General Biology 1 Sci5

UNIVERSITY of the ASSUMPTION
Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San Fernando, 2000 Pampanga, Philippines
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 (Sci5) 6. TISSUES
(First Semester, Second Quarter Reviewer) • In any multi-cellular organism, cells rarely work
alone.
INTRODUCTION TO HISTOLOGY
• Cells that are similar in structure and function are
• Division of first labor and the first level.
usually joined together to form tissues.
• Within living things, there are divisions of labor.
• This applies to all living things… plants too!
• Division of labors means that the work (labor) of
• Plants have tissues too!
keeping the organism alive is divided (division)
among different parts.
• Each part has a job to do and as each part does its
special job, it works in harmony with all the other
parts.
• Just like stair steps... There are different levels to
how living thing is made.
• The arrangement of specialized parts within a living
thing is sometimes referred to as levels of
organization.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION 7. ORGANS
1. ATOMS • When a bunch of different types of tissues work
• The smallest non-living unit to build a living thing. together, they form an organ.
• Made of matter. EXAMPLE OF ORGANS
• Make up elements you are used to hearing about. A. Bone
Like carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). B. Heart
• A group of atoms put together are called molecules. C. Brain
2. MOLECULES and 3. MACROMOLECULES D. Lungs
• Molecules join together by covalent bonds (like they E. Kidney
are holding hands). Example of this is water (H2O). 8. ORGAN SYSTEMS
• When they join together, they make larger • Each organ in your body is part of an organ system,
molecules called macromolecules. a group of organs that work together to perform a
• Biomolecules are macromolecules that form living major function.
things. • For example, your heart is part of your circulatory
4. ORGANELLES system, which carries oxygen and other materials
• Small parts that do different jobs for the cell (small throughout your body. Besides the heart, blood
organs). vessels are organs that work in your circulatory
• Example is nucleus. system.
5. CELL CELL DIVERSITY

• The building block of living things. Fibroblasts Rough ER and Golgi
• The level where life begins. apparatus No organelles
• There are lots of different kinds of cells.
Nucleus
Erythrocytes
(A) Cells that connect body parts.
Nerve cells Skin cells
Created by: Jopar Jose C. Ramos | STEM 12 – Our Lady of Fatima Subject Teacher: Ma’am Menchu C. Luzano
Epithelial Nucleus • The father of modern histology and pathology is

cells Intermediate Marie F.X. Bichat, the brilliant French anatomist and
filaments physiologist.
• Tissue was derived from the French word, Tissue
which means “weave or texture.”
(B) Cells that cover and line body organs.
Skeletal Nuclei
muscle cell Smooth
Contractile muscle cell
filaments
(C) Cells that move organs and body parts.
Fat cell Lysosomes

Lipid droplet
Macrophage
Pseudopods
Nucleus
(D) Cell that stores nutrients. (E) Cell that fights diseases.
Processes
Rough ER
Nerve cell
Nucleus
(F) Cell that gathers information and controls body

functions
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(G) Cell of reproduction.
TISSUES
• Group of cells that are similar in structure and
function that combine with other tissues to form
membranes or organs.
• Group of cells working together to perform a
certain function.
HISTOLOGY FOUR (4) TYPES OF HUMAN BODY TISSUES

• Branch of science that deals with the microscopic
study of tissues (biology of cells).
• Came from the two Greek words HISTO-, meaning
tissue, and -LOGOS, meaning study.
• Group of similar cells performing similar functions.
• All tissues are surrounded by intercellular material
called matrix. Epithelial tissue (covering) Connective tissue (support)
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHILIUM
A. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CELL

LAYERS
- Simple - one layer.
- Stratified - more than one layer.
Muscular tissue (movement) Nervous tissue (control)
Apical surface
Basal surface
Simple
Apical surface
Basal surface
FOUR (4) TYPES OF HUMAN BODY TISSUES Stratified
I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE B. SHAPE OF CELLS

• Cells that are tightly packed to form a sheet.
1. SQUAMOUS
• Cells are anchored to each other and to underlying
• Scale-like.
tissues by a basement membrane.
• Flattened.
• Avascular (no blood supply) and depends for food
and oxygen in the underlying connective tissue. 2. CUBOIDAL
• Tissues are either single layered or multilayered. • Cube-shaped.
• Cells are closely packed with little intercellular
3. COLUMNAR
material and no blood vessels but may have nerve
endings. • Column-like.
• Epithelial tissues rest on a non-cellular basement. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
• This tissue has great power of regeneration.
• Found in different areas: 1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
- Body coverings • Single layer of flat cells.
- Body linings • Usually forms membranes.
- Glandular tissue - Lines body cavities, lungs, and capillaries.
• Functions: • Contains single layer flat cells fitted together like
- Protection fish scales.
- Absorption • Serves as a protective layer.
- Filtration • Lining of our skin, mouth, throat, anus, body
- Secretion cavities, lungs, capillaries, and blood vessel.
Pseudo-
Air sacs of lungs stratified Cilia
Mucus of
epithelial
goblet cell
layer
Nucleus of Nuclei of squamous Pseudo-
squamous epithelial cells stratified
Basement
epithelial cell epithelial
membrane
layer
Basement Basement
membrane Photomicrograph: Simple squamous membrane
Connective tissue
(A) Diagram: Simple squamous epithelium forming part of the alveolar
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
(air sac) walls (100x). (D) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) ciliated columnar epithelium lining the
columnar human trachea (700x).
2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
• Single layer of cube-like cells. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Common in glands and their ducts. TYPE OF LOCATION FUNCTION
• Found in glands and in the lining tissue of gland TISSUE
ducts. Lines major Absorption,
• Forms walls of kidney tubules. organs (heart, exchange of
air sacs of materials,
• Covers the ovaries.
Simple lungs, filtration, and
• For protection and secretion.
squamous Bowman’s secretion
Simple cuboidal
capsule of
Basement
membrane epithelial cells kidney); lines
body cavity
Nucleus of Basement membrane Lines tubules Absorption
simple cuboidal
epithelial cell Connective tissue
and ducts of and secretion
Simple glands; covers
(B) Diagram: Simple cuboidal
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal
epithelium in kidney tubules (400x).
cuboidal surface of
ovary; lines
3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR interior of eye
• Single layer of tall cells. Lines Secretion of
• Column-like cells which are taller than their width. Simple gastrointestinal materials from
• Many of these cells are ciliated. columnar tract special goblet
• Lining of the digestive track. cells and
• Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus. absorption
• For protection, absorption, and secretion. Lines interior Protection
Stratified of mouth,
squamous tongue,
Nucleus of simple
columnar
oesophagus,
Simple columnar
epithelial cell
epithelial cells vagina
Transitional Lines urinary Permits
bladder stretching
Basement
Basement
membrane
membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(C) Diagram: Simple columnar
epithelium of the stomach lining (900x). • The most abundant and widely distributed tissues.
• Functions:
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED (CILIATED) COLUMNAR - Binds body tissues together.
• Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others. - Binding and support (bone and cartilage).
• Often looks like a double cell layer. - Protection (bone and cartilage).
• Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract. - Insulation (fat).
• May function in absorption or secretion. - Transportation of substance (blood).
- Stores nutritional material and manufactures blood
cells.
TWO (2) CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE E. Fluid (blood and lymph)
TISSUE
1. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. VARIATIONS IN BLOOD SUPPLY
TWO (2) EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Some tissue types are well vascularized.
- Some have poor blood supply or are avascular. A. MESENCHYME
• Gives rise to all other connective tissues.
B. MADE OF LIVING CELLS AND AN
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX B. MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE (WHARTON'S
- Extracellular matrix - non-living material that JELLY)
surrounds living cells. • Gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord and
is a rich source of stem cells.
Reticular fiber
Ground substance Nucleus of
mesenchymal cell
Ground substance
Nucleus of mesenchymal cell

Embryo
Reticular fiber
Sectional view of mesenchyme of a developing embryo
THREE (3) STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF

Ground substance
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Epithelial surface
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE cell of umbilical cord Nucleus of fibroblast
• Unstructured material that fills the space between Collagen fiber

cells and contains the fibers
2. FIBERS Umbilical Collagen fiber

• Provide support (collagen, elastic, or reticular). cord Nucleus of fibroblast
Fetus Ground substance

3. CELLS
• Fibroblasts (connective tissue proper), Sectional view of mucous connective tissue of the umbilical cord
chondroblasts (cartilage), osteoblasts (bone),
hematopoietic stem cells (produces blood cells), and
TWO (2) SUB-DIVISIONS
accessory cells (mast cells = cluster along blood
vessels that detect foreign microorganisms; A. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
macrophages = “eat” foreign materials).
THREE (3) TYPES OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER a. Areolar
b. Adipose
1. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
c. Reticular
A. Mesenchyme
B. Mucous connective tissue B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
2. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE THREE (3) TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. Loose connective tissue a. Dense regular
B. Dense connective tissue b. Dense irregular
C. Cartilage c. Elastic
D. Bone
• Except for blood, all mature connective tissues Heart
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
belong to this class. Fat-storage area
Nucleus
2. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Blood vessel
Adipose tissue
THREE (3) TYPES OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE Fat
Sectional view of adipose tissue showing adipocytes of
A. AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE (LITTLE SPACE) white fat and details of an adipocyte
• Most widely distributed connective tissue in the
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules
body.
predominant.
• Contains several types of cells and all three fiber
• Many cells contain large lipid deposits.
types.
• Form prenatally during the first year of life.
• Used to attach skin and underlying tissues, and as a
• Functions:
packing between glands, muscles, and nerves.
- Insulates the body.
Fibroblast
Collagen fiber
- Protects some organs.
Macrophage
- Serves as a site of fuel storage.
Collagen
Skin fiber
Plasma cell
Fibroblast Nuclei of
Elastic
fiber fat cells
Subcutaneous Reticular
fiber
layer Mast cell
Sectional view of subcutaneous areolar connective tissue Areolar connective tissue

Nuclei of
fat cells
• Supports and binds other tissues.
rbiF
albo
n ts u
ielc
Vacuole Vacuole
containing containing
• Holds body fluids. fat droplet fat droplet
• Defends against infection. (F) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the
• Stores nutrients. subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (600x).
WHITE BROWN BEIGE
• As a universal packing tissue and connective tissue
TISSUE ADIPOSE ADIPOSE ADIPOSE
“glue” (to hold the internal organs together and in TISSUE TISSUE TISSUE
their proper positions). Localization Subcutaneous Interscapular Emerges in
Intra- Paravertebral white adipose
• Forms the subcutaneous layer – attaches skin to the abdominal Perirenal tissue depots
underlying tissues and organs. Epicardial Cervical with
• Made of collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. Gonadal Supraclavicular appropriate
stimuli
• Made of fibroblast, macrophages, plasma, mast cells Morphology Spherical Elliptical and Spherical
and adipocytes (fat cells). smaller than
white
Cell Single lipid Multiple small Unilocular
Elastic fibers composition droplet lipid droplets morphology
Mucosa Few Large number but small
epithelium Collagen fibers mitochondria of lipid droplets
Lamina Flattened mitochondria after
propria Fibroblast nuclei peripheral Oval central stimulation
Fibers of
matrix nucleus nucleus Mitochondria
Nuclei of Little appear after
fibroblasts endoplasmic stimulation
reticulum
Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, Function Storing Expending Thermogenic
(E) Diagram: Areolar a soft packaging tissue of the body (300x).
energy energy and potential
B. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE heat
production
• Located in the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin (non- shivering
and around organs and joints. thermogenesis)
Uncoupling Undetectable Positive Positive after
• Reduces heat loss and serves as padding and as an protein stimulation
energy source.
C. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE Ligament
• Network of interlacing reticular fibers and cells. Tendon Collagen fibers
• Forms a scaffolding used by cells of lymphoid
tissues such as the spleen and lymph nodes.
Collagen fibers Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Nucleus of (D) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective

reticular cell tissue from a tendon (500x).
Reticular
Lymph node
fiber
Sectional view of reticular connective tissue Reticular connective
of a lymph node tissue
• Delicate network of interwoven fibers.

• Forms stroma of lymphoid organs.
- Lymph nodes
- Spleen
- Bone marrow
• Bind together smooth muscle cells.
• Filter worn out blood cells and bacteria.
Spleen
THREE (3) TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

White blood cell
Reticular (lymphocyte)
cell Reticular fibers 1. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Blood • Structure:
cell
Reticular - Fibroblast cells secrete collagen fibers that form
fibers
(G) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network thick bundles and fill the majority of the extracellular
of reticular connective tissue (400x).
space.
RETICULAR FIBERS - Fibers are oriented in one direction.
• These fibers mainly consist of type III collagen. - Fibers arranged in parallel.
• These are thin fibers and form a delicate netlike • Functions:
framework in the liver, lymph nodes, spleen, - Forms tendons and some ligaments.
hemopoietic organs and other locations where blood - Collagen fibers give the tissue considerable tensile
and lymph are filtered. strength in one direction.
• They support capillaries, nerves and muscle cells. • Example: tendons and most ligaments.
• They are visible when tissues and organs are silver
stained.
Collagen fibers
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• More and thicker fibers but fewer cells than loose
connective tissue.
• Main matrix element is collagen fibers.
• Cells are fibroblasts.
• Examples:
- Tendon - attach muscle to bone. Nuclei of
fibroblasts
- Ligaments - attach bone to bone.
2. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE THREE (3) CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE
• Fibers not parallel NATURE OF MATRIX
• Example: heart valves.
1. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE (FCS)
• Irregularly arranged thick collagen fibers with some
• Contains large amount of collagen fibers or matrix
elastic fibers.
materials.
• Major cell type is fibroblasts.
• Withstands tension in many directions. 2. REGULARLY ARRANGED FCS
• Provides structural strength. • Found in tendons and ligaments.
• Dense woven mesh of collagen fibers.
• Provides strength and support in various directions. 3. IRREGULARLY ARRANGED FCS
• Occurs in sheets. • Dermis of the skin.
• Locations: PERICHONDRIUM
- Periosteum (around bone). • Dense irregularly arranged connective tissue (type I
- Perichondrium (around cartilage). collagen).
- Fibrous capsules of some organs (liver, kidney, and • Ensheaths the cartilage.
spleen). • Houses the blood vessels that nourish
- Fasciae. chondrocytes.
- Found in the dermis.
- Forms fibrous joint capsules and fibrous coverings
that surround some organs.
TWO (2) SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. CARTILAGE
• Tough, hard but a flexible.
• Can resist strain and can absorb mechanical shock.
• Solid or semisolid matrix in which cartilage cell
(chondrocytes) and fibers are embedded.
• Cartilage is enclosed in a sheath of white fibrous
connective tissue called perichondrium, there is layer
chondroblast cell, which forms chondrocytes.
• Chondrocytes are dispersed in the matrix and occur
in the fluid filled space called lacunae.
• The matrix lacks the blood vessels.
• Specialized dense connective tissue.
3. ELASTIC • Chondrocytes lie within lacuna embedded in a
• Can extend and return to original length. flexible proteinaceous matrix.
• Example: lungs and arteries. • Firm connective tissue softer and much more
flexible than bone.
• Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage.
Fibroblast nuclei
Bone
Cartilage Fibroblast nuclei
Bone
Fibroblast nuclei
Cross section of a joint
Chondrocyte
(cartilage cell)
Chondrocyte
in a lacuna
Fibroblast nuclei
Lacunae
Fibroblast nuclei
Matrix Fibroblast nuclei
Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage

(A) Diagram: Hyaline cartilage
from the trachea (400x).
CARTILAGES IN THE ADULT BODY
B. FIBROUS CARTILAGE
Chondrocyte Chondrocyte • The matrix has bundles of densely packed white
in a lacuna
Matrix
in a lacuna
Elastic fibers collagen fibers.
Lacuna
Gelatinous • Provides great strength and little degree of
ground flexibility.
substance
Perichondrium • Acts as a shock absorber by giving a cushioning
(A) Hyaline cartilage (180x) (B) Elastic cartilage (470x) effect.
• Found in intervertebral discs and at pubis
Chondrocyte
in a lacuna symphysis.
• Highly compressible.
Collagen fibers • Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae.
FIBROCARTILAGE
(C) Fibrocartilage (285x)
THREE (3) TYPES OF CARTILAGE DEPENDING

UPON THE MATRIX
A. HYALINE CARTILAGE
• Matrix is glass like semi-transparent, homogenous
and has fine collagen fibers.
• Slightly elastic and compressible.
• Found in nose, larynx, trachea, ends of bone,
skeleton of fish.
• Most common cartilage.
• Composed of abundant collagen fibers and rubbery
matrix.
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Chondro-
rbiF
albo
n ts u
ielc
cytes in
Collagen fibers
lacunae
F
b
l
Collagen
fibers
(B) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an
intervertebral disc (150x). Fibroblast nuclei
2. BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE

• Supportive and protective tissue.
• The matrix is solid and calcified. (70% salts of
calcium and phosphate: hydroxyapatite-
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, 30% fibrous protein; ossein).
• Bone cell (osteocyte) and collagen fiber are
embedded in solid matrix.
• Each bone is enclosed in a layer of white fibrous
connective tissue, called periosteum.
• Matrix is arranged in concentric circles called
lamellae.
• Number of osteoblast and osteocytes are arranged
in between the lamellae, in the fluid filed
space/cavities called lacunae.
• Each lacunae has fine cytoplasmic processes called
canaliculi, which connect with other lacunae.
• Osteoblast are active bone cell, while osteocytes are
inactive osteoblasts.
Central canal
Canaliculi
Lacunae
(contain osteocytes)
C. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
Concentric lamellae
• The matrix is semi opaque and has network of • Composed of:
yellow elastic fibers. - Bone cells in lacunae (cavities).
• Highly elastic and flexible. - Hard matrix of calcium salts.
• The tissue recovers the shape quickly. - Large numbers of collagen fibers.
• Found in external ear, epiglottis, and pharynx - Used to protect and support the body.
(eustachian tube). • Calcified connective tissue with numerous
• Provides elasticity. collagenous fibers commonly found in the skeleton of
• Example: supports the external ear. most vertebrates.
Bone cells
Central canal
Fibroblast nucl
ei
in lacunae
Fibroblast nuclei
Lacunae
Lamella
(A) Diagram: Bone or osseous tissue Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

of ground bond (70x).
TWO (2) TYPES OF BONE
A. COMPACT BONE
• Arranged in concentric ring structures called Compact bone
osteons (Haversian canal system) in the center of Cancellous bone
each ring is a structure called a haversian canal (canal Spaces containing bone
marrow and blood vessels
carries blood vessels through the bone to nourish the
Fibroblast nuclei
Trabeculae
cells embedded within the tissue).

• Around the Haversian canal, rings of bone tissue are Osteoblast
Osteoclast
found called lamellae. Within these rings, are space
called lacunae that contain osteocytes.
Trabecula Osteocyte
• Radiating out from the lacunae are tiny channels
that allow interaction of the cells with the blood Lamellae
supply, exchanges of nutrients, gases, called Canaliculus

canaliculi.
• Canal of Volkman connect various Haversian canal
systems together.
• In the center of compact bone, bone marrow cavity
is present, filled with yellow bone marrow.
COMPACT BONE AND SPONGY (CANCELLOUS

BONE)
Lacunae containing osteocytes Osteon of compact bone
Lamellae
Canaliculi Trabeculae of spongy bone
Fibroblast
nuclei
Osteon Haversian canal
Periosteum
Volkmann’s canal
B. SPONGY BONE OR TRABECULAE

• The matrix is web like rather than solid with FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
number of spaces in between. • Lymph is a type of fluid that forms as fluid enters
• Found in epiphysis of long bone. lymphatic vessels.
• Lacks Haversian canal system and Volkman canal. • Cells from the immune system monitor the lymph
• Contains red bone marrow, which forms red blood for signs of infection, differences in nutrient levels
and white blood cells. and detects levels of toxins.
• If the lymph is deemed “clean” it is returned to the
Spongy bone blood stream.
Compact bone
Articular cartilage
Fibroblast nuclei
TWO (2) FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. BLOOD
PLASMA
• Watery matrix with dissolved proteins.
• Red blood cells
• White blood cells
• Platelets
Plasma
Red blood cell
White blood cell
Platelets
• Blood cells surrounded by watery fluid matrix

(plasma) with dissolved proteins.
• Fibers are visible during clotting.
• Functions as the transport vehicle for materials.
Blood cells
in capillary
Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)
White Red
F i
rb
bo
al
ts
un
lc
ie
blood cell blood cells

Monocyte
Red
(white blood
blood cells
Photomicrograph: Smear of cell)
(H) Diagram: Blood
human blood (1,290x).
CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE NATURE OF

III. MUSCLE TISSUE
MATRIX
Smooth muscle tissue Cardiac muscle tissue Skeletal muscle tissue
BLOOD (VASCULAR) TISSUE
• Specialized fluid connective tissue composed of
blood cells suspended in the liquid plasma matrix.
• Plays vital role in transporting and distributing food
materials, gases, hormones, immune responses, blood
clotting and other waste products.
MUSCLE TISSUE
• Function is responsible for movement in higher
animals, heat production, and maintenance of
posture.
2. LYMPH
• Interstitial fluid (water and solutes) enters
lymphatic vessels.
LYMPH NODES
• Connective tissue capsule with trabeculae
extending into cortex.
• Stroma is a supportive network of reticular fibers,
fibroblasts.
• Found exclusively in the heart (myocardium) and is
involuntary in movement.
• Found only in the heart.
• Function is to pump blood cells attached to other
cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks.
• Cells are striated.
• One nucleus per cell.
Intercalated discs
THREE (3) TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE Nucleus
1. SMOOTH OR INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE TISSUE

(VISCERAL MUSCLE) (B) Diagram: Cardiac muscle tissue Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle tissue (475x).
• Spindle-shaped cells which are thickened at the

3. SKELETAL OR VOLUNTARY MUSCLE TISSUE
middle but tapered towards ends. Without striation
(STRIATED MUSCLE)
and responsible for involuntary movements of
• Has cross-striations (A-I bands) and can be
internal organs.
controlled at will.
• Involuntary muscle.
• Consists of myofibrils which contains actomyosin.
• Surrounds hollow organs.
• Sarcomere is the functional/structural unit of
• Attached to other smooth muscle cells.
muscle contraction.
• Under control of the autonomic nervous system.
• Can be controlled voluntarily/conscious mind.
• No visible striations.
• Cells attach to connective tissue.
• One nucleus per cell.
• Cells are striated.
• Cells have more than one nucleus.
• Attach to skeleton for movement.
Nuclei
Part of muscle
fiber
(C) Diagram: Skeletal muscle tissue Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (195x).
Smooth muscle cell
Nuclei
(A) Diagram: Smooth muscle tissue Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle

• Cells are long, cylindrical, striated, and
tissue (285x). multinucleate.
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
• Striated and branched muscle fibers.
• Locations: REGENERATION OF TISSUES
- Combined with connective tissues and neural tissue
1. TISSUES THAT REGENERATE EASILY
in skeletal muscles.
A. Epithelial tissue
• Functions:
B. Fibrous connective tissue and bone
- Moves or stabilizes the position of the skeleton,
guards entrances and exits to the digestive, 2. TISSUES THAT REGENERATE POORLY
respiratory, and urinary tracts; generates heat; A. Skeletal muscle
protects internal organs.
3. TISSUES THAT ARE REPLACED LARGELY WITH
SCAR TISSUE
A. Cardiac muscle
B. Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
REGENERATION OF CELLS
1. LABILE CELLS
• Cells that undergo mitosis regularly and quickly.
• Example: epithelial tissue repair.
2. STABLE CELLS
• Cells that do not regularly undergo mitosis, but are
able to if the need arises.
• Example: bone cells.
3. PERMANENT CELLS
• Cells that cannot undergo mitosis.
• Example: nervous tissue and muscle cells.
TISSUE REPAIR
1. STROMAL CELLS
• Connective tissue cells of an organ found in the
loose connective tissue
• Often associated with the uterine mucosa and the
ovary as well as the hematopoietic system and
Brain
elsewhere.
Nuclei of • Example: delicate network of connective tissue in
Spinal cord supporting
cells
the liver. Allows liver to maintain its shape.
Nuclei of
supporting
Cell body 2. PARENCHYMAL CELLS
of neuron
cells
Cell body
• The tissue characteristic of an organ, as
Neuron
of neuron
processes
distinguished from associated connective or
Neuron
processes supporting tissues.
Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (320x).
• Example: cells that secrete file in the liver.
PLANT TISSUE THREE (3) TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC OR
• Neighboring cells are often connected by GROWING TISSUE
plasmodesmata.
1. APICAL MERISTEM
• Tissues in plants that divide throughout their life.
• Located at the tip (apex) of shoots and roots.
• Plasmodesmata are strand of cytoplasm that pass-
• Increase in length (primary growth).
through openings in cell walls and connect living
cells. 2. INTERCALARY MERISTEM
• Formed at the nodes of grass stem.
• Helps regenerate parts removed by grazing animals.
3. LATERAL MERISTEM
• Positioned around the circumference of shoots and
roots.
• Produces secondary growth, which increases the
girth of the plant.
Apical meristem
Intercalary meristem
Lateral meristem
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES – LOCALIZED REGIONS

OF CELL DIVISION
1. APICAL MERISTEM
PRIMARY OR TRANSITIONAL MERISTEM

• Primary growth.
PROTODERM
PLANT TISSUES CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS: • Gives rise to epidermis.
1. Meristematic or growing tissue
GROUND MERISTEM
2. Non-meristematic or permanent tissue
• Gives rise to ground tissue.
PROCAMBIUM
• Gives rise to 1° vascular tissue.
2. INTERCALARY MERISTEM
• Found in the nodes of grasses.
3. LATERAL MERISTEM
Meristematic tissue Non-meristematic tissue
VASCULAR CAMBIUM
I. MERISTEMATIC OR GROWING TISSUE • 2° vascular tissue.
• Site of active cell division.
CORK CAMBIUM OR PHELLOGEN
• Periderm.
II. NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE
• Tissues formerly derived from meristems, but
already assumed various shapes and sizes related to
their specific functions as they develop and mature.
NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE IS

DIVIDED INTO TWO (2):
1. SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT

TISSUE
PARENCHYMA
THREE (3) KINDS OF SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC
OR PERMANENT TISSUE
A. PARENCHYMA
• Thin walled and alive at maturity; often
multifaceted.
• Gas exchange, nutrients and food.
B. COLLENCHYMA
• Thick walled and alive at maturity.
• Support for the growing region of the plants.
C. SCLERENCHYMA
• Thick walled and dead at maturity.
• Lignified cell wall.
COLLENCHYMA
• Non-growing regions.
• Contains long fibers.
• Schlereid (cuboidal).
SCLEREIDS OR STONE CELLS

• Cells as long as they are wide.
FIBERS
• Cells longer than they are wide.
EPIDERMIDIS
• Alive at maturity.
TRICHOMES
• “Pubescence” or hairs on epidermidis.
ROOT HAIRS SCLERENCHYMA
• Tubular extensions of epidermal cells. SCLEREIDS OR STONE CELLS FIBERS
PLANT TISSUES TYPES 2. COMPLEX NON-MERISTEMATIC OR
• All plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) are composed PERMANENT TISSUE
of the same tissue types.
TWO (2) KINDS OF COMPLEX NON-
THREE (3) TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE
A. DERMAL TISSUE XYLEM AND PHLOEM
• Outermost layer. • Similar to our veins and arteries.
• Acts similar to human skin.
A. XYLEM
• Function:
• Water conducting tissue; parenchyma, fibers,
- Covers the outside of a plant, providing protection
vessels and/or tracheids, and ray cells.
in a variety of ways.
• Carries water and dissolved mineral nutrients up
• Details:
from roots to the rest of the plant.
- Epidermis is made of live parenchyma cells.
- Can be made of dead parenchyma cells; makes the
outer bark of woody plants.
- Cell types: made of parenchyma cells.
B. GROUND TISSUE
• Bulk of inner layers.
• Surrounded by dermal tissue.
• Function:
- Provides support and stores materials in roots and
stems.
• Details:
- Makes up much of the inside of the plant.
- Where you can find the chloroplasts in leaves.
- Made of all three cell types. Parenchyma is most
common.
C. VASCULAR TISSUE (COMPLEX TISSUE)
• Conducting tissue, transport.
• Surrounded by ground tissue.
• Function:
- Transports water, mineral nutrients, and organic
compounds to all parts of the plant.
• Details:
- Made of two networks of hollow tubules.
- Xylem and phloem.
B. PHLOEM TWO (2) CELL TYPES IN XYLEM
• The vascular tissue that carries the products of 1. Tracheid cells
photosynthesis through the plant. 2. Vessel elements
• Food conducting tissue; sieve-tube members (no
TWO (2) CELL TYPES IN PHLOEM
nucleus at maturity, w/ cytoplasm), companion cells,
1. Sieve tube elements
fibers, parenchyma, and ray cells. In flowering plants,
2. Companion cells
sieve-tube members and companion cells arise from
the same mother cell.
VASCULAR BUNDLES WITH XYLEM AND PHLOEM

PERIDERM
• Protective covering; composed of cork and
parenchyma.
MAIZE OR CORN – vein in cross section.

ALFALFA – vein in cross section.
Twig with
lenticels
SECRETORY STRUCTURES
• Responsible for making latex, resins, nectar, and
other substances produced and stores in channels
inside the plant body.
• Nectar (flowers) from nectaries.
• Oils (peanuts, oranges, citrus) from accumulation of
glands and elaioplasts.
• Resins (conifers) from resin canals
• Lacticifers (e.g., latex - milkweed, rubber plants,
opium poppy)
• Hydathodes (openings for secretion of water)
• Digestive glands of carnivorous plants (enzymes)
• Salt glands that shed salt (especial in plants adapted
to environments laden with salt).
PLANT ORGANS
ORGANS
• Tissues that act together to serve specific function.
ROOTS Dermal
STEMS Vascular
LEAVES Ground
MOLECULES OF LIFE
BIOMOLECULES
• Molecule of atoms that contain more than one
element.
• Always have carbon as the main element produce
by living organism.
• Essential structure for the basis of life.
• They are involved in many cellular processes like:
- Maintenance and repair
- Control and regulation of metabolic processes
NUTRIENTS
- Responsible for energy exchange
MACRONUTRIENTS MICRONUTRIENTS
ELEMENTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN LIFE (Proximate principles) • Vitamins
• All nutrients appear in element. • Carbohydrates (65 - • Minerals
• Earth’s elements essential for living things called 80%)
nutrients. • Fats (10 - 30%)
• Proteins (7 - 15%)
SIX (6) MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS - Carbon (C) - Calcium
1. Carbon (C) - Hydrogen (H) - Potassium
2. Hydrogen (H) - Oxygen (O) - Calorine
3. Nitrogen (N) - Nitrogen (N) - Sodium
4. Oxygen (O) - Phosphorus (P) - Magnesium
5. Phosphorus (P)
MINERALS
6. Sulfur (S)
• Required for growth, repair, and regulation of vital
body functions.
TWO (2) MAJOR GROUPS OF MINERALS
1. MAJOR MINERALS
- Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na) and
magnesium (Mg).
2. MINOR OR TRACES INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Iron (Fe), iron (I), fluorine (F), zinc (Zn), manganese
1. WATER
(Mn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), etc.
• Biological solvent.
(less than few mg/day).
• High heat capacity.
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS • High heat of vaporization.
• High heat of fusion.
1. MACRO OR MAJOR MINERALS
• Means of transport.
• Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg),
• Medium of chemical and physical process.
Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chloride
(Cl). 2. SALTS
• Present in body tissues at concentrations >50 • Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water.
mg/kg • Vital to many body functions.
• Requirement of these is >100 mg/d • Include electrolytes which conduct electrical
currents.
2. MICRO OR TRACE MINERALS (body needs
relatively less) ELECTROLYTES
• Manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), chromium • Formed by opposite elements.
(Cr), molybdenum (Mo), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), • Conducts energy.
fluoride (F), iodine (I), selenium (Se). • Regulate fluid balance.
• Present in body tissues at concentrations <50 • Transport nutrients.
mg/kg • Support proper muscle function.
• Requirement of these is <100 mg/d • Support mental function.
• Help convert calories into energy.
NUTRIENT BASICS • Regulate pH.
TWO (2) KINDS OF VITAMINS
1. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

• Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
• Require fat for the stomach to allow them to be
carried into the blood stream for use.
• Extra is stored in the body for later use.
2. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

• Vitamins C and B-complex.
• Requires water for transport and use.
• Easily absorbed and passed through the body as
waste.
THREE (3) TYPES OF ELECTROLYTES
BIOCHEMISTRY: ESSENTIALS OF LIFE
1. ACID
1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS • Substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+).
• Contain carbon with hydrogen and oxygen. • Example: carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic
• Most are covalent bond. acid, and phosphoric acid.
• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose).
2. BASE
2. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS • Substance that releases ions that can combine with
• Lack carbon without hydrogen and oxygen. hydrogen ions.
• Tend to be simpler compounds. • Example: sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
• Example: H2O (water), CO2 (carbon dioxide). magnesium hydroxide, and sodium bicarbonate.
3. SALT
• Substance formed by the reaction between an acid
and a base.
• Example: sodium chloride, aluminum chloride, and
magnesium sulfate.
MACROMOLECULES
• Carbon compounds form chemical covalent bond
through polymerization.
• Polymer are made up of individual monomer.
• Polymers bond together to make macromolecules.
• Contain hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N),
sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P).
FOUR (4) ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
(MACROMOLECULES) ESSENTIAL TO LIFE FOUR (4) FUNCTIONS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES
1. Provide energy (ATP) to drive metabolic processes
(glycolysis).
2. Energy-storage molecules (e.g, glycogen).
3. Structural component of cell wall.
4. Component found in coenzyme (FAD) and Nucleic
Acids.
THREE (3) TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. MONOSACCHARIDES
• The molecule is always formed by three elements
I. CARBOHYDRATES and three elements only: carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
• Made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen and oxygen (O).
(O). • The molecule of monosaccharide is very small and
• Can also be defined as Polyhydroxy Aldehydes or compact in size.
Ketones. • This is another reason we call monosaccharide
• Hydrates of carbon molecules. simple sugars.
• Main function is to provide energy.
• Categories of carbohydrates include
- Simple carbohydrates (sugars)
- Monosaccharide
- Disaccharide
- Complex carbohydrates (starch and fibers)
- Polysaccharide
2. DISACCHARIDES
• Composed of two monosaccharide.
• Formed when two sugars are joined together and a
molecule of water is removed.
THREE (3) MOST IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES

A. SUCROSE
• Combination of glucose and fructose.
• Table sugar.
• ¼ of total calories.
B. LACTOSE
• Combination of glucose and galactose.
• Milk.
C. MALTOSE
• Combination of glucose and glucose.
• Germinating grains.
PREBIOTICS
• Substance that the body can’t digest. They act as
food for the beneficial bacteria in the gut and
encourage their growth.
• Tomatoes, bananas, onions, and asparagus all
contain oligosaccharides, a common form of
prebiotics.
• You may also find prebiotics in specially made dairy
products or sold in capsules.
• The evidence is growing that prebiotics can
B. GLYCOGEN
increase the beneficial bacteria in your gut and so
• The glycogen structure is composed by long linear
help maintain good health.
and branched chains of glucoses.
3. POLYSACCHARIDES • The glycogen is a sugar coming from animals
• Most of the polysaccharides are long chains of (meats).
glucoses (= polymers of glucoses). • After a meal, our blood sugar increases. The liver
cells and muscular cells transform the extra sugar •
THREE (3) MOST IMPORTANT POLYSACCHARIDES
into molecules of Glycogen which causes a decrease
A. STARCH of the blood sugar.
• The starch is a sugar coming from vegetables. • The extra sugar is stored as glycogen in our body.
• Cereals: rice, wheat, corn and potatoes Our body can store up to 600 g of glycogen.
TWO (2) TYPES OF STARCH MOLECULES
a. AMYLOSE
• Long linear chains of glucoses.
C. CELLULOSE
b. AMYLOPECTIN
• The cellulose is also composed by long linear chains
• Long linear and branched chains of glucoses.
of glucoses but the glucoses are linked by a different
• Each starch can contain 100 to 20.000 molecules of
type of chemical bond.
glucose.
II. PROTEINS
TEN (10) HEALTH BENEFITS OF

CARBOHYDRATES
1. Energy for the body.
2. Helps to sleep better.
3. Helps to prevent diseases.
4. Useful to control weight.
5. Helps to keep memory sharp.
6. Uplifts mood.
7. Provides fiber to the body.
8. Prevent blood clots.
9. Improves the digestive system.
10. Best nutrient for athletes.
FOUR (4) DISEASES DUE TO OVERCONSUMPTION
OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Obesity.
2. Diabetes (type 2: non-insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus).
3. Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease and stroke).
4. Dental caries.
THREE (3) DISEASES DUE TO DEFICIENCY OF

CARBOHYDRATES
1. Usage of fats as energy source (underweight). PROTEINS
2. KETOSIS: accumulation of ketones in the body (in • Made up of several tens to several tens of thousands
absence of carbohydrates the body starts using the of amino acids.
proteins and converts it to sugars). • Takes 3 to 4 hours to absorb in the body.
3. Hypoglycemia.
PEPTIDES
• Chains of several to several thousand amino acids.
• Requires digestive enzymes to be digested.
AMINO ACIDS
• Smallest constituent of protein and does not need to
be further digested.
• Rapidly absorbed in about 30 minutes and easy on
body.
B. NEUTRAL AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS
(PHENYL/PHENOL RING)
• Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
C. NEUTRAL HETEROCYCLIC AMINO ACIDS

• Indole ring: Tryptophan
• Pyrrolidine ring: Proline and Hydroxyproline
(Imino group)
TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS
ESSENTIAL CONDITIONALLY NON- 2. BASIC AMINO ACIDS (diamine, monocarboxylic
ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL amino acids)
Histidine Arginine Alanine • Aliphatic: Lysine and Arginine
Isoleucine Asparagine Asparatate • Cyclic (imidazole): Histidine
Methionine Glutamine Cysteine
Phenylalanine Glycine Glutamate 3. ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS (monoamine, dicarboxylic
Threonine Proline amino acids)
Tryptophan Serine • Aspartic acid: Aspartate
Valine Tyrosine • Glutamic acid: Glutamate
Lysine 1. FIBROUS AND GLOBULAR PROTEINS
• All amino acids are required for body growth. PROPERTIES FIBROUS GLOBULAR
• Since essential amino acids cannot be synthesized PROTEINS PROTEINS
within the body, they have to be consumed in the Shape Long and Rounded/
form of food. narrow spherical
Role Structural Functional
VALINE, LEUCINE, AND ISOLEUCINE (strength and (catalysts and
• These are included in protein that forms muscles. support) transport)
• They account for 30 - 40% of essential amino acids. Solubility in Mostly Mostly soluble
water insoluble
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION Sequence of Repetitive Irregular
1. NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS (monoamine, amino acids amino acid amino acid
sequence sequence
monocarboxylic amino acids)
Stability Less sensitive More sensitive
THREE (3) NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS to changes in to changes in
heat and pH heat and pH
A. NEUTRAL ALIPHATIC AMINO ACIDS Examples Collagen, Hemoglobin,
keratin insulin,
a. WITH HYDROCARBON CHAIN
catalase
• Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, and Isoleucine.
b. WITH SPECIFIC GROUPS
i. SULFER GROUP
• Cysteine, Homocysteine, and Methionine.
ii. HYDROXYL GROUP

• Serine, Homoserine, Threonine, and
Gydroxylysine
iii. CARBOXY AMIDE GROUP

• Asparagine, Glutamine
2. CONJUGATED PROTEINS OR COMPOUND 2. ANIMAL SOURCE
• These molecules are made up of a simple protein • Meat, egg, fish, and milk, and milk derived food.
united covalently or non-covalently with a non-
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
protein factor.
• The non-protein factor is called prosthetic group or 1. CATALYTIC FUNCTION
cofactor. • Nearly all chemical reactions in biological systems
• Examples: glyco-protein, phosphor-protein, and are catalyzed by specific enzymes.
chromo-protein.
2. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
3. DERIVED PROTEINS For example;
- Hemoglobin transports oxygen in erythrocytes
TWO (2) TYPES OF DERIVED PROTEINS
- Myoglobin carries & stores oxygen in muscle.
1. PRIMARY DERIVED - Albumin transports free fatty acids in blood.
• The denatured or coagulated or first hydrolyzed - Transferrin transports iron in blood.
products of proteins.
3. COORDINATED MOTION
2. SECONDARY DERIVED • Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle.
• The degraded (due to break down of peptide bonds)
4. STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL SUPPORT
product of proteins.
For example,
- Collagen, a fibrous protein in skin and bone.
5. DEFENSE FUNCTION
For example,
- Clotting factors prevent loss of blood.
- Immunoglobulins protects against infections.
6. GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF NERVE
IMPULSES
For example,
- Rhodopsin is the photoreceptor protein in retinal
rod cells.
7. CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION
For example,
- Growth factor proteins.
TWO (2) KINDS OF PROTEIN
- Hormones such as insulin and thyroid-stimulating
1. COMPLETE PROTEIN hormone.
• Contains all essential amino acids.
• IgA, IgG, and IgM guard against viral and bacterial
• Amino acids = building blocks of protein
invasion.
• Examples: meat, fish, poultry, milk, yogurt, and
• IgD acts as an antigen receptor of B cells.
eggs.
• IgE causes an allergic response.
2. INCOMPLETE PROTEIN
ENZYMES GROUPED IN SIX (6) MAJOR CLASSES
• From plant sources that does not contain all of the
essential amino acids. 1. OXIDOREDUCTASES
• Examples: grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds. • Double-barreled name
• Catalyze the reduction or oxidation of a molecule.
TWO (2) SOURCES OF PROTEINS
2. TRANSFERASES
1. PLANT SOURCE
• Catalyze the transfer of a group of atoms from one
• Grains, cereals, legumes, nuts, seeds, fruits, roots,
molecule to another.
and tubers like yams, cassava, and sweet potato.
• Example: transfer of phosphate between ATP and EIGHT (8) IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN
sugar.
1. HAIR AND NAILS
3. HYDROLASES • A protein called alpha-keratin forms your hair and
• Catalyze hydrolysis reactions & reverse rxns. fingernails, and also is the major component of
• Example: hydrolysis of an ester. feathers, wool, claws, scales, horns, and hooves.
4. ISOMERASES 2. MUSCLES
• Catalyze conversion of a molecule into isomer. • Muscle proteins called actin and myosin enable all
• The cis-trans conversion of maleate & fumarate. muscular movement – from blinking to breathing to
rollerblading.
5. LYASES
• Rxns which break a double bond & add a small 3. CELLULAR MESSENGER
molecule (water or NH3) & the reverse rxn: • Receptor proteins stud the outside of your cells and
elimination to form a double bond. transmit signals to partner proteins on the inside of
• (Not involving hydrolysis or oxidation). the cells.
6. LIGASES 4. ANTIBODIES
• These enzymes catalyze reactions which make • Antibodies are proteins that help defend your body
bonds to join together (ligate) smaller molecules to against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses.
make larger ones (Uses ATP energy).
5. BLOOD
EXAMPLE OF SPECIFIC ENZYMES • The hemoglobin protein carries oxygen in your
1. Lipases blood to every part of your body.
2. Amylase
6. BRAIN AND NERVES
3. Protease
• Ion channel proteins control brain signaling by
4. Cellulase
allowing small molecules into and out of nerve cells.
PROTEINS IN EGGS
7. ENZYMES
• Ovalbumin - 54% of an egg’s total protein content.
• Enzymes in your saliva, stomach, and small
• Conalbumin - 12% of the protein content.
intestine are proteins that help you digest food.
• Ovomucoid - 11% of the protein content.
• Ovoglobulins G2 and G3 - 10% of the protein 8. CELLULAR CONSTRUCTION WORKERS
content. • Huge clusters of proteins form molecular machines
• Lysozyme - 3.5% of egg white protein. that do your cells’ heavy work, such as copying genes
• Ovomucin - 3% which is a jelly-like protein. during cell division and making new proteins.
• Avidin - 0.5% of egg white protein.
• Few more to make it up to 100% but in much
smaller proportions.
MILK PROTEINS
DEFICIENCY DISEASES
• Protein deficiency occurs along with energy
deficiency, hence called PROTEIN ENERGY
MALNUTRITION (PEM).
• The current concept of PEM has two clinical forms –
KWASHIORKOR and MARASMAS.
• They can be prevented by health promotion, good
diet, immunization, good fortification, early
diagnosis, and treatment and rehabilitation.
III. LIPIDS
LIPID STRUCTURE
• Fats, oils, and waxes.
• Provides energy for the cells, cell structure, and
insulation.
- Lipids and proteins compose the cell membrane.
- Cholesterol: gives cell membrane flexibility.
• Structure (2 parts):
- “Head” = glycerol
- “Tails” = fatty acids
• Monomer: Fatty Acid
• Polymer: Lipid
• Building block of a lipid molecule:

- One glycerol
- Three fatty acids
HYDROGENATION
ADVANTAGES:
• Shelf life.
• Texture improvement.
DISADVANTAGE:
• Acts like saturated fat in the blood, only worse.
Replacing saturated fat and trans-fat with

unsaturated fat in the diet can enhance the ability of
the nerve cell membrane to pass along necessary
messages.
HYDROGENATION OF FATS AND OILS

• Industrial process to convert liquid oils into solid
fats.
• Chemical Rx that converts double (cis) bonds into
single bonds.
• Needs H2 gas, Ni catalyst, heat.
COMPLETE HYDROGENATION
• All double bonds become single bonds.
INCOMPLETE/PARTIAL HYDROGENATION
• Some (cis) double bonds remain.
• Some (cis) double bonds convert to trans bonds:
forming trans fats.
FATS: THE GOOD, BAD, AND THE UGLY MAJOR SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
AND THEIR SOURCES
S. NO. NAME OF STRUCTURE SOURCE
FATTY
ACIDS
1. Butyric CH3(CH2)2COOH Butter
acid
2. Caproic CH3(CH2)4COOH Butter,
acid palm oil,
coconut
oil
3. Caprylic CH3(CH2)6COOH Palm oil
acid and
coconut
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS oil
4. Capric CH3(CH2)8COOH Palm oil
1. BASED ON COMPOSITION
acid and
A. SIMPLE LIPIDS coconut
• Fats oil
• Waxes 5. Lauric CH3(CH2)10COOH Plants of
acid lauraceae,
B. COMPLEX LIPIDS coconut
• Phospholipids oil, and
• Non-phosphorylated lipids palm oil
• Lipoproteins 6. Myristic CH3(CH2)12COOH Seed fats
• Sulfolipids acid of mace,
butter,
C. DERIVED LIPIDS and
• Isoprenoids coconut
• Fat soluble vitamins oil
• Steroids 7. Palmitic CH3(CH2)14COOH Plant fats,
• Ketone bodies acid palm oil,
• Fatty acids and
peanut oil
2. BASED ON FUNCTIONS 8. Stearic CH3(CH2)16COOH Plant and
acid animal
A. STORAGE LIPIDS fats
• Fats 9. Arachidic CH3(CH2)18COOH Peanut oil
• Oils acid
B. STRUCTURAL LIPIDS 10. Behenic CH3(CH2)20COOH Plant
acid lipids
• Phospholipids
11. Lignoceric CH3(CH2)22COOH Plant
• Non-phosphorylated lipids
acid lipids
C. LIPIDS AS SIGNALS, COFACTORS, AND 12. Cerotic CH3(CH2)24COOH Beewax
PIGMENTS acid and wool
• Phosphatidylinositol
• Eicosanoids
• Steroid hormones
• Fat soluble vitamins
• Lipid quinines
• Dolichols
MAJOR UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
AND THEIR SOURCES
S. NO. NAME OF STRUCTURE SOURCE
FATTY
ACIDS
1. Palmitoleic CH3(CH2)5CH= Sardine
acid CH(CH2)7COOH oil
2. Oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH= Olive oil, Healthy Occluded
CH(CH2)7COOH peanut
oil, and
linseed
oil
3. Linoleic CH3(CH2)4CH= Olive oil, IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS
acid CHCH2CH= peanut • Function:
CH(CH2)7COOH oil, • Genetic material
linseed - Stores information
oil, and - Genes
soybean - Blueprint for building proteins
oil DNA → RNA → proteins
4. Y-linolenic CH3(CH2)4CH= Linseed - Transfers information
acid CHCH2CH= oil - Blueprint for new cells.
CHCH2CH= - Blueprint for next generation
CH(CH2)4COOH
5. Parinaric CH3CH2CH= Plant
acid CHCH=CHCH= lipids
CH(CH2)7COOH
6. Erucic acid CH3(CH2)7CH= Rapeseed
CH(CH2)11COOH oil
7. Arachidonic CH3(CH2)4CH= Peanut oil
acid CHCH2CH=
CHCH2CH=
CHCH2CH=
CH(CH2)3COOH
HEART DISEASE - ATHEROSCLEROSIS
HEART DISEASE
• No. 1 cause of death in America.
• 1/3 die of atherosclerosis.
• Myocardial infarction and stroke risk increase with
atherosclerosis.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
• A buildup of plaque occludes arterial walls arterial
vessels.
- Begins as injury or inflammation.
- Contains cholesterol (oxidized LDL), platelets, etc.
• Artery walls lose elasticity.
• Passage through the artery narrows.
• One leading cause of heart disease.
TWO (2) TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

1. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
TWO (2) BASE PAIRS OF DNA

A. Guanine → Cytosine
B. Thymine → Adenine

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UNIVERSITY of the ASSUMPTION

5. CELL CELL DIVERSITY

Nerve cells Skin cells

Epithelial Nucleus • The father of modern histology and pathology is

(C) Cells that move organs and body parts.

Fat cell Lysosomes

(F) Cell that gathers information and controls body

HISTOLOGY FOUR (4) TYPES OF HUMAN BODY TISSUES

A. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CELL

I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE B. SHAPE OF CELLS

Nucleus of mesenchymal cell

Sectional view of mesenchyme of a developing embryo

THREE (3) STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF

• Unstructured material that fills the space between Collagen fiber

2. FIBERS Umbilical Collagen fiber

Fetus Ground substance

Sectional view of subcutaneous areolar connective tissue Areolar connective tissue

Nucleus of (D) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective

• Delicate network of interwoven fibers.

THREE (3) TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

TWO (2) SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Cartilage Fibroblast nuclei

Cross section of a joint

Matrix Fibroblast nuclei

Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage

THREE (3) TYPES OF CARTILAGE DEPENDING

2. BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE

(A) Diagram: Bone or osseous tissue Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

cells embedded within the tissue).

supply, exchanges of nutrients, gases, called Canaliculus

COMPACT BONE AND SPONGY (CANCELLOUS

Lacunae containing osteocytes Osteon of compact bone

Osteon Haversian canal

B. SPONGY BONE OR TRABECULAE

TWO (2) FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Red blood cell

White blood cell

• Blood cells surrounded by watery fluid matrix

blood cell blood cells

CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE NATURE OF

THREE (3) TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE Nucleus

1. SMOOTH OR INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE TISSUE

• Spindle-shaped cells which are thickened at the

(C) Diagram: Skeletal muscle tissue Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (195x).

Smooth muscle cell

(A) Diagram: Smooth muscle tissue Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES – LOCALIZED REGIONS

PRIMARY OR TRANSITIONAL MERISTEM

NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE IS

1. SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT

SCLEREIDS OR STONE CELLS

VASCULAR BUNDLES WITH XYLEM AND PHLOEM

MAIZE OR CORN – vein in cross section.

TWO (2) MAJOR GROUPS OF MINERALS

TWO (2) KINDS OF VITAMINS

1. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

2. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

THREE (3) TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

THREE (3) MOST IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES

TWO (2) TYPES OF STARCH MOLECULES

TEN (10) HEALTH BENEFITS OF

THREE (3) DISEASES DUE TO DEFICIENCY OF

C. NEUTRAL HETEROCYCLIC AMINO ACIDS

ii. HYDROXYL GROUP