Educ 301

Methods
of
Research
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Research Methods is a 3-unit course designed to
introduce the student to nearly all of the fundamental
concepts of research particularly in preparing a proposal.
The first half of the course will focus on the basic
principles of research, while the second half of the
course will deal with the preparation of the proposal that
will make use of the theories as basis of the study. The
primary function of this course is to prepare the
undergraduate student for more advanced course work
in the discipline.
 CREDIT UNITS: 3
 PLACEMENT: SY 2010-2011
SEMESTER: Second Semester
 FACULTY: Victor C. Bongar, PhD
 CONTACT NOS.: Globe (0917-7046443)
Smart (0921-8110120)
Office (082-2210634 loc 23)
 E-MAIL ADDRESS:
Personal: victor_bongar@spcdavao.edu.ph
Office: osa@spcdavao.edu.ph
 COURSE ORGANIZATION:
This course will include three hours of
lecture/discussion. In addition to the
regularly scheduled lectures/discussions,
students will need to devote some
additional time to work during their free
time to prepare the thesis proposal.
REFERENCES:
 Nursing research: Principles and methods, (7th ed., 2004) by Denise F. Polit
and Cheryl Tatano Beck, J. B. Lippincot Company
 Data analysis and statistics for nursing research, (1996) by Denise F. Polit,
Apleton and Lange
 Nursing research: Design, statistics and computer analysis, (1981) by Carolyn
Feher Waltz and R. Barker Bausell, F. A. Davis Company
 How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, (5th ed., 2003) by Jack
R. Fraenkel and Norman E. Wallen, McGraw Hill
 Basic Statistical Methods (5th ed., 1983) by N. M. Downie and Robert W.
Heath, Harper International Edition
 Introduction to Educational Research, (2003) by Florante O. Vizcarra, Great
Books Trading
 Fundamentals of Research, (1992) by Gaudencio V. Aquino, National Book
Store
 Thesis Writing: A Practical Guide, (1997) by Jose P. Leveriza, New Day
Publishers
GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
1. To provide students with a strong background in the
principles of research that will involve in a systematic
search for knowledge about issues of importance to the
profession.
2. To provide students with the ability to analyze data and
interpret analytically.
3. To make students aware of the power of research in
uplifting the profound knowledge about the profession.
4. To help students become familiar with the language of
research and the terminology of it.
5. To prepare students for more advanced course work in
research.
CONTENT OUTLINE:
 Introduction to Research
 An Overview of Designing and Interpreting
Research
 Creating a Reliable and Valid Experiment
 Risk, Deception, and the Ethics of Research
 Selecting a Research Design
 Experimental, Quasi-Experimental and
Nonexperimental Research
 Additional Types of Research
 Research Control
CONTENT OUTLINE:
 Sampling Designs
 Measurement and Data Collection
-Hypothesis Testing
-Sampling
-Measurement
-Instrumentation
 Data Analysis
 The Research Report
 Writing a Research Report
 Evaluating Research Reports
 Utilization of Research
 Writing a Research Proposal
STUDENT EVALUATION:
Long Examination 50%
Class Standing 50%
Oral presentation
Class participation
Quizzes
Thesis proposal
Total 100%
Chapter 1

Introduction to
Research
What is research?
 is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined
methods to answer questions or solve problems.
The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine,
and expand a body of knowledge (Polit & Beck,
2004).
 a scientific process of critical selection of data,
investigation, and analysis of such to gain new
knowledge or to complement an existing one
(Martinez, 1998).
What is nursing research?

is systematic inquiry designed to

develop knowledge about issues
of importance to the nursing
profession, including nursing
practice, education,
administration, and informatics.
What is clinical nursing
research?
isdesigned to generate
knowledge to guide nursing
practice and to improve the
health and quality of life of
nurse’s clients.
The Importance of Research
Research tests assumptions
and observations made about
user needs and services and
creates new knowledge that
can be used to improve
services.
 The Consumer-Producer Continuum in
Research

 Consumers of research – read research

reports to develop new skills and to keep up to
date on relevant findings that may affect
practice.
 Research utilization – the use of research
findings in a practice setting
 Producers of research – peoples who actively
participate in designing and implementing
research studies
NURSING RESEARCH: PAST,
PRESENT, AND FUTURE
 The early years: From Nightingale to the
1950s
 Nursing research in the 1960s
 Nursing research in the 1970s
 Nursing research in the 1980s
 Nursing research in the 1990s
Future Directions for Nursing
Research
1. Increased focus on outcomes research
2. Increased focus on biophysiologic research
3. Promotion of evidence-based practice
4. Development of a stronger knowledge base
through multiple, confirmatory strategies
5. Strengthening of multidisciplinary collaboration
6. Expanded dissemination of research findings
7. Increasing the visibility of nursing
research
Sources of Evidence for
Nursing Practice
 Tradition
 Authority
 Clinical Experience, Trial and Error, and
Intuition
 Logical Reasoning
 Assembled Information
 Disciplined Research
Two kinds of research
according to purpose
 BASIC RESEARCH - Research that seeks to
create new knowledge and is not directly related
to technical or practical problems. This research
provides new knowledge about a particular user
group but does not specify a way this knowledge
can be used to solve a problem.
 Example: a researcher may perform an in-depth
study or better understand normal grieving
processes
Two kinds of research
according to purpose
APPLIED RESEARCH - Research that seeks to
solve problems practitioners face. Using a
variety of techniques this research aims to
develop solutions and recommendations that
can be used to improve practices.
Example: a study to determine the effectiveness
of a nursing intervention to ease grieving
Types of Research According to
Methodology
a. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is research
involving the use of structured
questions where the response
options have been predetermined
and a large number of
respondents is involved.
Types of Research According to
Methodology
a. Quantitative Research
By definition, measurement must
be objective, quantitative and
statistically valid. Simply put, it’s
about numbers, objective hard
data. Quantitative research refers
to counts and measures of things
Types of Research According
to Methodology
b. Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is collecting, analyzing,
and interpreting data by observing what
people do and say.
Qualitative research refers to the meanings,
concepts, definitions, characteristics,
metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of
things.
Types of Research According
to Methodology
b. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is much more subjective uses
very different methods of collecting information,
mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus
groups. The nature of this type of research is
exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of
people are interviewed in-depth and/or a
relatively small number of focus groups are
conducted.
Classification of Research by General
Methodology
1. Experimental
- at least one variable is manipulated to determine
the effect of the manipulation
- subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
treatments
 Questions asked: What is the effect of the
experimental variable?
Classification of Research by
General Methodology
2.Quasi-experimental
- at least one variable is manipulated to determine
the effect of the manipulation
- intact, naturally formed groups are used
 Questions asked: What is the effect of the
experimental variable?
Classification of Research by
General Methodology
3. Survey
-the incidence, relationships, and distributions
of variables are studies
-variables are not manipulated but studied as
they occur in a natural setting
 Questions asked: What are the characteristics of the
variables? What are the relationships and possible
effects among the variables?
Classification of Research by
General Methodology
4.Historical
- a description of past events or facts
is developed
 Questions asked: What was or what
happened?
Classification of Research by
General Methodology

5.Ethnographic
- a holistic description of a particular
group is developed
 Questions asked: What is the nature of
the phenomena?
Specific Research Purposes and
Research Questions
1. Description: tells us the nature of things
or situations; gives us a picture of the
current status of a situation; describes to
us what exists
Quantitative: How prevalent is the phenomenon? How often does the
phenomenon occur? What are the characteristics of the
phenomenon?
Qualitative: What are the dimensions of the phenomenon? What
variations exist? What is important about the phenomenon?
Example: A survey on the perception of students about premarital sex
Specific Research Purposes and
Research Questions
2. Exploration: helps us to discover what factors or
conditions/situations are related to each other;
what factors are influencing each other
Quantitative: What factors are related to the phenomenon?
What are the antecedents of the phenomenon?
Qualitative: What is full nature of the phenomenon? What is
really going on here?
Example: A study on the relationship between self-esteem
and academic performance
Specific Research Purposes and
Research Questions
3.Explanation: helps to explain
the causes why a certain
phenomenon occurs; tells the
reasons why a certain condition
occurs
Quantitative: What are the measurable associations between
phenomena? What factors cause the phenomenon? Does the
theory explain the phenomenon?
Qualitative: How does the phenomenon work? Why does the
phenomenon exist? What is the meaning of the phenomenon?
How did the phenomenon occur?
Example: A study on the causes of juvenile delinquency
Specific Research Purposes and
Research Questions
4. Prediction: tells of the probability
that something will happen or occur;
tells that when certain conditions are
present, something is likely to occur
Quantitative: What will happen if we alter a phenomenon or introduce an
intervention? If phenomenon X occurs, will phenomenon Y follow?
Example: The results of a study on enrolment trends will allow
administrators to project how many teachers would be needed, how
many classrooms will be built, etc.
Specific Research Purposes and
Research Questions
5. Control: helps in promoting or preventing the
occurrence of an event or situation.
Quantitative: How can we make the phenomenon
happen or alter its nature or prevalence? Can
the occurrence of the phenomenon be
prevented or controlled?
Example: A study on the effects of praise on
academic achievement
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the nature of
reality?
Quantitative: Reality is objective and
singular, apart from the researcher.
Qualitative: Reality is subjective and
multiple as seen by participants in a
study.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the relationship of the
researcher to that researched?
Quantitative: Researcher is independent
from that being researched.
Qualitative: Researcher interacts with that
being researched.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the role of values?
Quantitative: Value-free and unbiased.
Qualitative: Value-laden and biased.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the language of
research?
Quantitative: Formal
Based on set of definitions
Impersonal voice
Use of accepted quantitative words
Qualitative: Informal
Evolving decisions
Personal voice
Accepted qualitative words
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the language of
research?
Quantitative: Formal
Based on set of definitions
Impersonal voice
Use of accepted quantitative words
Qualitative: Informal
Evolving decisions
Personal voice
Accepted qualitative words
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the
process of research?
Quantitative: Deductive process
Cause and effect
Static design – categories isolated
before study
Context-free
Generalizations leading to
prediction, explanation,
and understanding
Accurate and reliable through
validity and reliability
Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigm Assumptions
QUESTION: What is the process of
research?
Qualitative: Inductive process
Mutual simultaneous shaping of factors
Emerging design-categories identified
during research process
Context-bound
Patterns, theories developed for
understanding
Accurate and reliable through verification
Chapter 2

Key Concepts and Terms

in Qualitative and
Quantitative Research
The Phases and Places of
Research
Studies with humans involve two sets of people:
1. Those who do the research
2. Those who provide the information
Roles on a Research Project
- Subjects or study participants – the people who are being studied
quantitative research
- Respondents – subjects who provide information to researchers by
answering questions directly like filling out questionnaire
- Informants or key informants - those who provide the information in
qualitative research
Roles on a Research Project
Sample – refers to the study participants both in
quantitative and qualitative studies
Researcher or Investigator or sometimes called
Scientist (quantitative studies) – person who
undertakes the research
Collaborative research – a research that involves a
team of professionals with both clinical and
methodologic expertise
Roles on a Research Project
Subjects – is a term that implies to people that are
acted upon by researchers
Project Director or Principal Investigator – refers to
the person directing the investigation in team
research
Consultants – experts needed on a short-term
basis
Other roles on a research project: Funder or
sponsor, Reviewers, Peer reviewers, Mentors
Research Settings
Site – is the overall location for the research
Multisite studies – studies that require a
larger or more diverse sample of study
participants
Settings – are the more specific places
where data collection occurs; Types:
Naturalistic and Laboratory
The building blocks of a study
Phenomena, Concepts, and Constructs – abstractions in
which studies are based
Phenomena – used in qualitative studies
Concepts – used in quantitative studies; less complex
abstraction
Constructs - used in quantitative studies; are
abstractions that are deliberately and systematically
invented by researchers for a specific purpose.
Theories and conceptual
models
Theory – is a systematic, abstract
explanation of some aspect of reality.
- concepts are knitted together in a
coherent system to describe or explain
some aspect of the world.
Note: In quantitative study, researchers often start with a
theory, framework or conceptual model. In qualitative
research, conceptual or sensitizing frameworks are used.
Variables
-In quantitative studies, concepts are
usually referred to as variables.
Variable – means something that varies.
Examples: Weight, anxiety levels, income,
body temperature
Variables – are the central building blocks of
quantitative studies
Continuous, Discrete, and
Categorical Variables
Continuous – have values that can be
represented on a continuum and take on wide
range of values. Example: Weight
Discrete – is one that has finite number of values
between any two points, representing discrete
quantities. Example: Number of patients
Categorical – variables that take on only a handful
of discrete nonquantitative values. Example:
Blood type
Dichotomous – refers to a categorical variable
that takes on only two values. Example: Sex –
Male and Female
Active Versus Attribute
Variables
Attribute variables – refer to the
characteristics of research subjects
such as age, health beliefs, or weight
Active variables – refer to variables that
the researcher creates
Dependent Versus Independent
Variables
Independent – presumed cause
Dependent or Criterion or
Outcome – presumed effect
Definitions
Conceptual definition – presents the abstract or
theoretical meaning of the concepts being
studied.
- are based on theoretical formulations, on a firm
understanding of relevant literature, or on
researchers’ clinical experience.
Operational definition – specifies the operations
that researchers must perform to collect the
required information.
Data
Data – are the pieces of information
obtained in the course of the investigation.
Quantitative Data – information in
numeric form.
Qualitative Data – narrative descriptions
Relationships
Relationship – is a bond or a connection
between phenomena.
Example: Relationship between cigarette
smoking and lung cancer
Types:
1. Cause-and-effect or causal
2. Functional or associative
Key Challenges of Conducting
Research
 Conceptual challenges
 Financial challenges
 Administrative challenges
 Practical challenges
 Ethical challenges
 Clinical challenges
 Methodologic challenges
Reliability, Validity, and
Trustworthiness
Two most important criteria in quantitative research:
Reliability – refers to the accuracy and consistency
of information obtained in the study. The term is
most often associated with the methods used to
measure research variables.
Validity – is a more complex concept that broadly
concerns the soundness of the study’s evidence –
that is, whether the findings are cogent,
convincing, and well-grounded.
Reliability, Validity, and
Trustworthiness
Most important criterion in qualitative
research:
Trustworthiness – encompasses several
different dimensions-credibility,
transferability, confirmability, and
dependability.
Dependability – refers to evidence that is
consistent and stable
Trustworthiness
Confirmability – is similar to objectivity; it is the
degree to which study results are derived from
characteristics of participants and the study
context, not from researcher biases.
Credibility – is achieved to the extent that the
research methods engender confidence in the
truth of the data and in the researchers’
interpretations of the data.
TRIANGULATION – is the use of multiple
sources or referents to draw conclusions
about what constitutes the truth.
BIAS – is a major concern in designing a
study because it can threaten the study's
validity and trustworthiness.
Factors influencing bias

1. Study participants’ candor

2. Subjectivity of the researcher
3. Sample characteristics
4. Faulty methods of data
collection
5. Faulty study design
Types of Bias

1. Random bias – affects only

small segments of the data.
2. Systematic bias – results when
the bias is consistent or
uniform.
Research Control
- involves holding constant other influences
on the dependent variable so that the true
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables can be understood.
- attempts to eliminate contaminating
factors that might cloud the relationship
between the variables that are of central
interest.
Randomness

- a powerful tool for eliminating bias

Generalizability – the criterion used in a
quantitative study to assess the extent to
which the findings can be applied to other
groups and settings.
Transferability – the extent to which
qualitative findings can be transferred to
other settings.
Replication

- is an attempt to validate the findings from

one study in an independent inquiry.
- essential for the development of nursing
science and evidence-based practice
Chapter 3

Overview of the Research

Process in Qualitative and
Quantitative Studies
Major Steps in the Research
Process: Quantitative
Phase A. The Conceptual Phase
1.Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
2.Reviewing the Related Literature
3.Developing a Theoretical Framework
4.Formulating Hypotheses
Major Steps in the Research
Process: Quantitative
Phase B. The Design and Planning Phase
5.Selecting a Research Design
6.Identifying the Population to be Studied
7.Specifying Methods to Collect the Research
Data
8.Designing the Sampling Plan
9.Finalizing and Reviewing the Research Plan
10.Conducting the Pilot Study and Making
Revisions
Major Steps in the Research
Process: Quantitative
Phase C. The Empirical Phase
11.Collecting the Data
12.Preparing the Data for Analysis
Phase D. The Analytic Phase
13.Analyzing the Data
14.Interpreting the Results
Major Steps in the Research
Process: Quantitative
Phase E. The Dissemination Phase
15.Communicating the Findings
16.Utilizing the Findings
Activities in a qualitative study
1. Conceptualizing and planning a
qualitative study
a. Identifying the research problem
b. Doing literature reviews
c. Selecting and gaining entrée into
research sites
d. Establishing the research design
e. Addressing ethical issues
Activities in a qualitative study
2. Conducting the qualitative study
3. Disseminating qualitative findings
Chapter 4

Research Problems,
Research Questions,
and Hypotheses
What is a topic?

Topic - a phenomenon on which to

focus.
Examples: adolescent smoking, patient
compliance, coping with disability,
pain management
What is a research problem?

Research problem - an enigmatic,

perplexing, or troubling condition.
Note: Both qualitative and quantitative researchers
identify a research problem within a broad area of
interest. The purpose of research is to “solve” the
problem - or to contribute to its solution - by
accumulating relevant information.
Problem statement

-articulates the problems to be addressed and

indicates the need to study.
Research questions - are the specific queries
researchers want to answer in addressing the
research problem.
Hypotheses – are predictions regarding answers to
the research question pose and to be tested
empirically.
Statement of purpose

- the researcher’s summary of the overall

goal of a study.
Research aims or objectives
– refers to the specific accomplishments the
researcher hopes to achieve by
conducting the study.
Sources of Research Problems

1. Experience and clinical fieldwork

2. Nursing literature
3. Social issues
4. Theory
5. Ideas from external sources
Development and Refinement of
Research Problems

1. Selecting a topic
2. Narrowing the topic
3. Evaluating research
problems
How to evaluate research
problems?
1. Significance of the problem
2. Researchability of the problem
3. Feasibility of addressing the
problem
4. Interest to the researcher
How to determine if the problem
is feasible?
1. Time and timing
2. Availability of study participants
3. Cooperation of others
4. Facilities and equipment
5. Money
6. Experience of the researcher
7. Ethical considerations
Research-related expenditures

1. Literature costs
2. Personnel costs
3. Study participants costs
4. Supplies
5. Printing and duplication costs
6. Equipment
7. Computer-related expenses
8. Laboratory fees
9. Transportation costs
Chapter 5

Reviewing the
Literature
 Types of Literature:
1. Conceptual Literature
2. Research Literature or Related Studies

Note: Researchers undertake a literature

review to familiarize themselves with the
knowledge base.
Purposes of Literature Review
1. Identification of a research problem and
development or refinement of research
questions or hypotheses
2. Orientation to what is known and not
known about an area of inquiry, to
ascertain what research can best make a
contribution to the existing base of
evidence
Purposes of Literature Review
3. Determination of any gaps or
inconsistencies in a body of research
4. Determination of a need to replicate a
prior study in a different setting or with a
different study population
5. Identification or development of new or
refined clinical interventions to test through
empirical research
Purposes of Literature Review
6. Identification of relevant theoretical or
conceptual frameworks for a research
problem
7. Identification of suitable designs and data
collection methods for a study
8. For those developing research proposals for
funding, identification of experts in the field who
could be used as consultants
Purposes of Literature Review
9. Assistance in interpreting study findings
and in developing implications and
recommendations
Scope of a Literature Search
1.Types of Information to Seek
Primary source research reports -
descriptions of studies written by the
researchers who conducted them
Secondary source research reports -
descriptions of studies prepared by
someone other than the original
researcher
Scope of a Literature Search
2. Depth and Breadth of Literature Coverage
 A review included in a research report.
 A review included in a research proposal.
 A review in a thesis or dissertation.
 Free-standing literature review.
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
1. Electronic Literature Searches
Commonly used service providers:
 Aries Knowledge Finder (www.ariessys.com)
 Ebsco Information Services (www.ebsco.com)
 PaperChase (www.paperchase.com)
 SilverPlatter Information (www.silverplatter.com)
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
Key Electronic Databases for Nurse
Researchers:
a. CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature)
b. MEDLINE (Medical Literature On-Line)
c. AIDSLINE (AIDS Information On-Line)
d. CancerLit (Cancer Literature)
e. CHID (Combined Health Information Database)
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
Key Electronic Databases for
Nurse Researchers:
f. EMBASE (the Excerpta Medica database)
g. ETOH (Alcohol and Alcohol Problems Science
Database)
h. HealthSTAR (Health Services, Technology,
Administration, and Research)
I. PsycINFO (Psychology Information)
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
2. Print Resources
Print indexes - are books that are used to
locate articles in journals and periodicals,
books, dissertations, publications of
professional organizations, and
government documents.
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
Common print indexes
a. International Nursing Index
b. Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature
c. Nursing Studies Index
d. Index Medicus
e. Hospital Literature Index
Locating Relevant Literature for
a Research Review
2. Print Resources
Abstract Journals - summarize articles that
have appeared in other journals.
Two most important abstracts:
a. Nursing abstracts
b. Psychological abstracts
Reading Research Reports
What are research journal articles?
- are reports that summarize a study or
one aspect of a complex study.
Content of Research Reports
- research reports consist of introduction, method
section, results section, discussion section, plus an
abstract and references .
Flow of tasks in a literature
review
1. Identify key words and key concepts to be
searched
2. Identify potential references through
electronic or manual search
3. Retrieve promising references
4. Screen references for relevance and
appropriateness (Note: Discard irrelevant and
inappropriate references)
Flow of tasks in a literature
review
5. Read relevant reference and take notes
6. Identify new references through citations
7. Organize references
8. Analyze and integrate materials
9. Write review
Review of Literature

- This section discusses the theoretical foundations of the

problem. The goal is to develop your problem conceptually
and place it in the context of previous scientific work. Thus,
a conceptual integration of previous research is needed.
Point out the themes, link, gaps, and inconsistencies in the
literature with the aim to provide a clear conceptualization
of the problem. Note that it is NOT the purpose of this
section to display how much literature you have read.
Avoid presenting a litany of past studies that are
conceptually disconnected from each other.
Review of Literature

- This section provides justification of your

problem and hypothesis: Why study these
particular variables? Why propose these
particular hypotheses? Why study the
problem with this method? What
differentiates your approach from what has
been previously done?
 Developing a
conceptual context
Theories, Models, and
Frameworks
 Theory – refers to an abstract
generalization that offers a systematic
explanation about how phenomena are
interrelated.
- requires at least two concepts that are
related in a manner that the theory
purports to explain.
Types of theories
a. Grand theories or macrotheories – purport to
describe and explain large segments of the
human experience.
b. Middle-range theories – attempt to explain such
phenomena like decision-making, stress, self-
care, health promotion, and infant attachment.
- are more restricted in scope, focusing on a
narrow range of experience
Conceptual models, conceptual frameworks,
or conceptual schemes
- Represent a less formal attempt at organizing
phenomena than theories.
- Deal with abstractions that are assembled by
virtue of their relevance to a common theme
- Lack with deductive system of propositions that
asset and explain a relationship among
concepts
- Provide a perspective regarding interrelated
phenomena, but are more loosely structured
than theories
Types of conceptual models
a. Schematic models – common in both
qualitative and quantitative research
representing phenomena graphically.
b. Statistical models – are playing a
growing role in quantitative studies and
these models use symbols to express
quantitatively the nature of relationships.
Framework
 Is the overall conceptual underpinnings
of the study
Types of Framework
a. Conceptual– relates to the types of ideas
you will be discussing
b. Theoretical – relates to how you will be
discussing those ideas
The Nature of Theories and
Conceptual Models
 Origin of theories and models
- Theory construction is a creative and
intellectual enterprise that can be engaged
in by anyone who is insightful, has a solid
knowledge base, and has the ability to knit
together observations and evidence into
an intelligible pattern.
Tentative nature of theories and
models
 A theory is a scientist’s best effort to
describe and explain phenomena; today’s
successful theory may be discredited
tomorrow.
 Theories and models are never
considered final and verified. There always
remains the possibility that a theory will be
modified and verified.
Purposes of theories and
conceptual models
 Play several interrelated roles in the
progress of science.
 Their overall purpose is to make research
findings meaningful and generalizable.
 Theories allow researchers to knit together
observations and facts into an orderly
scheme.
Relationship between theory
and research
 The relationship between theory and research is
reciprocal and mutually beneficial.
 Theories and models are built inductively from
observations, and an excellent source for those
observations is prior research, including in-depth
qualitative studies.
 Concepts and relationships that are validated
empirically through research become the
foundation of theory development.
Conceptual models used in nursing
research
1. Open Systems Model – Imogene King (1981)
2. Theory of Culture Care and Diversity and
Universality – Madeline Leininger (1991)
3. Conservation Model – Myra Levine (1973)
4. Health Care Systems Model – Betty Neuman
(1989)
5. Health as Expanding Consciousness –
Margaret Newman (1994)
Conceptual models used in nursing
research
6. Self-Care Model – Dorothea Orem (1985)
7. Theory of Human Becoming – Rosemarie Rizzo
Parse (1992, 1995)
8. Science of Unitary Human Beings – Martha
Rogers (1970, 1986)
9. Adaptation Model – Sr. Callista Roy (1984,
1991)
10. Theory of Caring – Jean Watson (1999)
Other models used by nurse
researchers
 Health Belief Model – Becker (1978)
 Theory of Stress and Coping – Folkman &
Lazarus (1988), Lazarus (1966)
 Social Cognitive Theory – Bandura (1986,
1997)
Testing, Using, and Developing a Theory or
Framework: Quantitative Research

 Testing a theory
 Testing two competing theories
 Using a model or theory as an organizing
structure
 Fitting a problem to a theory
 Developing a framework in a quantitative
study
Theoretical/Conceptual
Framework
 This is the “creative” section of your work, where you
define your researcher’s theoretical/conceptual frame. It
is different from the literature review, in that here you
discuss your own original integration of the major
theories and/or frameworks that you intend to apply,
which serves as the basis of the conceptual definitions of
your variables and the laws of interactions or presumed
relationships among them. The build-up of arguments
from the literature review, to the theoretical/conceptual
framework, to the research problem and hypothesis
should be clear and logical.
Research questions
- are direct rewordings of statements of purpose,
phrased interrogatively rather than declaratively.
- Research questions in quantitative studies
1. Existence of relationship
2. Direction of relationship
3. Strength of relationship
4. Nature of relationship
5. Moderated relationship
6. Mediated relationship
- Moderator variable – is a variable that
affects the strength or direction of an
association between the independent and
dependent variable.
- Mediator variable – is a variable that
intervenes between the independent and
dependent variable and helps to explain
why the relationship exists.
- Research questions in qualitative studies
Example:
1. What is the lived experience of caring for
a family member with Alzheimer’s disease
at home?
Research questions (Levels of
inquiry)
Level 1
- Questions are asked when the researcher has limited
knowledge of the topic. They usually start with “what”
and are exploratory in nature.
Level 2
- Questions are on relationships or effects of variables.
Level 3
- Questions are those which assume relationships and
effects and ask “why” of the results.
Statement of the Problem
 This section presents the specific research
question(s). The statement of the problem
should have a several characteristics: Firstly, it
should be phrased in the form of a question;
secondly, the question should suggest a
relationship between variables to be examined
(unless the study is exploratory and descriptive).
Thirdly, the research question should imply the
possibility of empirical testing.
Research hypotheses
Hypothesis - is a prediction about the relationship
between two or more variables.
- it translates a quantitative research question into
a precise prediction of expected outcomes.
Function of Hypotheses in Quantitative Research:
are proposed solutions or answers queries
about relationship between variables
Characteristics of Testable
Hypotheses
 State expected relationships between the independent
variable (the presumed cause or antecedent) and the
dependent variable (the presumed effect or outcome)
within a population
Types of Hypothesis (Statement)
1. Null or Statistical (H0) – state that there is no relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.
2. Alternative or Research (H1) – also referred to as
substantive, declarative, or scientific
- state that there is an expected relationships between
variables
Types of Hypothesis (Direction)

1. Directional – is one that specifies not

only the existence but the expected
direction of the relationship between
variables.

2. Nondirectional – does not stipulate the

direction of the relationship.
Wording of hypotheses
Simple versus complex hypotheses
Simple – a hypothesis that expresses an expected
relationship between one independent variable
and one dependent variable
Complex – is a prediction of a relationship
between two (or more) independent variables
and/or two (or more) dependent variables
- Sometimes called as multivariate hypothesis
Hypothesis (if applicable)
 This section is necessary only if you have
a particular theory/framework/premise that
you are testing. In the case of exploratory
research, for example, a hypothesis is not
necessary.
Significance of the Study
(for proposal, include in INTRODUCTION; for final
paper, integrate in DISCUSSION)

 This section contains the theoretical and

practical reasons why the research is
being conducted. It is where you justify
why the study should be conducted at all.
Chapter 7

Designing
Ethical
Research
The Need for Ethical Guidelines
 When humans are used as study participants –
as they usually are in nursing research – care
must be exercised in ensuring that the rights of
those humans are protected
 Nazi medical experiments in 1930s and 1940s
are the most famous example of recent
disregard for ethical conduct
 Tuskegee Syphilis Study by US Public Health
Service between 1932 and 1972
Ethical Dilemmas in Conducting
Research
 Ethical dilemmas – research problems in
which participants’ rights and study
demands are put in direct conflict
 Codes of Ethics – have been developed to
guide the efforts of researchers
Codes of Ethics
1. Nuremberg Code –developed after the Nazi
atrocities were made public in the Nuremberg
trials
2. Declaration of Helsinki – adopted in 1964 by
the World Medical Association and then
revised in 2000
3. Ethical Guidelines in the Conduct,
Dissemination, and Implementation of Nursing
Research (1995)
4. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct (1992)
The Principle of Beneficence –
encompasses the maxim:
Above all, do no harm.
a. Freedom from harm
b. Freedom from exploitation
c. Benefits from research
d. The risk/benefit ratio
The risk/benefit ratio
Minimal risk – is defined as risks anticipated
to be no greater than those ordinarily
encountered in daily life or during routine
physical or psychological tests or
procedures.
The Principle of Respect for
Human Dignity
a. The right to self-determination
Self-determination – means that prospective
participants have the right to decide
voluntarily whether to participate in the
study, without risking any penalty or
prejudicial treatment.
b. The right to full disclosure
The Principle of Justice

a. The right to fair treatment

b. The right to privacy
INFORMED CONSENT
 means that participants have adequate
information regarding the research, are
capable of comprehending the information,
and have the power of free choice,
enabling them to consent to or decline
participation voluntarily.
INFORMED CONSENT
1. Participant status
2. Study goals
3. Type of data
4. Procedures
5. Nature of the commitment
6. Sponsorship
7. Participant selection
8. Potential risks
INFORMED CONSENT
9. Potential benefits
10. Alternatives
11. Compensation
12. Confidentiality pledge
13. Voluntary consent
14. Right to withdraw and withhold
information
15. Contact information
VULNERABLE SUBJECTS
1. Children
2. Mentally or emotionally disabled people
3. Severely ill or physically disabled people
4. The terminally ill
5. Institutionalized people
6. Pregnant women
Chapter 8

Designing quantitative
studies
Features associated with the
quantitative approach
- A brief consideration of the major
distinctions between quantitative
research and qualitative research can
help put quantitative research into
context.
Features associated with the
quantitative approach
 Quantitative Qualitative
- Both are systematic in their approach
- Objective -Subjective
- Deductive - Inductive
- Generalizable - Not generalizable
- Numbers - Words
Features associated with the
quantitative approach
 Both designs, quantitative and qualitative are said to be
systematic. In fact having a system or following a
process is a defining principle of research.

 Broadly speaking, quantitative research is thought to be

objective whereas qualitative research often involves a
subjective element.

 It is thought that in gaining, analyzing and interpreting

quantitative data, the researcher can remain detached
and objective.

 Often this is not possible with qualitative research where

the researcher may actually be involved in the situation
of the research.
Major types of Quantitative
Research
 Types of quantitative research
include:
A. Descriptive
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Experimental
RESEARCH DESIGN IN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Research Design – a plan or strategy for
conducting the research
- deals with matters such as selecting
participants for the research and preparing
for data collection.
Purposes of Research Design

1. To provide answers to
research questions
2. To control variance
Procedures for Controlling
Variance
1. Randomization
2. Building conditions or factors into
the design as independent variables
3. Holding conditions or factors
constant.
4. Statistical adjustments.
Characteristics for good
research design
1. Freedom from bias
2. Freedom from confounding
3. Control of extraneous variables
4. Statistical precision for testing
hypothesis
Experimental Research
Experiment – is a research situation in which at
least one independent variable, called the
experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated
or varied by the researcher.
Experimental design – is a preconceived plan for
conducting an experiment.
- Is the structure by which variables are positioned,
arranged, or built into the experiment.
Experimental variable – sometimes called as
experimental treatment
Criteria for a well-designed
experiment
1. Adequate experimental control
2. Lack of artificiality
3. Basis for comparison
4. Adequate information from the data
5. Uncontaminated data
6. No confounding of relevant variables
7. Representativeness
8. Parsimony
Experimental Validity
 Types
1. Internal validity – is the basic minimum
control, measurement, analysis, and
procedures necessary to make the results
of the experiment interpretable.
- Deals with being able to understand the
data and draw conclusions fro them.
Experimental Validity
 Types
2. External validity – deals with the
generalizability of the experiment.

* Generalizable to: what populations,

variables, situations
Threats to Internal Validity
1. History – unexpected events occur
between the pre- and posttest, affecting
the dependent variable.
2. Maturation – changes occurring in the
participants, from growing older, wiser,
more experienced, etc. during the study.
3. Testing – taking a pretest alters the
result of the posttest.
Threats to Internal Validity
4. Instrumentation – the measuring
instrument is changed between pre- and
posttesting or a single measuring
instrument is unreliable.
5. Statistical Regression – extremely high or
extremely low scores tend to regress to
the mean on retesting.
Threats to Internal Validity
6. Differential Selection of Participants –
participants in the experimental and
control groups have different
characteristics that affect the dependent
variable
7. Mortality – different participants drop out
of the study in different numbers, altering
the composition of the treatment groups.
Threats to Internal Validity
8. Selection-maturation interaction - the
participants selected into treatment groups
have different maturation rates. Selection
interactions also occur with history and
instrumentation.
Threats to External Validity
1. Pretest-Treatment Interaction – the
pretest sensitizes participants to aspects
of the treatment and thus influence
posttest scores.
2. Selection-Treatment Interaction – the
nonrandom or volunteer selection of
participants limits the generalizability of
the study.
Threats to External Validity
3. Multiple Treatment Interference – when
participants receive more than one treatment,
the effect of prior treatment, can affect or interact
with later treatments, limiting generalizability.
4. Specificity of variables – poorly operationalized
variables make it difficult to identify the setting
and procedures to which the variables can be
generalized.
Threats to External Validity
5. Treatment Diffusion – treatment groups
communicate and adopt pieces of each
other’s treatment, altering the initial status
of the treatments comparison.
6. Experimenter effects – conscious and
unconscious actions of the researcher
affects participants’ performance and
responses.
Threats to External Validity
7. Reactive Effects – the fact of being in a
study affects participants from their normal
behavior. The Hawthorne and John Henry
effects are reactive responses to being in
a study.
Experimental Research Designs
1. Posttest-Only Control Group
2. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
3. Solomon Four-Group Design
4. Factorial Designs
5. Repeated Measures Designs
6. Designs Extended in Time
a. Posttest- Only Time Series
b. Pretest-Posttest Time Series
Experimental Research Designs
1. Posttest-Only Control Group Design
- Contains as many groups as there are
experimental treatments, plus a control group or
comparison group. Subjects are measured only
after the experimental treatments have been
applied.
- Pretest – refers to a measure or test given to the
subjects prior to the experimental treatments.
- Posttest - refers to a measure or test given to
the subjects after the experimental treatments.
Experimental Research Designs
Schematic Diagram:
R G1 X O1
R G2 - O2
Where:
G – indicates group
R – indicates that the members of the group are randomly
selected or assigned to each group
X – indicates an experimental treatment
- – indicates no experimental treatment
Os – indicate measurement
Note: vertical positioning of the Os indicates when they take
place
Experimental Research Designs

2. Pretest-Posttest Control Group

Design
- Contains as many groups as there are
experimental treatments, plus a control group.
Subjects are measured before and after
receiving the experimental treatments.
Schematic Diagram:
R G1 O1 X O3
R G2 O2 - O4
Experimental Research Designs
3. Solomon Four-Group Design – is a combination
of the posttest-only control group design and
the pretest-posttest control group design.
Schematic Diagram:
R G1 O1 X O2
R G2 O3 - O4
R G3 X O5
R G4 - O6
Experimental Research Designs
4. Factorial Designs – involve two or more
independent variables, called factor, in a
single design. The levels of the
independent variables taken in
combination determine the cell of the
design.
Experimental Research Designs
5. Repeated Measures Designs – are designs in
which the same subject is measured more than
once on the dependent variable.
Schematic Diagram:
S1 X1 O - X2 O….. Xk O
S2 X1O - X2 O….. Xk O
S3 X1O - X2 O….. Xk O
Sn X1O - X2 O….. Xk O
Experimental Research Designs
6. Designs Extended in Time
- Designs can be extended by taking additional
observations in groups. Such observations provide
information about possible delayed effects of the
experimental variable and about the duration of the effect
Types :
a. Posttest-Only Time Series
b. Pretest-Posttest Time Series
Experimental Research Designs
a. Posttest-Only Time Series

R G1 X O1 O2 O3
R G2 - O4 O5 O6

b. Pretest-Posttest Time Series

R G1 O1 X O2 O3 O4
R G2 O5 - O6 O7 O8
Quasi-experimental Research
Designs
- Involvesthe use of intact groups
or subjects in an experiment,
rather than assigning subjects at
random to experimental
treatments.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
1. Posttest Only, Nonequivalent Control
Group Design
2. Pretest-Posttest, Nonequivalent Control
Group Design
3. Time Series Designs
a. Single-Group Time Series Design
b. Multiple-Group Time Series Design
Quasi-Experimental Research
Designs
1. Posttest-Only, Nonequivalent Control
Group Design – contains as many groups as
there are experimental treatments plus a
control group. Intact groups are used, and
subjects are measured only once, after the
experimental treatments have been applied.
Schematic Diagram:
G1 X O1
G2 - O2
Quasi-Experimental Research
Designs
2. Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group
Design – aids in checking the extent of group
similarity, and the pretest scores may be used
for statistical control or for generating gain
scores.
Schematic Diagram:
G1 O1 X O3
G2 O2 - O4
Quasi-Experimental Research
Designs
3. Time Series Designs
- Involve repeated measurement of one or more intact
groups, with an experimental treatment inserted between
two of the measurements of at least one group.
Types :
a. Single Group Time Series
G O1 O 2 O 3 X O4 O5 O6

b. Multiple-Group Time Series

G O1 O 2 O 3 X O4 O5 O 6
G O7 O 8 O 9 - O10 O11 O12
Nonexperimental Research

- Is probably the single most

widely used research type.
- Are used to measure attitudes,
opinions, and achievements
Reasons for undertaking
nonexperimental research
1. Vast number of human characteristics
are inherently not subject to experimental
manipulation like blood type, personality,
health beliefs, and medical diagnosis
Reasons for undertaking
nonexperimental research
2. There are many variables that could
technically be manipulated but could not
be manipulated ethically
3. There are many research situations in
which it is simply not practical to conduct
a true experiment
Reasons for undertaking
nonexperimental research
4. There are some research questions for
which an experimental design is not
appropriate.
5. Nonexperimental research is usually
needed before an experimental study can
be planned
Broad classes of nonexperimental
research
a. Ex post facto (from after the fact)
research – means that the study has been
conducted after variations in the
independent variable have occurred
-attempts to understand relationships among
phenomena as they naturally occur,
without any intervention
Broad classes of nonexperimental
research
a. Ex post facto (from after the fact)
research – is more often referred to as
correlational research
Correlation – is an interrelationship or
association between two variables, that is,
a tendency for variation in another
Purpose: to understand relationships among
variables
Ex post facto research designs
a. Restrospective design – a design used to
determine the relationship between a
phenomenon existing in the present and
phenomenon that occurred in the past before
the study was initiated.
b. Prospective nonexperimental design- a design
used to determine the relationship between the
presumed cause and then goes forward in time
to the presumed effect
Ex post facto research designs
c. Natural experiments – a group is exposed to
natural or other phenomena that have
important health consequences are compared
with the nonexposed group.
d. Path analytic studies – researchers test a
hypothesized causal chain among a set of
independent variables, mediating variables,
and a dependent variable
Broad classes of nonexperimental
research
b. Descriptive research – the purpose of this
class is to observe, describe, and
document aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs and sometimes to serve
as a starting point for hypothesis
generation or theory development
Descriptive research designs
1. Descriptive correlational studies
- Is used to describe the relationship among
variables rather than to infer cause-and-effect
relationships.
2. Univariate descriptive studies – are undertaken
to describe the frequency of occurrence of a
behavior or condition rather than to study
relationships
Types:
a. Prevalence studies
b. Incidence studies
 Prevalence studies – are done to
determine the prevalence rate of some
condition at a particular point in time
 Incidence studies – are used to measure
the frequency of developing new cases.
Limitations of correlational research
 Weak to reveal causal relationships
 Harbor biases due to self-selection into groups
being compared
Self-selection – occurs when the members of the
groups being studied are in the groups, in part,
because they differentially possess traits or
characteristics extraneous to the research
problem, characteristics that possibly influence
or are otherwise related to the variables of the
research problem
Strengths of correlational
research
 Efficient means of collecting a large
amount of data about a problem
 Is often strong in realism and therefore
has an intrinsic appeal for solving practical
problems and is seldom criticized for its
artificiality.
Research Design
The research design that will be used in the study is the
pretest-posttest control group design. The schematic diagram is
presented below:
R G1 O1 X O3
R G2 O2 - O4
Where: R = randomization
G1 = Group 1
G2 = Group 2
X = treatment variable
- = no treatment variable
O1 = Pretest of Group 1
O2 = Pretest of Group 2
O3 = Posttest of Group 1
O4 = Posttest of Group 2
Research Design
The research design that will be used
in the study is the descriptive-correlational
research design. The design is used to
describe the relationship among variables
rather than to infer cause-and-effect
relationships (Polit & Beck, 2004).
In the study, the design is used to
determine the relationship between
cigarette smoking and lung cancer.
Research Locale
- Research can be conducted in a wide
variety of locales – in health care facilities,
in people’s homes, in classrooms, and so
on. Researchers make decisions about
where to conduct a study based on the
nature of the research question and the
type of information needed to address it.
Research Locale
The study will be conducted in Davao
City particularly in selected tertiary
hospitals, namely: Davao Doctors
Hospital, San Pedro Hospital, Davao
Medical Center, and BIHMI.
DDH is…..
SPH is……
DMC is……..
BIHMI is ……
Chapter 9

Sampling Designs
Sampling
What is sampling?
- is the process of selecting a portion of the
population to represent the entire population.
What is a sample?
- Is a subset of population elements.
What is an element?
- Is the most basic unit about which information is
collected.
Types of Sampling Design
1. Probability sampling – involves random
selection in choosing the elements.
2. Nonprobability sampling – involves
nonrandom selection in choosing the
elements.
Types of Nonprobability
Sampling
1. Convenience Sampling – entails using the
most conveniently available people as
study participants. A faculty member who
distributes questionnaires to nursing
students in a class is using a
convenience sample, or an accidental
sample.
Types of Nonprobability
Sampling
2. Quota Sampling – is one in which the
researcher identifies population strata and
determines how many participants are needed
from each stratum. By using information about
population characteristics, researchers can
ensure that that diverse segments are
represented in the sample, preferably in the
proportion in which they occur in the
population.
Types of Nonprobability
Sampling
3. Purposive Sampling or judgmental
sampling – is based on the belief that
researchers’ knowledge about the population
can be used to hand-pick sample members.
Researchers might decide purposely to select
subjects who are judged to be typical of the
population or particularly knowledgeable about
the issues under study.
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple random sampling – is the most
basic probability sampling design.
2. Stratified random sampling – the
population is first divided into two or
more strata.
Types: a. Simple stratified random sampling
b. Proportionate stratified random
sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
3. Cluster sampling – there is a successive
random sampling of units. The first unit is
large groupings or clusters. Because of
the successive stages in cluster
sampling, this approach is often called
multistage sampling.
Types of Probability Sampling
4. Systematic Sampling – involves the
selection of every kth case from a list or
group, such as every 10th person on a
patient list or every 100th person in a
directory of Nurses Association members
 Comparisons of Random and
Nonrandom Sampling Strategies
for Quantitative Research
Steps in sampling in quantitative
studies
1. Identify the population
2. Specify the eligibility criteria
3. Specify the sampling plan
4. Recruit the sample
Chapter 10

Collecting Data
(Measures)
Instrumentation Procedures
 Researchers sometimes prepare their data
collection procedures along with
participant procedures. The number of
participants affects the choices of
strategies for data collection, and vice
versa. The preparation for data collection
is called INSTRUMENTATION.
What is INSTRUMENTATION?

- Involves
decisions about which
data are necessary to answer
research questions and the
instruments or strategies by
which data are to be gathered.
 Comparisons of
Instrumentation in
Quantitative and Qualitative
Inquiry Modes
Requirements for Quantitative
studies
 Provide the type(s) of data required by the
research questions;
 Yield valid and reliable measures of
variables;
 Fit with the participant procedures; and
 Provide data at the level of measurement
required for analysis
Measures
 Content: In this section, discuss the conceptual and
operational definition (a description of how variables will
be measured or observed) of each variable. In an
experiment, the measurement of the dependent
variables is described here. If using an instrument,
include the source, number of items and type of scale,
scoring, reliability, and validity of the instrument. If
constructing your own instrument, include the details of
the steps/procedures you took to develop the scale.
 Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold,
centered, upper- and lowercase).
Measure (Research Instrument)
- research instrument is a device designed or adopted
by the researcher for data gathering
-data presented, analyzed, and interpreted in a thesis or
dissertation are drawn through research instruments
-to arrive at accurate findings and conclusions, the
instruments used by a researcher should be valid and
reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study
as discussed in the statement of the problem
Validity and Reliability of Researcher-Made
Instruments

The need to establish the validity and

reliability of instruments should not be overlooked
by the researcher. The instruments, when valid and
reliable, measure the needed information
objectively.
Validity of Researcher-Made
Instruments
Validity - refers to the extent of acceptance of the instruments. The
instrument is valid when based on facts; it measures what is
intended to be measured. Validation of an instrument is the process
of collecting evidence to support inferences. This is done to come
up with the appropriate, meaningful and useful data.

Three types of validity

1. Content-related evidence of validity
2. Criterion-related evidence of validity
3. Construct-related evidence of validity
Content-related evidence of validity
- refers to the content and format of the
instrument. Sample questions to be answered to
this effect:
-1. How appropriate is the content?
-2. How comprehensive?
-3. Does it logically get at the intended variable?
-4. How adequately does the sample of items or
questions represent the content to be assessed?
-5. Is the format appropriate?
Criterion-related evidence of
validity
-refers to the relationship between scores obtained using
the instrument and scores obtained using one or more
instruments or measures. Questions to be answered are:
How strong is the relationship? How well do such scores
estimate present or predict future performance of a certain
type?
-The measures of correlation are the statistical tools to be
used to compare results. The higher the results obtained
the better the instrument.
Construct-related evidence of
validity
-refers to the nature of the psychological construct or
characteristics being measured by the instrument. How
well does this construct explain differences in the
behavior of individuals or their performance of certain
tasks?
-Can be measured by noting group differences, changes,
correlations, processes, multi-trait, multi-method ways
and through factorial validity.
RELIABILITY
-Refers to the measurement of internal consistency of the
research instrument.
-Widely used when the instrument in data gathering is in
the form of a test.
-The test is reliable when administered repeatedly,
providing similar results.
-When significant relationship exists after administering
on a group of respondents, accuracy of the test is said to
be achieved.
Four tests of reliability

1. Test-retest
2. Split half
3. Parallel form
4. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and 21
Test-Retest Method
- determines the internal consistency of a research instrument
- can be done by administering the instruments on the same
group of respondents repeatedly
- can be done twice or more if the researcher is not satisfied with
the results however, it is advisable to do it two consecutive
times at most.
- the statistical tool in computing the reliability coefficient:
Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Split-half Method
- is another method in determining the reliability of researcher-
made instruments
- it measures the internal consistency and it can be done by
dividing the number of items into two, say, odd numbered
questions and even numbered questions
- Statistical tools:
1. Pearson r - to determine the reliability of the half test
2. Spearman- Brown Prophecy Formula - to determine the
reliability of the whole test
Parallel form Method
- is sometimes known as an equivalent form method.
- is used particularly when the instrument is in the form of an
achievement test.
- is done by constructing two types of achievement tests
equivalent to each other and administered on one group of
respondents one after the other.
- Statistical tool: Pearson Product Moment Correlation
The Kuder-Richardson Formula
20 and 21
- Kuder-Richardson is used as the test-retest and split-half
methods in determining the internal consistency of the
instruments.
- Formula 20 is longer and more laborious while Formula 21 is
commonly used and preferred by researchers because it is quite
simple in terms of mathematical computation.
- KR21 can be used only if it can be assumed that the items are
of equal difficulty.
Measures
The study will make use of the researcher-made
instrument. It consists of three parts: Part I establishes the
profile of the respondents, Part II determines the level of
knowledge, and Part III highlights the level of skills and
attitudes. Part I can be answered by putting a check mark beside
the choices. Parts II and III can be answered by determining the
scale where the respondents identified as their level. The Likert
Scale will be used. Responses range from 1 to 4 where 1 means
very low and 4 means very high.
The instrument will be content validated by some
experts in the discipline.
Procedure
Pretest (or Pilot Phase)
Content: If applicable, this section contains
everything about the pretesting process, including
the sample to be used, a description of the
materials that will be pretested, and the actual
conduct of the pretest procedures. Report the
relevant results of your pretest and the resulting
adjustments or modifications you make, especially
in terms of how these affect or determine the final
sample, instruments, and procedures that you will
employ in your study.
Procedure
Actual Procedure
 Content: This section contains the process that will
be used when conducting the actual study and
includes the step by-step “recipe” beginning with
how the subjects will be contacted all the way to
how the data will be collected collected. In an
experiment, this is where you describe how the
independent variables will be manipulated and
how the extraneous variables be controlled. This
section should also contain the ethical procedures
to be applied in this study, for example, informed
consent, debriefing procedures, etc.
Procedure
 Actual Procedure
 Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold,
centered, upper- and lowercase). Subsections
within this section have headings that are
italicized and flushed left. Depending on the
complexity of the design and/or procedures,
additional subsections may be used (e.g.,
Apparatus and Materials; Manipulation of the IV;
etc.)
Procedure
A letter will be sent to the heads of the different
teacher training institutions asking permission to conduct
the study. Upon approval, the study will start.
The pre-service secondary teachers will be
competency tested using the Biological Science
Competency Test. To determine the level of
competence, the score will be transformed into a
percentile score. The results will be used to prepare the
feedback for curriculum remediation in BSEd-
Biosciences.
Data Analysis
 (for proposal, include in METHOD; for final
paper, integrate in RESULTS)
 Content: This section describes the procedures
on how the data are to be (or were) analyzed, be
it quantitative or qualitative data.
 Format: In the proposal, begin this section with a
heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).
In the final paper, this is integrated in the Results
chapter and has no separate subsection.
Descriptive Statistics Applied to Research

Topics:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentages
3. Ranking
4. Measures of Centrality
5. Measures of Variability
Inferential Statistics in Research
Types of inferential statistics used in
research:
1. Parametric – is a robust test and is
applicable when data is measured in
interval or ratio scales
2. Non-parametric – also known as
distribution free statistics. Used in ordinal
or nominal data.
Guide to Widely Use Bivariate
Statistical Tests
Parametric Tests
1. t-test for independent groups (Between)
Purpose: to test the difference between two
independent group means
Measurement Level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Interval, ratio
2. Paired t-test (Within)
Purpose: To test the difference between two
related group means
Measurement Level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Interval, ratio
3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Between)
Purpose: To test the difference among the
means of 3+ independent groups, or of 2+
independent variables
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Interval, ratio
4. Repeated-measures ANOVA (Within)
Purpose: To test the difference among the
means of 3+ related groups or sets of
scores
Measurement:
IV: Nominal
DV: Interval, Ratio
5. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
(Between, Within)
Purpose: To test that a correlation is
different from zero (that a relationship
exists)
Measurement level:
IV: Interval, ratio
DV: Interval, ratio
Advantages of nonparametric
methods
1. Nonparametric methods can be applied to a
wide variety of situations because they do not
have the more rigid requirements associated
with their parametric counterparts.
2. Nonparametric methods can often be applied to
nonnumerical data such as the genders of
survey respondents.
3. Nonparametric methods usually involve simpler
computations than the corresponding
parametric methods and are therefore easier
to understand.
Disadvantages of
nonparametric methods
1. Nonparametric methods tend to waste
information because exact numerical data are
often reduced to a qualitative form.
2. Nonparametric tests are not as efficient as
parametric tests.
Nonparametric Tests

1. Mann-Whitney U-test (Between)

Purpose: To test in the difference between
the ranks of scores of two independent
groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Ordinal
2. Median Test (Between)
Purpose: To test the difference between the
medians of three or more independent
groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Ordinal
3. Kruskal-Wallis test ( Between)
Purpose: To test the difference in the ranks
of scores of 3+ independent groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Ordinal
4. Wilcoxon signed-rank test (Within)
Purpose: To test the difference in ranks of
scores of two related groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Ordinal
5. Friedman test (Within)
Purpose: To test the difference in ranks of
3+ related groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Ordinal
6. Chi-square test ( Between)
Purpose: To test the difference in
proportions of 2+ independent groups
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Nominal
7. McNemar’s test (Within)
Purpose: To test the difference in
proportions for paired samples (2X2)
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Nominal
8. Fisher’s exact test (Between)
Purpose: To test difference in proportions in
a 2X2 contingency table when N < 30
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Nominal
9. Spearman’s rho (Between, within)
Purpose: To test that a correlation is
different from zero (that a relationship
exists)
Measurement level:
IV: Ordinal
DV: Ordinal
10. Kendall’s tau (Between, within)
Purpose: To test that a correlation is
different from zero (that a relationship
exists)
Measurement level:
IV: Ordinal
DV: Ordinal
11. Phi coefficient (Between)
Purpose: To examine the magnitude of a
relationship between two dichotomous
variables
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Nominal
12. Cramer’s V (Between)
Purpose: To examine the magnitude of a
relationship between variables in a
contingency table (not restricted to 2x2)
Measurement level:
IV: Nominal
DV: Nominal
Data Analysis
The following are the statistical tools to be
used in the study:
1. Mean –It will be used to compute the level
of competence of the pre-service education
students.
2. Stepwise Multiple Regression – It will be
used to determine the best predictive equation
model of the performance of the pre-service
education students.
Level of significance is set at .05.
Limitations of the Study
 (for proposal, in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in
DISCUSSION)
 Content: This section contains the theoretical and
practical boundaries of the study. It includes the
parameters of the topic, subjects and method used. In
other words, it will tell the reader that it will be studying
“this” but not “that”, and in “this way” but not “that way”. It
also includes the limitations as to the kind of results the
study will generate.
 Format: This section is written in the present tense.
Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper-
and lowercase).
Limitations of the Study
The focus of the study is to prepare a feedback to
remediate the present curriculum of teacher training
institutions offering BSEd-General Sciences. The basis
of the feedback is the level of competence of the pre-
service secondary teachers in the Biological Science
Competency Test.
The study will be conducted in Davao City and
Tagum City. All PAASCU accredited TTIs are considered
in the study. The study will start on September 1, 2008
and will end on December 31, 2008. The study is
affected by the following: sample deficiencies, research
design, and weaknesses in data collection.
REFERENCES .
 Content: This section lists all references cited in
the text. If an abstract rather than an actual
journal/book is utilized, this should be cited as
such. Electronic references (e.g., Internet
sources) must also be formally cited.
 Format: The heading REFERENCES should be
bold, all CAPS, and centered on top of the first
page of this section. References follow a
hanging indent format. Single-space within
entries, but double-space between entries.
APPENDIX
 Content: The appendices section should include the
instruments, and other special materials, tools, and
instructions that were used in the study. It may also contain
information that may be too detailed for the text but which
some may want to refer to (e.g., complex scoring procedures;
a different type of analysis). No raw data are included here.
 Format: Each appendix should be placed in its own separate
page, and affixed with its own heading (APPENDIX A;
APPENDIX B, so on). Headings should be in boldface,
uppercase, and centered on top of each page.