Vibration Analysis for Machinery Health Diagnosis

"Of all the parameters that can be measured non-intrusively in industry today,
Vibration is movement relative to the one containing the most information is the vibration signature.“ Vibration Analysis can Identify These and Other Problems
a reference position, such as the center line of
a shaft on rotating equipment.
Art Crawford Imbalance Misalignment Looseness
Belt Problems Rolling Element Bearing Defects Gear Problems
Vibration is a result of an excitation force or Resonance Electrical Problems Rubs
 Each machine fault generates a specific vibration pattern Oil Whirl Sleeve Bearing Problems Oil Whip
forcing function and may be either random or Vibration analysis can often pinpoint a failing element of a
rotating machine in time to avoid catastrophic failure and costly  The frequency of the vibration is determined by the machine Vane Pass Flow Prolems Blade Pass
periodic. replacement of machinery as well as lengthy production geometry and operating speed Cavitation Lubrication Problems Pipe Strain
interruptions.  A single vibration measurement provides information about
multiple components

VIBRATION ANALYSIS IS USED TO IMPROVE PROFITABILITY IN EVERY MAJOR INDUSTRY IN THE WORLD

HOW VIBRATION DATA IS GATHERED AND PROCESSED FOR ANALYSIS

FFT SIGNAL PROCESSING Typical Sensors, Sensor Units and Applications for Vibration Analysis
When evaluating any machine’s health, the analyst should: Probe Type
Units* Frequency Range and
Display Units for Plotting
Metric English Typical Applications
1. Visually inspect each machine for overall condition of the Non-contact eddy
0 - 1 kHz. Permanently or semi-permanently mounted. Displacement enhances low frequency and is a measure
machine, such as leaking seals and any other damaged or Displacement
current probe
μ Pk-Pk mils Pk-Pk Measures shaft vibration relative to machine casing. of motion expressed in thousandths of an inch (1mil =
(requires signal
incomplete components, cracked welds, deterioration in the converter)
Commonly used on turbo-machinery. 0.001”) or in metric units
grouting, missing clamps and hold-downs while visiting site to Spring-loaded mass,
Velocity displays low and high frequency data equally and
collect vibration data sensitive to heat and 10 Hz - 1 kHz. Accuracy dependent on temperature, humidity
Velocity mm/s (RMS) in/s (Peak) is a measure of speed expressed in inches per second or
humidity and position. Displays low and high frequency data equally
metric units per second
2. Identify the turning speed (TS) at the measurement point (no power required)
location before any critical measurement is taken Piezoelectric crystal,
0.5 Hz - 60 kHz depending on design and mounting. Acceleration enhances high frequency data and is a
extremely robust
Acceleration Peak g's Peak g's 10 Hz - 3 kHz typical. Very robust design. measure of the rate of change of speed (1g = 386
3. Once TS is identified, determine TS harmonic relationships (requires external
Ideal for monitoring rolling element bearings and gear boxes. inches/second squared or metric units/second squared)
power)
4. When harmonics of TS are determined, other vibration peaks Typical displacement probe mounting on a Typical magnetic mounting of
*These are typically accepted units, but may be user-defined
large sleeve bearing accelerometer
of interest and other harmonic relationships may be identified
SEISMIC VELOCITY PROBES are no longer commonly used in industry except in high-temperature applications and are best for
for analysis Transducer Mounting (Accelerometers) low-amplitude, low-frequency measurements (1Hz - 2 KHz)
Stud mounting is preferred but common only with inaccessible situations and online
RESONANCE
systems Every machine will vibrate when excited by a forcing function. Each machine has one or more natural or resonant frequencies. When any forcing function is near the
LINE FREQUENCIES More care is necessary when mounting higher frequency range accelerometers
natural frequency, the resulting vibration will be significantly amplified and could cause premature failure.
Line frequency related peaks commonly exist on every AC driven machine and are A critical speed is when the rotating element is turning at a speed which excites resonance in the machine
Adhesive mounting is second in performance to stud mounting
present to some extent at 2 x of line frequency. Many times a forcing function (such as from a rotating shaft) excites a resonant frequency in another part of the same or nearby machine.
Magnetic mounting is most commonly used for route-based monitoring
See chart Electric Motor Problems and Diagnostics Techniques for more complete This resonant frequency may be identified by an impact test, typically when the machine is off; the machine structure may be “rung” like a bell.
Hand-held probes yield poorest performance and are not recommended but are
discussion of electric motor issues. CAPTURED sometimes necessary because of access restrictions or safety concerns Changing a structure’s stiffness, mass, damping, operating speed and/or reduction of the forcing function will effect the resonance issue and may help solve the
WAVEFORM RESULTING problem.
SPECTRUM
Resonance is becoming more of a problem in industry because:
• New equipment is often built lighter
Other Plot Types
VIBRATION PLOT TYPES • More variable speed machinery is being used in industry
• Machines are now often run at higher speeds without properly considering natural or resonant frequency of equipment
Both Spectrum and Waveform provide useful data. Machinery faults often occur at specific frequencies and are most easily identified in the spectrum.
Metric Trend plots show changes in a measurement over time.
Units
English Analysis of the Vibration Spectrum
Units
can be Divided into 3 Areas:
Units may be displayed in either
Metric or English units SUB-SYNCHRONOUS is less than 1 x turning speed
(TS) of the shaft: Imbalance
Frequency Banding allows
Belts, Oil Whirl/Whip, Rubs, Loose Roller Bearing in Housing, alarms to be created for
Cage or Train Frequency of Antifriction Bearing, Primary Belt
V different fault types
Frequency, Defective tooth-to-tooth Repeat Frequency, Surge, E Misalignment
Cascade spectrum plot shows Ignition or Fuel Problem on Reciprocating Source L
resonance over time, such as O
Frequency may be Circle Plot
SYNCHRONOUS is 1 X TS of the shaft and exact C
during a startup
expressed in either: multible integers of TS (energy is said to be "Phase I
T Looseness
•Cycles Per Minute Locked" to TS):
Y
•Hertz Imbalance, Misalighment, Looseness, Bent Shaft, Vane/ Blade
•Orders Pass, Gear Mesh, Belt Sheave Pitch Line Runout, Broken Gear
Tooth, Sleeve Bearing, Resonance
Bearing Band 1
NON-SYNCHRONOUS is not equal to any multiple of
TS of the shaft Bearing Band 2
Rolling Element Defects, Electrical, Other Component in the
Machine, One or More System Resonances, Belts, Noise,
Cavitation, Other Unusual Sources, Background Vibration, Pipe
Strain, Lubrication Fault
Unfiltered Orbit Plot
The Time Waveform shows random events, 1 X Filtered Orbit Plot Electrical faults occur as a multiple of the frequency
Basic Trend Plot displays growing defect and
periodic events and impacting result of maintenance action
of the supply current.

IMBALANCE & MISALIGNMENT ANTIFRICTION BEARING FAULTS

An imperfection in one or more of the contact surfaces of an
Imbalance is the condition of a rotating component where the center of rotation is not antifriction or rolling element bearing is called a defect. The Typical waveform
problem may be invisible even under a microscope, and may be characteristics: Outer Race
the same as the center of mass
Common causes of imbalance: more complex than a simple imperfection. • Periodic but non-sinusoidal Inner Race
• Material buildup Antifriction bearing problems are a major source of failure in impacting
Center industrial machinery
of
• Wear • Excessive “g swing” with
Center Gravity • Broken or missing parts Some common causes of bearing defects or premature sharp impacting “spikes”
of • Improper assembly or poor design failure: often resembling an “angel
Rotation • Excessive or inadequate lubrication fish pattern”
• Thermal distortions
• Improper mounting methods • Periodic characteristic
• Improper application diminishes with advanced
Amount of degradation
Eccentricity • Excessive vibration before and/or after installation
• Excessive load Depending on bearing type
and location, the
• Age of bearing
measurement in one
Imbalance vibration is always 1 x TS • Improper storage & handling direction (horizontal, vertical
• Turning speed peak amplitude • Manufacturing defects or axial) may be more useful
increases with increase in speed Bearing defect frequencies will usually appear for analysis than either of
the other directions. For
• Little axial energy except with in this order (highest to lowest): most standard radial loaded
overhung machines
BPFI (Ball Pass Frequency Inner) ball or roller bearings, radial Running speed sidebands are typically displayed in an inner race defect spectrum about BPFI frequencies as
• Little or no turning speed harmonics (horizontal or vertical) An outer race defect normally shows little or no modulation in the waveform, thus no sidebanding about the BPFO illustrated in the plot. These sidebands are caused by the defect passing in and out of the load zone at the TS of
BPFO (Ball Pass Frequency Outer)
location measurements are frequencies in the spectrum. the shaft. The associated waveform displays modulation which appears as sidebands in the spectrum.
BSF (Ball Spin Frequency)
best. Axial may be best for
FTF (Fundamental Train Frequency) Bearing ID Interpretation
tapered cup and cone and
•Simple, sinusoidal, periodic Bearings are built to world
View the spectrum in acceleration to see the high thrust bearings.
waveform standards, ensuring consistent
frequency peaks availability worldwide.
• One event per shaft revolution
High-frequency vibration analysis can detect lack of Note: Because most motor
• Little or no impacting lubrication Bearing spectrum bearings are listed on motor tags
Note-presence of significant turning The following frequencies can be approximated characteristics: as AFBMA or ABMA numbers,
speed harmonics suggests other or with the following formulae: • Commonly first appears
you may be able to calculate the
additional defects (looseness, etc.) common bearing number from the
BPFO = # of rollers X shaft TS x 0.4 (approx.) as high frequency / low equipment nameplate.
BPFI - # of rollers X shaft TS x 0.6 (approx.) amplitude non-
Misalignment is when rotational center lines of coupled shafts are not collinear Identification resources are
synchronous peaks available from:
Harmonics of the non-
synchronous peaks Interchange, Inc.
Angular Centers of A combination of these
• Often show turning Interchange Inc.
Problem rotation are problems is most common speed sidebands P.O. Box 47596
offset appearing around the Plymouth, MN 55447
race defect frequency
• Broad band energy Phone: (763) 694-7596
“mounds” or “grass” Phone: (800) 669-6208
For rolling element defects, cage frequency sidebands are typically displayed in a spectrum
(advanced degradation) centered around 1 or 2 times BSF fault frequency as illustrated in the plot. These sidebands are Fax: (800) 729-0395
caused by the defect passing in and out of the load zone at the TS of the cage. The associated These plots demonstrate an advancing fault. The trend shows a deteriorating bearing defect. As it advances, increased Fax: (763) 694-7117
waveform displays modulation at the cage TS which appears as sidebands in the spectrum. high frequency broadband energy indicates rapid deterioration exhibited in the waveforms. Interchangeinc.com

Causes of premature gear box failure

Gears rotating together at a common tangent create
include:
GEARBOXES AND DEFECTS Other technologies to monitor gear boxes:
gear mesh. Data collection on gear boxes can be •Oil analysis
• Improper lubrication Gear Monitoring Tips:
challenging. Defects may include misalignment, chipped •Infrared thermography
or broken teeth, looseness, stress fractures, and worn • Wrong application • Gear mesh energy normally appears regardless of gear
gears or bearings. condition; amount of energy depends on gear configuration and •Ultrasonics WDT - GBOX
• Bearing failure 0.30
GBOX -P6 Measurement Pt6
load. •Endoscopy Routine Spectrum
• Water intrusion 16
• Increase of gear mesh harmonics are an indication of normal Gear Misalignment shows clearly at 2 x GMF
• Overheating homogeneous wear 0.24
RMS = .2125
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1319. (21.98 Hz
• Poor design or manufacture • Eccentric wear generates sidebands; frequency of the sidebands
RMS Acceleration in G-s

• Seal failure are related to the problem gear. 2 X GM

High 2 x TS peak characterizes offset misalignment; a high 1 x TS signifies angular Gearbox waveform characteristics: 0.18
misalignment, though both frequently combine to cause 1 x TS and 2 x TS in the Gearbox spectrum • An increase in amplitudes of gear mesh sidebands indicates
• Gear mesh will appear (impacting* indicates a problem) characteristics: problems.
spectrum. Highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial direction for horizontally
mounted equipment; overhung rotors may exhibit higher amplitudes in the axial plane. • Very busy waveform •GMF (gear mesh frequency) will • Spacing between sideband peaks indicate which gear is bad 0.12

Velocity waveform for misalignment is very periodic and repetitive with one or two peaks • Pulses appear once per revolution with cracked or commonly exist, and appears as • Gear natural resonance is excited by gear defects; an increase in
(events) per revolution. Offset amplitudes typically appear higher in the radial plane; broken tooth high-frequency synchronous peaks amplitude is a good indicator of potential problems
angular misalignment amplitudes typically appear higher in the axial plane. *Since gearboxes are naturally energetic due to the gears meshing, • Defects can display harmonics of • Gear misalignment often appears as 2 x GMF in the spectrum.
0.06
trending is very helpful. 1 X GM
GMF and/or turning speed • To analyze gear problems, set Fmax at 3.5 X GMF to allow room
Gear Mesh Frequency = Rotation Speed (in Hz) X # of sidebands for sidebands. Accelerometer selection and mounting is critical.
Gear Teeth 0

Mechanical Looseness • Sideband amplitudes will normally • Use at least 1600 lines of resolution if the Fmax is < 2000 Hz; 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
For example, a gear is rotating at 10 Hz with 72 teeth: increase as condition deteriorates The spectrum (expressed in orders) demonstrates extensive impacting at gear turning speed. Recurring Frequency in Hz
use at least 3200 if Fmax is > 2,000 Hz. (The objective is to
GMF = 10 Hz X 72 = 720Hz periods of high spiking appear in the waveform each time the cracked tooth passes through engagement. resolve the slowest shaft speed in mesh).
• Mark gears to be reinstalled to allow same mesh
Belt Defects Gear Ratio Calculation • Best to replace gears in sets
Knowing the ratio of the GEAR EARLY LATER
input to output gears can
TOOTH GEAR
be very helpful in GEAR
determining the turning WEAR TOOTH
speed of the output TOOTH
shaft.
WEAR WEAR
Ratio = Number of teeth
on output shaft gear to
(Use (Expanded
the number of teeth on same Spectrum)
input shaft gear scale)
For example, a gear box
with 72 teeth on the
Looseness is characterized by harmonics of TS with raised noise floor. Waveform input gear and 24 teeth
displays random impacting which may be in a nonrepetitive irregular pattern. on the output gear, the
Highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial direction, specifically the vertical plane for Worn or mismatched belts produce sub-synchronous and sometimes non-synchronous peaks and harmonics. The 2 x belt frequency typically ratio would be 72 / 24 or
horizontally mounted equipment. dominates, and multiples of the 2 x appear throughout the spectrum, because the defective belt passes over 2 sheaves. ASK BILL DAVIS 3:1
Trend plot clearly shows increasing gear tooth
•The number of turning speed harmonics and their amplitudes increase with the severity The highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial direction, specifically in line with the belts. For example, if input is wear over several months, despite readings taken
of the problem •To resolve belt frequency in the spectra, it is necessary that •An eccentric sheave produces radial vibration at 1 x TS of the sheave 10 Hz, output would be under varying load Gears demonstrating wear over time. Note changes in amplitude from early stage wear to more
•Unstable phase characterizes looseness the time block of data includes at least 6 revolutions of the •Misaligned sheaves create axial vibration at 1 x TS of the sheave 30 Hz (TS X Ratio). advanced tooth wear and increasing side bands
•Fractional harmonics (1/4, 1/3, 1/2, ¾) may appear develops due to looseness belt (further references are available in Art Crawford’s books)

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