11 major organs: (1) integumentary, (2) skeletal, (3) muscular, (4) nervous,

ANAPHY REVIEWER (5) endocrine, (6) cardiovascular, (7) lymphatic, (8) respiratory,n(9) digestive,
(10) urinary, and (11) reproductive.
Anatomy (ah-nat'o-me)
• Organism represents the highest level of structural organization
• Is the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their
relationships to one another. • The organismal level is the sum of all structural levels working together to
keep us alive.
• Gross anatomy: studying of large, easily observable structures.
• In all, 11 organ systems make up the living human being, or the organism.
• Microscopic anatomy: study of body structures that are too small to be
seen with the naked eye. Characteristics of the Living Human Organism

Physiology (fiz"e-ol'o-je) • Like all complex animals, human beings maintain their boundaries, move,
respond to environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out
metabolism, dispose of wastes, reproduce themselves, and grow.
• Is the study of how the body and its parts work or function

• Organ systems do not work in isolation; instead, they work together to

• Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions.
promote the well-being of the entire body.

The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity. The body can
• Humans are organisms, sharing characteristics with other organisms. The
be studied at six levels of organization: chemical level, cellular level, tissue
most important common feature of all organisms is life.
level, organ level, organ system level, and whole organismal level.

Organization
• The chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as hydrogen
and carbon, interact and combine into molecules (such as water, sugar, and
proteins). • Refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism
and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
• This is important because a molecule's structure determines its function.
• All organisms are composed of one or more cells. In turn, cellular function
depends on the precise organization of large molecules.
• Molecules, in turn, associate in specific ways to form microscopic cells.

• Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions, or even

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
death.

• Cells contain smaller structures inside called organelles.

Metabolism

• Organelles carry out particular functions, such as digestion and movement,

• Is the ability to use energy and to perform vital functions.
for the cell.

• Metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the cells
• All cells have some common structures and functions, but individual cells
and internal environment of an organism.
vary widely in size, shape, and their particular roles in the body.

• Includes breaking down complex substances into simpler building blocks,

Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function.
making larger structures from smaller ones, adenosine phosphate A79; the
energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities.
The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the
functions of the tissue.
Phases of metabolism

4 basic types of tissues

• Catabolism the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler
Components.
Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces; lines hollow organs and cavities, and
forms glands Connective tissue connects, supports, and protects body
• Anabolism The building up of complex chemical substances from smaller,
organs while distributing blood Vessels to other tissues.
simpler components.

Muscular tissue contracts to make body parts move and, in the process,
Responsiveness or Irritability
generates heat.

• Is an organism's ability to sense changes in its external or internal

Nervous tissue carries information from one part of the body to another
environment and adjust/react to those changes.
through nerve impulses.

• Different cells in the body respond to environmental changes in

• An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that
characteristic ways.
performs a specific function for the body.

• The nervous system bears the major responsibility for responsiveness.

• At the organ level of organization, extremely complex functions become
possible.
• Because nerve cells are highly irritable and can communicate rapidly with
each other via electrical impulses called nerve impulse (action potentials).
• Organ system is a group of organs that together perform a common
function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit
• However, all body cells are responsive to some extent.

Growth
• Is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of
existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both. For growth to
occur, cell-constructing activities must occur at a faster rate than
cell-destroying ones.
• Hormones released by the endocrine system play a major role in directing
growth.
Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
• Regardless of the factor or event being regulated all homeostatic control
mechanisms have at least three components: a receptor, control center, and
effector.
RECEPTOR

Development • Is a type of sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the

environment.
• Includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with
fertilization and ending at death. • It responds to such changes, called stimuli, by sending information (input)
to the second component, the control center.
• The greatest developmental changes occur before birth, but many changes
continue after birth, and some go on throughout life. • Information flows from the receptor to the control center along the afferent
pathway.
Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and
morphogenesis.

Differentiation involves changes in a cell's structure and function from an CONTROL CENTER
immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state.
• Determines the level (set point) at which a variable is to be maintained.
• Morphogenesis is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire
organism
• This component analyzes the information it receives and then determines
the appropriate response or course of action.
Reproduction
EFFECTOR
• Is the formation of new cells or new organisms.(1) the formation of new
cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement. (2) the production of a new
• Provides the means for the control center's response (output) to the
individual
stimulus.

The formation of new cells occurs through cell division.

• Receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect
that changes the controlled condition.
• The production of a new individual occurs through the fertilization of an
ovum by a sperm to form a zygote, followed by repeated cell divisions and
• Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector.
the differentiation of these cells.

• Information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent
Homeostasis
pathway.

• Is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body's internal

Feedback System
environment. Does not really mean an unchanging state.Instead, it indicates
a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance in which internal conditions
change and vary but always within relatively narrow limits. • aka Feedback loop

• To achieve homeostasis, the body must actively regulate conditions that • Is a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored,
are constantly changing. evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated, and so on.

Control of Homeostasis
• Homeostasis in the human body is continually being disturbed. Some
disruptions come from the external environment. Other disruptions originate
in the internal environment. Homeostatic imbalances may also occur due to
psychological stresses in our social environment.
• Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure. or
blood glucose level. is termed a controlled condition controlled variable).
•Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus.
• A feedback system includes three basic components

• In most cases the disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, and the
responses of body cells quickly restore balance in the internal environment.
In some cases, the disruption of homeostasis may be intense and prolonged. Negative Feedback System

•Fortunately, the body has many regulating systems that can usually bring
the internal environment back into balance. Most often, the nervous system
and the endocrine system, working together or independently, provide the
needed corrective measures.
•The nervous system regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals
known as nerve impulses to organs that can counteract changes from the
balanced state.
The endocrine system includes many glands that secrete messenger
molecules called hormones into the blood.
• Most systems of the body are regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller
or is resisted; therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the response to
the original stimulus results in deviation from the set point, becoming
smaller.
Positive Feedback System
• Positive-feedback mechanisms occur when a response to the original
stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater.
 Toward or at the front of the body.

Basic Anatomical Terminology In front of

• Scientists and health-care professionals use a common language of POSTERIOR

special terms when referring to body structures and their functions.
• The back of the body.
• The language of anatomy they use has precisely defined meanings that
allow us to communicate clearly and precisely. • Toward or at the backside of the body.

• To prevent misunderstanding, anatomists use a set of terms that allow • Behind

body structures to be located and identified clearly with just a few words.
VENTRAL

Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior)

Anatomical Position
DORSAL
• Initial reference point
• Toward the back (synonymous with posterior)
• Standard position
MEDIAL
• It is important to understand this position because most body terminology
used in this text refers to this body positioning regardless of the position the
• Toward the midline of the body
body happens to be in.

• On the inner side of

• The body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides
with the palms facing forward.
LATERAL

• Away from the midline of the body

Directional Terms
• On the outer side of
• Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to each other.
Although many of these terms are also used in everyday conversation, keep PROXIMAL
in mind that their anatomical meanings are very precise. It is important to
become familiar with these directional terms as soon as possible because • Closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure.
you will see them repeatedly throughout your college life and in practice.
• Close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk.

SUPERIOR DISTAL

• A structure above another • Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure.

• Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body. • Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb
to the body trunk.
INFERIOR
SUPERFICIAL
• A structure below another
• Toward or at the body surface.
• Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body.
• Toward or on the surface.
CEPHALIC
• External
• Closer to the head than another structure.
DEEP
• Usually synonymous with superior.
• Away from the body surface.
CAUDAL
• Internal
• Closer to the tail than another structure.

• Usually synonymous with inferior.

Regional Terms
ANTERIOR

The front of the body.

 Anterior Body Landmarks Posterior Body Landmarks

• abdominal: anterior body trunk inferior to ribs • calcaneal: heel of foot

• acromial: point of shoulder • cephalic: head

• antebrachial: forearm • femoral: thigh

• antecubital: anterior surface of elbow • gluteal: buttock

• axillary: armpit • lumbar: area of back between ribs and hips; the loin

• brachial: arm • occipital: posterior surface of head or base of skull

• buccal: cheek area • olecranal: posterior surface of elbow

• carpal: wrist • popliteal: posterior knee area

• cervical: neck region • sacral: area between hips at base of spine

• coxal: hip • scapular: shoulder blade region

• crural: anterior leg; the shin • sural: the posterior surface of leg; the calf

• deltoid: curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle • vertebral: area of spinal column

• digital: fingers, toes

• femoral: thigh (applies to both anterior and posterior) SAGITTAL PLANE

• fibular: lateral part of leg • Is a cut along the lengthwise. or longitudinal. plane of the body. dividing
the body into right and left parts.
• frontal: forehead
• If the cut is down the median plane of the body and the right and left parts
• inguinal: area where thigh meets body trunk; groin are equal in size, it is called a median (midsagittal) section.

• mental: chin • If the sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides
the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides, it is called a
paramedian plane or parasagittal plane.
• nasal: nose area

SECTION- is a cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the
• oral: mouth
planes.

• orbital: eve area

Types: Longitudinal section. A cut through the length of the organ

• patellar: anterior knee

Transverse (cross) section

• pectoral: relating to, or occurring in or on, the chest

A horizontal cut on our body. Dividing it into superior and inferior.

• pelvic: area overlying the pelvis anteriorly

Oblique section

• pubic: genital region

• a cut is made across the the length of an organ at other than a right angle

• sternal: breastbone area

Body Cavities

• tarsal: ankle region

• Body cavities are spaces that enclose internal organs.

• thoracic: area between the neck and abdomen, supported by the ribs,
• The body contains two types of internal cavities: (1) the dorsal body cavity
sternum and costal cartilages; chest
and (2) the ventral body cavity.

• umbilical: navel
• These cavities, which are closed to the outside, contain our internal organs,
providing protection for them.
Dorsal Body Cavity
• The dorsal body encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain and
spinal cord.
Subdivisions:
Cranial cavity the space inside the bony skull houses the brain
Spinal Vertebral cavity contains the spinal cord extends from the cranial
cavity to the end of the spinal cord
Both the brain and spinal cord are covered by three layers of protective
tissue/ membranes called meninges and a shock-absorbing fluid
(cerebrospinal fluid) surrounds the brain and spinal cord.
Ventral Body Cavity
• The ventral body cavity houses the vast majority of our internal organs,
collectively referred to as the viscera.
• The ventral body cavity also has two major subdivisions:
• the thoracic cavity
• the abdominopelvic cavity
THORACIC CAVITY
• more superior to the abdominopelvic cavity
• houses primarily the heart and lungs, among other organs.
Subdivisions: Two(2) lateral pleural cavities
• each of which encloses a lung, and are surrounded by the ribs
Medial mediastinum
• houses the heart and its major blood vessels, in addition to the thymus, the
trachea, and the esophagus
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
• is enclosed by abdominal muscles and consists of:
•the more superior abdominal cavity
• the more inferior pelvic cavity
• The organs of the abdominopelvic cavity are housed within the peritoneal
cavity.
• The abdominal cavity contains the majority of the digestive organs, such
as the stomach, the intestines, and the liver, in addition to the spleen.
• The pelvic cavity continues below the pelvis and contains the urinary
bladder, urethra, rectum of the large intestine, and reproductive organs.
Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavity
•The walls of the body cavities and the surface of internal organs are in
contact with membranes called serous membranes.
• These membranes are double layered.
• The layer that lines the walls of the cavities is called the parietal serous
membrane.
• The layer covering the internal organs (the viscera) is the visceral serous
membrane
Thoracic Cavity Membranes
I. Pericardial Cavity
• The pericardial cavity (peri = around; cardi = heart), containing the heart, is
housed in the mediastinum.
• Parietal serous membrane: parietal pericardium
• Visceral serous membrane: visceral pericardium.
• The space between the two pericardial membranes is called the pericardial
cavity and Is filled with pericardial fluid.
II. Pleural Cavity
• Each of the two pleural cavities (pleuron = side of body, rib) houses a lung.
•Parietal serous membrane lining the pleural cavities: parietal pleura
•Visceral serous membrane covering the lungs: visceral pleura.
• The space between the two pleural membranes is called the pleural cavity
and is filled with pleural fluid.
III. Peritoneal Cavity
• The peritoneal cavity (peri = around; -tonos = stretched; stretched around)
houses many internal organs, such as the liver, the digestive organs, and the
reproductive organs.
• The parietal serous membrane in the peritoneal cavity: parietal
peritoneum.
• The visceral serous membrane: visceral peritoneum.
• The space between the two serous membranes is the specific location of
the peritoneal cavity and is filled with peritoneal fluid.
• In addition to covering organs, a double-folded sheet of visceral
peritoneum attaches the digestive organs at certain points to the posterior
abdominopelvic cavity wall.
• These regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum are called mesenteries.
• The mesenteries also provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to
reach the digestive organs
• Some abdominal organs are tightly adhered to the posterior body wall and
are covered by peritoneum only on their peritoneal cavity side.
• These organs have a retroperitoneal location and include the kidneys,
ureters, adrenal glands, a large portion of the pancreas, parts of the large
intestine, and the urinary bladder.
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
• To describe the location of the many abdominal and pelvic organs more
easily, anatomists and clinicians use two methods of dividing the
abdominopelvic cavity into smaller areas.
• In the first method, two horizontal and two vertical lines, aligned like a
tic-tac-toe grid, partition this cavity into nine abdominopelvic regions.
• The superior horizontal line, the subcostal plane, passes across the lowest
level of the 10th costal cartilages; the inferior horizontal line, passes across
the superior margins of the iliac crests of the right and left hip bone
• Two vertical lines, the left and right midclavicular lines are drawn through
the midpoints of the clavicles (collar bones), just medial to the nipples.
•The second method is simpler and divides the abdominopelvic cavity into
quadrants.
• In this method, a median plane and a transverse plane are passed through
the umbilicus or belly button.
• The quadrants are named according to their relative locations with respect
to anatomical position.
• The names of the abdominopelvic quadrants are:
• right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower
quadrant (RLQ), left lower quadrant (LLQ)
The nine-region division is more widely used for anatomical studies, and
quadrants are more commonly used by clinicians for describing the site of
abdominopelvic pain, a tumor, or another abnormality.
CELL Structure
• The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. An average-sized cell is
one-fifth the size of the smallest dot you can make on a sheet of paper with
a sharp pencil! But despite their extremely small size, cells are complex
living structures. Each cell is a highly organized unit
Functions OF THE CELL
• 1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
• 2. Synthesis of molecules
• 3. Communication
• 4. Reproduction and inheritance
CELL Membrane
• 1. Outermost component of a cell
• 2. Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material inside
the cell and material outside it
• 3. Substances outside the cell are called extracellular substances, and
those inside the cell are called intracellular substances.
• 4. Supports the cell contents
• 5. Selective barrier
• 6. Plays a role in communication between cells
CELL Membrane
• 1. Fluid-mosaic model
• 2. The phospholipids form a double layer of molecules. The polar,
phosphate-containing ends of the phospholipids are hydrophilic
(water-loving). The nonpolar, fatty acid ends of the phospholipids are
hydrophobic (water-tearing)
• 3. The double layer of phospholipids has a liquid quality.
• 4. Cholesterol within the phospholipid membrane gives it added strength
and flexibility
• 5. Protein molecules "float" among the phospholipid molecules and, in
some cases, extend from the inner to the outer surface of the cell
membrane.
Movement through THE CELL.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that they allow some
substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells.
• Intracellular material has a different composition than extracellular
material
• Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions (K+) are
found at higher concentrations intracellularly
• Na+, Ca2+, and C I- are found in greater concentrations extracellularly
• Nutrients must enter cells continually, and waste products must exit
Rupture of the membrane, alteration of its permeability characteristics, or
inhibition of transport processes can disrupt the normal intracellular
concentration of molecules and lead to cell death.
Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active
• Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the cell to expend energy, usually in
the form of ATP. Passive membrane transport mechanisms include
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Active membrane transport
mechanisms include active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Diffusion= higher water concentration to lower water concentration
Osmosis= lower concentration to higher concentration
ORGANELLES
• Nucleus
- The nucleus (a little nut or the stone of a fruit) is a large organelle
usually located near the center of the cell. The nucleus is
bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between them. At many points
on the surface of the nucleus, the inner and outer membranes
come together to form nuclear pores, through which materials can
pass into or out of the nucleus.
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs
and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached to it. On the other hand,
ER without ribosomes is called smooth ER. Smooth ER is a site for lipid
synthesis and participates in detoxification of chemicals within cells. In
skeletal muscle cells, the smooth ER stores calcium ions.
Golgi apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus consists of closely packed stacks of curved,
membrane-bound sacs. It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER. The proteins then are packaged
into membrane sacs, called secretory vesicles, that pinch off from the
margins of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is present in larger
numbers and is most highly developed in cells that secrete protein, such as
those of the salivary glands or the pancreas.
Secretory vesicles
• A vesicle (a bladder) is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports or
stores materials within cells. Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus and move to the cell membrane.
Lysosome
• Membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus
• Function as intracellular digestive systems
• Destroy the phagocytized bacteria.
Peroxisomes
• Break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H202).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown
and can be toxic to a cell. The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen peroxide to water and 02. Cells active in detoxification, such as
liver and kidney cells, have many peroxisomes.
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular. mitochondrion) are small organelles with inner and
outer membranes separated by a space. The outer membranes have a
smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous folds, called
cristae, which project like shelves into the interior of the mitochondria.
Mitochondria are the major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
production within cells. Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, a series
of chemical reactions that require 02 to break down food molecules to
produce ATP.
Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton consists of proteins that support the cell, hold
organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape. These protein
structures are microtubules, micro- filaments, and intermediate filaments.
• Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein sub- units.
They perform a variety of roles, such as helping support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of certain
organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
• Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm. Some microfilaments are involved with
cell movement.
Centrioles
• The centrosome is a specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus,
where microtubule formation occurs. It contains two centrioles, which are
normally oriented perpendicular to each other. Additional microtubules,
extending from the area of the centrioles, play an important role in cell
division, as we learn later in "Mitosis." Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli Cilia
(singular. cilium, an eyelash) project from the surface of cells.
Gene Expression
• DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis. This process
is called gene expression. The proteins produced in a cell include those that
serve as structural components inside the cell, proteins secreted to the
outside of the cell, and enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in the cell.
DNA influences the structural and functional characteristics of the entire
organism because it directs protein synthesis. Transcription and translation.
Functions of Blood
Blood helps maintain homeostasis in several ways:
1. Transport of gasses, nutrients, and waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation
Composition of Blood
Blood is a type of connective tissue consisting of a liquid matrix containing
cells and cell fragments. Plasma is a liquid matrix and the formed elements
are the cells and cell fragments. The plasma makes up 55% of the total
blood volume, and the formed elements make up 45%.
Plasma
Plasma (plaz'ma) is the liquid part of blood. It is a pale yellow fluid that
consists of about 91% water and 9% other substances, such as proteins,
ions, nutrients, gasses, waste products, and regulatory sub- stances.
- Albumin (al-bü'min) makes up 58% of the plasma proteins and is important
in regulating the movement of water between the tissues and the blood.
- Globulins (glob'ü-linz) account for 38% of the plasma proteins.
- Fibrinogen (fi-brin'o-jen) constitutes 4% of the plasma proteins and is
responsible for the formation of blood clots.
- Serum (ser'um; whey) is plasma without the clotting factors.
Production of Formed Elements
The process of blood cell production is called hematopoiesis (he
'ma-to-poi-e sis, hem a-to-poy-è'sis), or hematopoiesis (he'mo- poy-ê'sis).
In the embryo and fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in tissues such as the yolk
sac, liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow. After birth,
hematopoiesis is confined primarily to red bone marrow, though some white
blood cells (lymphocytes) complete their development in Lymphatic tissue.
In young children, nearly all the marrow is red bone marrow. In adults
however, red marrow is confined to the ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvIs,
proximal femur, and proximal humerus. Yellow marrow replaces red marrow
in other body locations.
Red Blood Cells
-20 um
Red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytes, are about 700 times more
numerous than white blood cells and 17 times more numerous than
platelets in the blood. Males, on average, have about 5.4 million red blood
cells per microliter ( ML; 1 mm3, or 10-6 L) of blood, with a normal range of
4.6-6.2 million whereas females have about 4.8 million/ uL with a normal
range of 4.2-5.4
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a complex protein consisting of four subunits. Each subunit
is composed of one polypeptide chain and one heme group.
White Blood Cells
When the components of blood are separated from each other, white blood
cells (WBCs), or leukocytes, form a thin, white layer of cells between the
plasma and the red blood cells. This layer is often referred to as the buffy
coat. White blood cells lack hemoglobin but have a nucleus. In stained
preparations, white blood cells attract stains, whereas red blood cells remain
relatively unstained.
Granulocytes
Granulocytes (gran'ù-lo-sitz) are white blood cells with large cvto- plasmic
granules and lobed nuclei. Their granules stain with dyes that make the
cells more visible when viewed through a light microscope. The three types
of granulocytes are named according to the staining characteristics of their
granules:
(1) Neutrophils (nutro-filz) stain with acidic and basic dyes,
(2) eosinophils (ë-o-sin'o- filz) stain red with acidic dyes, and
Agranulocytes
Agranulocytes (ã-gran'yü-lo-sitz) are white blood cells that appear to have
no granules when viewed with a light microscope.
Actually, agranulocytes have granules, but they are so small that they
cannot be seen easily with the light microscope.
The two types of agranulocytes are lymphocytes (lim'fö-sitz) and
monocytes (mono-sitz). They have nuclei that are not lobed.
Platelets
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are minute fragments of cells. They consist of a
small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane. Platelets
are roughly disc-shaped and average about 3um in diameter.
Glycoproteins and proteins on their surface allow platelets to attach to
other molecules, such as collagen in connective tissue.
Coagulation
1.coagulation is the formation of a blood clot
2. The first stage of coagulation occurs through the extrinsic or intrinsic
pathway. Both pathways end with the production of activated factor X.
• The extrinsic pathway begins with the release of thromboplastin from
damaged tissues.
• The intrinsic pathway begins with the activation of factor XII.
3. Activated factor X, factor V, phospholipids, and Ca2+ form
prothrombinase.
4. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin.
Blood Grouping
If large quantities of blood are lost during surgery or due to injury, the
patient can go into shock and die unless red blood cells are replaced to
restore the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. In this event, a transfusion or
an infusion is required. A transfusion is the transfer of blood or blood
components from one individual to another. An infusion, on the other hand, is
the introduction of a fluid other than blood, such as a saline or glucose
solution, into the blood. It may be surprising that an infusion
Rh Blood Groups
1. Rh-positive blood has the D antigen, whereas Rh-negative blood does
not.
2. Antibodies against the D antigen are produced by an Rh-negative person
when the person is exposed to Rh-positive blood.
3. The Rh blood group is responsible for hemolytic disease of the newborn.
Diagnostic Blood Tests
Type and Crossmatch
Blood typing determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of a blood sample. A
crossmatch test for agglutination reactions between donor and recipient
blood.
Complete Blood Count
A complete blood count consists of the following: red blood count,
hemoglobin measurement (grams of hemoglobin per 100 mL of blood),
hematocrit measurement (percent volume of red blood cells) white blood
Diagnostic Blood Tests
Clotting
Platelet count and prothrombin time measurement assess the blood's ability
to clot.
Blood Chemistry
The composition of materials dissolved or suspended in plasma (e.g.,
glucose, urea nitrogen, bilirubin, and cholesterol) can be used to assess the
functioning and status of the body's systems.
HEART
Functions of the Heart
The heart produces the force that causes blood to circulate
FUNCTION OF THE HEART
a. Generating blood pressure
b. Routing blood
C. Ensuring one-way blood flow
d. Regulating blood supply
Size, Shape and Location of the Heart
1. The heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and is shaped like a
blunt cone.
2. The heart lies obliquely in the mediastinum, with its base directed
posteriorly and slightly superiorly and its apex directed anteriorly, inferiorly,
and to the left.
3. The base is deep to the second intercostal space, and the apex extends to
the fifth interracial care
Anatomy of the Heart
The heart consists of two atria and two ventricles.
Pericardium
1. The pericardium is a sac that surrounds the heart and consists of the
fibrous pericardium and the serous pericardium.
2. The fibrous pericardium helps hold the heart in place.
3. The serous pericardium reduces friction as the heart beats. It consists of
the following parts:
• The parietal pericardium lines the fibrous pericardium.
• The visceral pericardium lines the exterior
Heart Wall
1. The heart wall has three layers:
• The outer epicardium (visceral pericardium) provides protection against
the friction of rubbing organs.
• The middle myocardium is responsible for contraction.
• The inner endocardium reduces the friction resulting from blood passing
through the heart.
2. The inner surfaces of the atria are mainly smooth. The auricles have
muscular ridges called pectinate muscles.
3. The ventricles have ridges called trabeculae carneae.
External Anatomy and Coronary Circulation
1. Each atrium has a flap called an auricle.
2. The coronary sulcus separates the atria from the ventricles. The
inter-ventricular grooves separate the right and left ventricles.
3. The inferior and superior vena cava and the coronary sinus enter the right
atrium. The four pulmonary veins enter the left atrium.
4. The pulmonary trunk exits the right ventricle, and the aorta exits the left
ventricle.
Heart Chambers and Valves
1. . The interatrial septum separates the atria from each other, and the
interventricular septum separates the ventricles.
2. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and ventricle. The bicuspid
valve separates the left atrium and ventricle. The chordae tendineae attach
the papillary muscles to the atrioventricular valves.
Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Blood from the body flows through the right atrium into the right ventricle
and then to the lungs.
HISTOLOGY
Heart Skeleton
The fibrous heart skeleton supports the openings of the heart, electrically
insulates the atria from the ventricles,
Cardiac Muscle
1. Cardiac muscle cells are branched and have a centrally located nucleus.
Actin and myosin are organized to form sarcomeres. The sarcoplasmic
reticulum and T tubules are not as organized as in skeletal muscle.
2. Cardiac muscle cells are joined by intercalated disks, which allow action
potentials to move from one cell to the next. Thus, cardiac muscle cells
function as a unit.
3. Cardiac muscle cells have a slow onset of contraction and a prolonged
contraction time caused by the length of time required for Ca2+ to move to
and from the myofibrils.
Conducting System
1. The SA node and the AV node are in the right atrium.
2. The AV node is connected to the bundle branches in the interventricular
septum by the AV bundle.
3. The bundle branches give rise to Purkinje fibers, which supply the
ventricles.
4. The SA node is made up of small-diameter cardiac muscle cells that
initiate action potentials, which spread across the atria and cause them to
contract.
Autorhythmicity of Cardiac Muscle
1. Cardiac pacemaker muscle cells are autorhythmic because of the
spontaneous development of a pacemaker potential.
2. The pacemaker potential results from the movement of Na+ and Ca2+
into the pacemaker cells.
3. Ectopic foci are areas of the heart that regulate heart rate under
abnormal conditions.
Electrical Properties
Refractory Periods of Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle has a prolonged depolarization and thus a prolonged
refractory period, which allows time for the cardiac muscle to relax before
the next action potential causes a contraction.
Electrocardiogram
1. An ECG records only the electrical activities of the heart.
• Depolarization of the atria produces the P wave.
• Depolarization of the ventricles produces the QRS complex.
• Repolarization of the atria occurs during the QRS complex.
Repolarization of the ventricles produces the T wave.
Effect of Blood Pressure
1. Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure.
2. In response to a decrease in blood pressure, the baroreceptor reflexes
increase sympathetic stimulation and decrease parasympathetic stimulation
of the heart,
The Heart and Homeostasis
Effect of pH, Carbon Dioxide, and Oxygen
a. Chemoreceptors monitor blood carbon dioxide, pH, and oxygen levels
b. In response to increased carbon dioxide and decreased pH, medullary
chemoreceptor reflexes increased sympathetic stimulation and decreased
parasympathetic stimulation of the heart.
c. Carotid body chemoreceptor receptors stimulated by low oxygen levels
result in decreased heart rate and vasoconstriction.
Blood Vessels and Circulatio
Functions of the Circulatory System
1. The circulatory system carries blood from the heart to the tissues of the
body and returns the blood to the heart.
2. The circulatory system allows for nutrient, waste, and gas exchange with
the tissues.
3. The circulatory system transports other substances (hormones, enzymes,
etc.) through the body.
4. The circulatory system regulates blood pressure and blood flow to the
tissues.
Structural Features of Blood Vessels
1. Blood flows from the heart through elastic arteries, muscular arteries,
and arterioles to the capillaries.
2. Blood returns to the heart from the capillaries through venules, small
veins, and large veins.
Capillaries
1. The entire circulatory system is lined with simple squamous epithe-lium
and endothelium. Capillaries consist only of endothelium.
2. Capillaries are surrounded by loose connective tissue, the adventitia, that
contains pericapillary cells.
3. Three types of capillaries exist.
• The walls of continuous capillaries have no gaps between the endothelial
cells.
• Fenestrated capillaries have pores, called fenestrae, that extend
completely through the cell.
• Sinusoidal capillaries are large-diameter capillaries with large fenestrae
5. Blood flows from arterioles through metarterioles and then through the
capillary network. Venules drain the capillary network.
• Smooth muscle in the arterioles, metarterioles, and precapillary sphincters
regulates blood flow into the capillaries.
• Blood can pass rapidly through the thoroughfare channel.
Structural Features of Blood Vessels
Structure of Arteries and Veins
Except for capillaries and venules, blood vessels have three layers.
1. The inner tunica intima consists of endothelium, a basement mem-brane,
and an internal elastic lamina.
2. The tunica media, the middle layer, contains circular smooth muscle and
elastic fibers.
3. The outer tunica adventitia is connective tissue.
Types of Arteries
1. Large elastic arteries are thin-walled with large diameters. The tunica
media has many elastic fibers and little smooth muscle.
2. Muscular arteries are thick-walled with small diameters. The tunica
media has abundant smooth muscle and some elastic fibers.
3. Arterioles are the smallest arteries. The tunica media consists of smooth
muscle cells and a few elastic fibers.
Types of Veins
1. Venules are composed of endothelium surrounded by a few smooth
muscle cells.
2. Small veins are venues covered with a layer of smooth muscle.
3. Medium-sized veins and large veins contain less smooth muscle and
fewer elastic fibers than arteries of the same size.
Pulmonary Circulation
The pulmonary circulation moves blood to and from the lungs. The
pulmonary trunk arises from the right ventricle and divides to form the
pulmonary arteries, which project to the lungs. From the lungs, the
pulmonary veins return to the left atrium.
Systemic Circulation: Arteries
Arteries carry blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the
body.
Aorta
The aorta leaves the left ventricle to form the ascending aorta, aortic arch,
and descending aorta (consisting of the thoracic and abdominal aorta).
Coronary Arteries
Coronary arteries supply the heart.
Arteries of the Head and Neck
1. The brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries
branch from the aortic arch to supply the head and the upper limbs. The
brachiocephalic artery divides to form the right common carotid and the
right subclavian arteries. The vertebral arteries branch from the subclavian
arteries.
2. The common carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries supply the head.
• The common carotid arteries divide to form the external carotids, which
supply the face and mouth, and the internal carotids, which supply the
brain.
Arteries of the Upper Limb
1. The deep veins are the small ulnar and radial veins of the forearm, which
join the brachial veins of the arm. The brachial veins drain into the axillary
vein.
2. The superficial veins are the basilic, cephalic, and median cubital. The
basilic vein becomes the axillary vein, which then becomes the subclavian
vein. The cephalic vein drains into the axillary vein.

1. The subclavian artery continues (without branching) as the axillary artery Veins of the Thorax
and then as the brachial artery. The brachial artery divides into the radial
and ulnar arteries. The left and right brachiocephalic veins and the azygos veins return blood
to the superior vena cava.
2. The radial artery supplies the deep palmar arch, and the ulnar artery
supplies the superficial palmar arch. Both arches give rise to the digital Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
arteries.
1. Ascending lumbar veins from the abdomen join the azygos and
Thoracic Aorta and Its Branches hemiazygos veins.

The thoracic aorta has visceral branches that supply the thoracic organs 2. Vessels from the kidneys, adrenal gland, and gonads directly enter the
and parietal branches that supply the thoracic wall. inferior vena cava.

Abdominal Aorta and Its Branches 3. Vessels from the stomach, intestines, spleen, and pancreas connect with
the hepatic portal vein.
1. The abdominal aorta has visceral branches that supply the abdominal
organs and parietal branches that supply the abdominal wall.

2. The visceral branches are paired and unpaired. The paired arteries supply Veins of the Lower Limb
the kidneys, adrenal glands, and gonads. The unpaired arteries supply the
stomach, spleen, and liver (celiac trunk); the small intestine 1. The deep veins are the fibular (peroneal), anterior and posterior tibial,
popliteal, femoral, and external iliac.
Arteries of the Pelvis
2. The superficial veins are the great and small saphenous veins.
1. The common iliac arteries arise from the abdominal aorta, and the
internal iliac arteries branch from the common iliac arteries.

2. The visceral branches of the internal iliac arteries supply the pelvic organs,
and the parietal branches supply the pelvic wall and floor and the external
genitalia.

Arteries of the Lower Limb

1. The external iliac arteries branch from the common iliac arteries.

1. The three major veins returning blood to the heart are the superior vena
cava (head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs), the inferior vena cava
(abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs), and the coronary sinus (heart).

2. Veins are of three types: superficial, deep, and sinuses.

Systemic Circulation: Veins

Veins Draining the Heart

Coronary veins enter the coronary sinus or the right atrium.

Veins of the Head and Neck

1. The internal jugular veins drain the venous sinuses of the anterior head
and neck.

2. The external jugular veins and the vertebral veins drain the posterior head
and neck.

Veins of the Upper Limb