8th Indo-German Winter Academy 2009

Optical Projection
Lithography
D.Srikanth
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Tutor : Prof. Heiner Ryssel

University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany

1
 Outline

Introduction
Projection lithography systems
Resolution enhancement techniques
Other promising lithography techniques

2
 Introduction

• Lithography: process by which a pattern is transferred onto a

substrate
• The very heart of IC fabrication

Various methods include:

• Optical lithography (using UV)
• Extreme UV lithography
• Electron beam lithography
• Ion beam lithography
• X ray lithography
• Imprint lithography Ref 1

3
 Basic Lithography Process

Some basic steps are required to perform for all the radiation
lithography techniques

1) Priming :
SiO 2

o surface cleaning :to improve adhesion

Si substrate
o Polishing
o Dehydration baking
o Application of adhesion promoters
by subjecting wafer to HMDS(hexa methyl disilizane) vapor

4
 Basic Lithography Process

2) Application of a photo sensitive compound called photoresist

o Exposing to radiation changes the solubility of the photoresist in a
solution called developer
Photoresist
o Usually spin coating is used SiO 2

Si substrate

3) Soft bake
o To remove solvents from the liquid photoresist
o If temperature is too high other chemical changes takes place!
Photoresist
o Hot plate method is preferred SiO 2

Si substrate

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 Basic Lithography Process

4) Exposure: Pattern transfer by aligning mask and exposing to suitable

radiation:
o Binary Intensity Masks (BIM) is made up of quartz (transparent to
radiation) and chrome(opaque)
o Two types of BIM
1) Dark field mask: 2) Light/bright/clear field mask.

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 Basic Lithography Process

• Based on the position of the mask and the coated wafer the
lithography is divided into 3 main categories.
1)Contact Lithography 2)Proximity Lithography

3-50microns
Photoresist
SiO2 Photoresist
SiO2
Si substrate
Si substrate

Contact Proximity

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 Basic Lithography Process

3) Projection Lithography Light source

o Common reduction is 4 or 5 times Filter
Condenser
These are called 4X or 5X systems
depending upon the reduction reticle
o The masks used here are referred to as
reticles. Reduction
optics
system

Photoresist
SiO2

Si substrate movable

Projection

8
 Basic Lithography Process

5) Post exposure bake

o Standing wave formation is reduced
SiO2
o For chemically amplified photoresists
solubility differential is created Si substrate

6) Development
o Remove soluble photoresist
o Aqueous base like tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH) are
used
o First the wafer is spun, the developer is poured or sprayed. Then
spin rinsed and spin dried
SiO
2
o Puddle development
Si substrate

9
 Basic Lithography Process

7)Hard bake (desensitizing the photoresist) and pattern transfer

o UV exposure, e beam bombardment and plasma treatment
techniques
SiO 2

o To harden photoresist that remained

Si substrate
o Promotes crosslink and other advantages…
o Temperatures not too high
o Then etching is performed to remove the unprotected regions

8) Stripping
SiO2
o Resist removal
o Wet stripping: solvents are used Si substrate
o Dry stripping: plasma is used
e.g. Oxygen plasma
10
 Outline

Introduction
Projection lithography systems
Resolution enhancement techniques
Other promising lithography techniques

11
 Optical Projection Lithography

• Two basic projection techniques

Light beam
through slit

reticle
Movable
Lens system

Movable
Movable

scanners Steppers

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 Optical Projection Lithography

• Laser directing writing

• Gray scale illumination for 3-D ridges.
• Down to 500nm structures
• Raster scan method is used
• Generally slow
• Speed enhancement techniques

Reference 7

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 Optical Projection Lithography

• Advantages:
1) Low cost of ownership
2) Easy to produce the pattern of smaller dimensions
3) No damage to reticle as in case of contact lithography
4) High resolution compared to proximity lithography
5) Improved yield
6) Easy to make reticles because of larger dimensions
7) Easy experimentation

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 Figure of Merits

• Throughput: No of wafers synthesized per unit time.

high throughput is desired.
• Resolution/critical dimensions: Minimum feature size that a
projection system can print faithfully or that can be resolved.
given by Rayleigh’s criteria: K1 X λ
where, N.A.
K1 : process related constant
λ : wavelength
N.A.: Numerical aperture as seen from wafer.

resolved unresolved

15
 Figure of Merits

• Depth of focus: It is a measurement of how much the film or resist

plane can be displaced while an object remains in acceptably
sharp focus
• Given by: K2 X λ
2
N.A.

K2 : process related constant(also dependent on K1)

o Constraints on thickness
o DOF: Larger than any variations in the
flatness of the photoresist surface Center of
focus
Depth of focus

16
 Figure of Merits

• Smaller resolution and larger DOF is desired

• Resolution is improved at the expense of DOF
• Decreasing K1 alone causes decrease in process yield
• Decreasing wavelength and increasing N.A. yields good resolution

17
 Outline

Introduction
Projection lithography systems
Resolution enhancement techniques
Other promising lithography techniques

18
 Light Source
Reference: 8

• In optical lithography UV spectrum is used

• Mercury arc i,g,h bands

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 Light Source

• For higher frequencies Hg arc lamps are not suitable

• Next option-lasers
Problem- Speckle formation!
• Special lasers called excimers are used (deep UV)

KrF 248 nm
ArF 193nm
F2 157 nm
Kr2 146nm Source :polytec.com
Ar2 126nm

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 Effect of Wavelength

• At present the optical lithography is utilizing the 193 nm deep UV

radiation
• Below 193 nm transparency of optics and influence of medium are
major problems
• Beyond 185nm air starts absorbing the radiation, special medium or
vacuum is required
• Quarts no longer behaves as a transparent material
• CaF2 crystal are found to have desirable optic characteristics, but
very expensive and difficult to get suitable quality
• Difficulty to find the resists and other chemicals which are stable
• Another alternative is to use Extreme UV where the wave length is
13.6nm

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 Exposure-Uniform Intensity

• Köhler’s illumination method is employed

• To avoid the effect of variation of intensity of different source points
• Source points are placed at the focal plane
• Catadioptric optics is involved, exposure light can have broad
spectrum and easy correction of lens error

source condenser Reticle (mask)

lens
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 Photoresist

• Two types:
o Positive photoresist :
becomes soluble when exposed to light
o Negative photoresist:
becomes insoluble when exposed to light

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 Photoresist
• Positive photo resist:
• Photo sensitive material + base resin

• Negative photo resist:

• It has polymer + photo sensitive compound
It takes place in the nitrogen gas ambient.(oxygen is inhibiter)
Positive Photoresist Negative Photoresist
Solubility in developer Soluble when exposed Insoluble when exposed
solution
Disadvantages Less throughput Less resolution
Advantages Better resolution Better throughput
Example Diazonaphthoquinone + Epoxy based polymer
Novolack
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 Photoresist

• Photoresist absorption is very important in transfer of image

• Very less  long exposure time  less throughput
• Too high  large difference in the radiation in the resist  tampered
structures(contrast enhancement material can be used)

Decrease of peak
intensity
Light
d
intensity
Si

0 d Depth into
the resist

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 Diffraction and N.A.

• Very small feature sizes the mask acts as a diffraction grating

• Numerical Aperture(N.A.): The range of angles over which the

system can accept or emit light
• N.A.=n sin θ
where n is refractive index of medium θ

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 Diffraction and N.A.

To enhance the resolution we need to have higher orders of the

diffracted light

-2 -1 0 1 2
-2 2
-1 0 1

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 Off Axis Illumination(OAI)

Two schemes:
a) Quadrupole aperture :
o Most effective for line and space control
o Optimum for horizontal or vertical orientations

-2 -1 1 2
b) Annular aperture:
o Resolution enhancement is weak
o Does not have bias to pattern orientation
OAI: most easiest simple and cost effective in enhancing image quality

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 Immersion Lithography

• It enhances depth of focus (DOF)

for a given numerical aperture Light source
• N.A >1 so improved resolution Filter

• medium requirements:
o Interaction between the medium and reticle
the photoresist
o No particulate contamination Reduction
o No bubble formation optics
o Should be transparent system
o Spread uniformly
•Ultrapure water almost satisfies the Photoresist
SiO2
conditions
si substrate movable

Projection 29
 Phase Shift Masks

• The mask acts as a slit to the light source

• PSM takes advantage of interference
Types of PSM:
1) Attenuated PSM 2) Alternating
(half tone also embedded) variant: CPL

amplitude Vector
amplitude

Resist
Intensity. Intensity.
threshold

Lateral  Lateral
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 31
Phase Shift Masks

• Concerns:
o Cost
o Difficult to implement in random patterns.(attenuating PSM variant:
CPL is introduced)
o Difficulty in inspection and rectification

• Other PSM:
o Rim shifter: main pattern feature is surrounded by a narrow phase
shifted area
o Multiphase: Transition is made from 0 to 180 degrees
o And other variations…

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 Optical Proximity Correction(OPC)

• Because of the diffraction the image is blurred

• Consequences:
o Line shortening
o Corner rounding
• Solution: modify the original design so as to get desired image

reticle image
32
 Double Exposure
• Helps in reduce feature density
• Instead of one two reticles are used
• Goes below the NA limit for single exposure processes, Low cost of
owner ship but less through put but problem with photoresist
• Practically implemented as Double Patterning

Step 1 Step 2
reticles

expose

develop 34
 Outline

Introduction
Projection lithography systems
Resolution enhancement techniques
Other promising lithography techniques

35
 Extreme UV Lithography
• Wave length 10-15nm.
• Involves reflection optics
• Uses laser produced plasma
source

Reference : 2
Ref asml extreme uv on track

• Problem: EUV is strongly absorbed by all materials

36
 X ray Lithography

• Extension to EUV:0.5-2 nm
• Large resolution
• Synchrotron source(storage ring)
• Not absorbed by dirt
• No standing wave formation
• Low absorption by resist: vertical wall construction possible
• Mask: Membrane of silicon coated with gold
• Resist: PMMA
• Problems:
• Cost
• Geometric effects
• Difficulty in mask making

37
 E beam Lithography

• E beam is used with wave length 0.02 –0.01 nm and 0.01 -0.5 μm
beam diameter
• Direct writing is possible
• Minimum feature 4 times beam diameter
• Resist: Same as x ray

• Problems:
o Scattering of electrons.
o less throughput compared to X ray
o Proximity effect:
inter and intra proximity effects
• Idle for mask making

38
 Ion Beam Lithography

• Process: Same as electron lithography

Ion beam
• λ<< 0.001 nm source
Ion beam
• Less Diffraction effects
• Less back scattering focussing
• Improved sensitivity of resists

• Problems:
Objective
o Ion source- ion implantation
lenses
electrodes

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 References

1. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Senefelder.jpg
2. http://en.wikipedia.org
3. http://www.lithoguru.com
4. “VLSI Technology”, S. M. Sze, Second Edition, 2004,McGraw Hill Book
Company
5. Kurt Ronse, OpticalLithography, TheMicroelectronicsTraining Center,
IMEC
6. Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, Lecture 15 (Alignment and
Exposure) , and other starting materials.
7. Photolithography at 193 nm, ROTHSCHILD ET AL VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1,
1997 THE LINCOLN LABORATORY JOURNAL.
8. Heidelerg instruments
9. http://zeiss-campus.magnet.fsu.edu

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Thank you!

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