regulations against the

school.

Emotional Bullying. "The saying, if sticks and stones will break my bones, but words

will never hurt me was ever true, it sure isn't true today" (Gaul, 2012). Bullying in and

out of schools is getting out of control. In today's world, bullying is nothing out of the

ordinary. Bullying is a worldwide epidemic, like a virus or cancer it picks and gnaws
into the bone of our youth. It leaves its victims tattered to the very soul. Students who

are bullied have lasting fears that their torment will continue to harass them. Various

reports and studies have established that approximately 15% of students are initiators of

bullying behavior (Olweus, 2011). However in our schools we have never been able to

see much harassment through physical or mental forms.

Emotional Bullying is any act including confinement, isolation, verbal assault,

humiliation, intimidation, infantilization, or any other treatment which may diminish

the sense of identity, dignity, and self-worth. (Tracy, 2012)

Emotional abuse is also known as psychological abuse or as "chronic verbal

aggression" by researchers. People who suffer from emotional abuse tend to have

very low self-esteem, show personality changes (such as becoming withdrawn) and

may even become depressed, anxious or suicidal.

Verbal Bullying. These are one of the more difficult types of bullies to identify since

their attacks tend to only occur when adults are not present. Even though verbal

bullying creates no physical damage, this type of abuse can have lasting psychological

impacts on victims.

Verbal bullies intimidate and harm their victims using words. This type of

bullying may go unnoticed and unreported for long periods of time. Occurs when some

uses language to gain power or his/her peers. Make use of relentless insults and teasing

to bully his/her peers.

 Most people may think of physical bullying as the most damaging type of

bullying to a person; however, verbal bullying can be just as harmful as physical

bullying, if not worse. According to Fraser-Thrill, verbal bullying is when someone

uses language to gain power over his or her peers. The bully may use insults or teasing

to get his or her point across. (2005)

From time to time we are all likely to say something which is nasty and

abusive to our friends or our relatives. Usually when we realize that what we have said

is hurtful, we feel sorry for the hurt we have caused and apologize. Verbal abusers are

not likely to apologize, not because they don't realize that they have been hurtful, but

because that is their aim.

Verbal bullying is a type of bullying done by speaking. Calling names,

spreading rumors, threatening somebody, and making fun of others are all forms of

verbal bullying. Verbal bullying is one of the most common types of bullying. In verbal

bullying the main weapon the bully uses are their voice.

Bullying has many untold factors as to why people do it. Many students have

had some occasional bullying in any given school term. There are many reasons

possibilities as to why people bully. Most of the time it's because the victim is

differences why some might be bullied. Below are some of the differences why someone

might be bullied:

Someone’s appearance. (e.g. hair color or style, height). A person

might be bullied due to their physical appearance ,such as a clear

distinctive mark on their face, for example a birthmark or scars

 Also the way people dress can make them stand out from others,

this can create a situation where the person dressing differently might be

bullied.

Many people who experience this way have their self-esteem

slowly dwindled away as so does their ability to argue back as they will

often accept the remarks made about them.

Some people may out themselves off from the world as they see

themselves as outcasts or unwanted by people they known , when in fact it

is the opposite and they just need a little bit more love plus time to rebuild

their lives. (Clarke Alex and physical, c.2001)

There are many differences as we are all different in some shape or

form, this makes us unique and give no one the right to bully us for it. We

are all different t the end of the day.(Mccabe,Randi E.,Antony,Martin

M.,Summrfelat, Laura J., Liss , Andrea and swinson,Richard P.,2003)

Someone's race. Race often referent as „‟Racism”. The victim is a

different race or color to another person ; they may have a different religion

or culture to the bully. No one can choose the color they are born, it‟s the

way they are and the way they are meant to be. Neither should anyone feel

any less of a human jut because they are a different color, neither does this

give the right to bully someone.

Someone's religion. Religion bullying is when a victim is bullied due

to a religion they follow. For an example of someone is a Christian and

someone else isn‟t the Christian may be bullied because of this.

 Someone's nationality. National bullying a person because they are of a

different nationality. In some cases it goes unnoticed bit in others it is frowned

upon with huge vigor.

In some countries like the UK for example, national bullying is

becoming a more common thing as more and more people from such countries as

Slovakia and Romania are moving to the UK for a better life.

But people would find it very hard but also slightly unwelcoming as they

will not be able to cope with pressure put on upon them. Victims of nationality

bullying are believed to be more likely to fail in their education as they will be

under too much stress to be able to cope with the pressure of exam and such like.

Someone's sexual orientation. Bullying someone due to their sexual

orientations often referred to as “HOMOPHOBIC BULLIYING” or

“HOMOPHOBIA” this is when a victim is bullied due to them being different ,

odd, or strange because they are Bi, gay, lesbian, or transgender. Just because

some aren‟t normal or straight does not give anyone the right to bully.

Someone being jealous. Someone may often turn to bullying if

they are jealous of someone being more clever or bright than themselves. It

can also be due to jealousy of the possessions people own or the person's

family background or social class.

Sexual Bullying. Sometimes schools and other places use one term or the other legal

reasons. For instance, a school document may use the term “Bullying” to describe

what‟s against school policy, while a law might use the term “Harassment” to define

what‟s against the law-same behavior might be against school policy and also against

the law.
 With sexual bullying, the focus is on thins like a person‟s appearance, body

parts or sexual orientation. Includes spreading gossip or rumors of a sexual nature.

Maybe verbal (like making rude comments to or about someone), may we technology

to harass someone sexually (like sending inappropriate text messages or videos).

Sometimes harassment and bullying can even get physical.

Sexual bullying doesn‟t just happen to girls. Boys can harass girls, but girls

also can harass guys, guys can harass other guys, and girls may harass other girls. Isn‟t

limited to people of the same age, either. Adults sometimes sexually harass young

people (and occasionally, teens may harass adults, though that‟s pretty rare). Most of

the time, when sexual harassment happens to teens, it‟s being done by people in the

same age group.

Sexual harassment and sexual bullying are very similar – they both involve

unwelcome or unwanted sexual comments, attention, or physical contact. For the

person who is being targeted, though, it doesn‟t make much difference if something is

called bullying or harassment. This kind of behavior is upsetting no matter what it‟s

called. Like anyone who‟s being bullied, people who are sexually bullied or harassed

can feel a great deal of emotional stress if the situation continues without relief.

Both males and females are capable of carrying out a vicious attack such as bullying on

others. Some bullied only do it to uphold their reputation and look hard. Another reason would

be either set of a bully trying to maintain their superficial superiority.

Many bullies only bully others out of jealousy and many of the people who have been

bullied go on to do great things with their life, like some famous people is who have bullied.
 Both bullies and victims feel more negative about school and persistent bullying may

lead to stress and depression in the year to march 2006 child line reported that bullying featured

in many calls from children talking about suicide. Bullying can lead to anxiety low self-esteem,

hopelessness, and isolation. Many callers to Childline say they are self harming. There are

effects on school work too. Children miss lessons or are too scared to attend school. They lose

concentration when they do attend.

Some of the effects last long after bullying until they are adults. HMI in one study

found adults who said that being a person who is present when another bullied has an effect on

the bystanders too. They feel compromised helpless and guilty. (Childline)

Children can be both bullies and victims and those adopting both roles are often the

ones with the most significant behavioral problems (Wolke, 2000). child line discovered that

15% of primary children surveyed and 12 % of secondary pupils had both bullied and been

bullied in the past year.

For the victims of bullying effects can be severe, large surveys of children and adults

all seem to suggest a number of serious effects of bullying . These include. Bullying has a

serious effect on school retention and further education students who are bullied tend to leave

school earlier and many early school leavers mention bullying as the main reasons they left.

Almost half of the victims say that bullying affected their plans for further education.

Bullying has serious emotional consequences. In a large survey carried out in Australia,

almost half of the young people surveyed said they had thought about committing suicide as a

result of bullying, and 20 % have actually attempted suicide, some more than once. This

compares with 0.07% of the non-bullied group who contemplated suicide and 0.03 % who
attempted it student who are bullied are also three times more likely to be at risk of suffering

depression.

People who are bullied are likely to have lower levels of self-esteem. Results of the

survey mentioned above show that one of the major effects of bullying is lower self-esteem.

Over 40% of children who have been bullied reported low self-esteem, compared with only 6 %

in the non-bullied group. The large majority of both boys and girls said they felt worse about

themselves after they had been bullied.

People who are bullied appear to have more difficulty making friends. One of the worst

effects of bullying is that victims of bullying find it harder to make friends. This is possibly

because they are different and peer pressure stops other children standing up for them. Because it

is so important for teenagers to feel they belong to a group they will not risk being isolated

because they stand up for the victims

People who are bullied as children are more likely to experience continued bullying in

adulthood one of the saddest effects of bullying as a child is that it quite often sets up a pattern

for life.

Almost 40% of people bullied as a child report later bullying in further education or at

work. On the other hand, almost two thirds of young people do not experience further bullying

after they leave school.

Increased levels of absenteeism. Students who are bullied are more likely to stay away

from school than those who feel safe in. This has obvious effects on their educational

achievements, on their ability to make friends, and on self-esteem.

Decreased ability to devise coping strategies both bullies and their victims have fewer

ways to cope with conflict and to solve problems than those not involved in bullying. The effects
of bullying may mean these young people never learn to cope as adults and they cannot form

long. Term relationships. In addition, bullies are much more likely to adopt aggressive solutions

to resolve conflict.

Academic performance. A recent Meta analysis of 33 studies concluded that students

who are bullied are more likely to earn lower grades and scores on standardized achievement

tests. This association is very rebutted across grade levels and samples. The few studies that have

exanimate the casual effects time indicate that peer victimization increases the risk of lower

achievement. Recent analysis further suggests that bullying can account for up to an average 1.5

letter gradual decrease in one academic subject (e.g., math) across the three years of middle

school. The connection between harassment and low academic achievement has also been

observed in school level data as reported in California healthy student research project (chsrp)

Brief NO.1 CHKS data shows that schools with high academic performance index

(API) scores had significant lower rates of harassment than schools with low API scores even

after adjusting for socioeconomic and other school characteristics. Depending on the grade level

examined, the number of students reporting rates of harassment was 22-23 percentage points

higher at schools in the bottom API quintile than it was at schools in the top API quintile

statistical modeling and other research on the mechanisms that explain this connection indicate

that bullying experiences are related to psychological or behavioral difficulties which in turn

negatively impacts students sense of safety and connectedness, attendance and academic

achievements. Studies have shown that emotional distress, somatic problems, depressive

symptoms, and poor academic engagement are in fact, part of the explanation for the connection

between experiencing harassment and academic difficulties. In one study, emotional problems

associated with being bullied compromised academic performance as early as elementary school
consistent with the research summarized above, students who have been harassed compared to

their peers who have not reported lower rates of school safety and connectedness and higher

rates of truancy. They are more likely to experience a wide range of psychological behavioral

and emotional problems, such as incapacitating sadness or hopelessness, that are barriers to

learning (CHKS factsheets 4 TO 10)

Emotional well being. A physical, social and emotional well-being of its victim. It also

hurts the children who bully, as well as those who watch it happen. In fact, bullying creates a

climate of fear callousness and disrespect for everyone involved. Bullying begins in the

preschool years, peaks in early adolescence, and continues, but with less frequency. Over the

past two decades, what we know about bullying who is involved, where, when, and why it

occurs, and situation that allows it to spread has increased tremendously. This knowledge has

helped researchers develop new and useful strategies that both children and adults can use to

intervene effectively and better yet prevent bullying before it ever occurs. Into the high school

years. But bullying does not have to a part of growing up.

Social well has shown that bullying can have had a long lasting effect on children well

into adulthood causing serious implications of their social developments. The effects are

damaging to both the aggressor and the victim leading to a never ending chain of bullying.

Although, some may think bullying is natural and even typical, many believe it is dangerous and

can cause serious health problems for children in their developmental stages. Putting a stop to

bullying is essential as and minimizes violence and crime. It is important to know that bully

needs help also, as he/she may be a victim as well. Furthermore, when a child is exposed to a

household where the parent displays very minimal maternal responses to the child and has signs

of depressions, chances weak attachment skills. This may prompt the child to lack social skills
which can later affect the way he/she interacts with their peers in a school setting. Onyshiw and

Hayduk (2001) have suggested that children who are exposed to such households will become

sadder, withdrawn, and anxious and depressed causing them to display more physical and verbal

aggression. This may very well be the beginning of a bully in the making for this reason it is a

necessary that the child seek intervention at an early stage, so that aggression among other peers

can be prevented. If children and adults are not made aware of different methods of prevention

bullying or intervention of bullying chances are that many of these children will grow up to

commit crimes and become violent criminals who have aggressive. Much of the reason that

children become bullies or are victims of bullies is due to repetition, unequal power

relationships and intentionally. It is the intention behind the act, rather than the act itself which is

important. It is possible that the bully‟s behavior may lead to crime, criminal violence, and other

types of aggressive to early intervention? In research conducted by culling ford and Morrison

(1995), young offenders who were incarcerated, were interviewed and used in this study to have

them identify situations in their childhood that contributed to their violent behaviors. Some of the

most interesting responses were about teachers who failed to see the sign of a child was

susceptive to being bullied some of these young offenders said things like they embarrass you.

Some teachers used to make me spell words on the board they knew I couldn‟t spell o didn‟t like

that (Culling ford and Morrison, 1195). Many of these prisoners felt that the teachers

discriminated against them proper social skills. This gave many of the bullies on opportunity to

prey of these vulnerable victims.

 CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, bullying has quickly become a major issue in today‟s workplace. There are many

ways or things to do to stop bullying many programs help to address the same protective and risk

factors that bullying programs do. The best way to address bullying is to stop it before it starts.

Bullying can threaten students‟ physical and emotional safety at school and can negatively

impact their ability to learn. Prevention of bullying though education and awareness is possible

and that all of us can play a role. We need to understand the issue of bullying more deeply.

We need to learn about what the world‟s best research is telling us. We need to be aware of

practical approaches, policies, programs and resources that are effective.

Being bullied is not a fun experience for anyone. By learning some of the facts surrounding

bullying, hopefully you will be better prepared to handle a situation that you might be faced

with. Just because you are not the victim of a bully doesn't mean that you are not involved.

If you see someone else bullying or someone being bullied you now have the tools to help

make some positive changes.

No matter what end of the bullying in the student, we need to make sure that all of us are

doing our part to prevent and stop this. Bullying is a serious matter, whether we like it or not. If

you do not think that you can handle the situation on your own, there is no harm in asking for

help. You can find help in a variety of places, even within your own family.

Some Ways that we can recommend to prevent Bullying

• Engage Parents and Youth

It is important for everyone in the community to work together to send a unified message against
bullying. Launch an awareness campaign to make the objectives known to the school, parents,

and community members.

Establish a school safety committee or task force to plan, implement, and evaluate your school's

bullying prevention program.

• Create Policies and Rules

Create a mission statement, code of conduct, school-wide rules, and a bullying reporting system.

These establish a climate in which bullying is not acceptable. Disseminate and communicate

widely.

• Build a Safe Environment

Establish a school culture of acceptance, tolerance and respect. Use staff meetings, assemblies,

class and parent meetings, newsletters to families, the school website, and the student handbook

to establish a positive climate at school. Reinforce positive social interactions and inclusiveness.

• Educate Students and School Staff

The build is bullying prevention material into the curriculum and school activities. Train teachers

and staff on the school‟s rules and policies. Give them the skills to intervene consistently and

appropriately.

Think carefully before you insult somebody, for who they really are, at least they‟re

open about it. Bullying behavior seems all over the world and almost in all sections of society. A

bully tries to attract the attention of others in a negative manner. That‟s why bullying is a serious

matter and should be dealt with. Our words have power so that we need to use them wisely. No

one deserves to feel worthless, so we need to prevent, or rather, stop bullying.

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