Homework 5

Classical Mechanics (Phys701)

Due: October 10, 2011

Problem 1-7
Show that Lagrange’s equations can also be written as

∂ Ṫ ∂T
−2 = Qj .
∂ q̇j ∂qj

These are sometimes known as the Nielsen form of the Lagrange equations. (Hint: start with
writing a formula for Ṫ ).

Solution: First, calculate

d ∂T ∂T ∂T
T (q̇i , qi , t) = q̈i + q̇i + .
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi ∂t
Consequently
∂ dT ∂2T ∂2T ∂T ∂2T
= q̈i + q̇i + + .
∂ q̇j dt ∂ q̇j ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇j ∂qi ∂qj ∂ q̇j ∂t
Then the Nielsen equation reads:

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T ∂T

q̈i + q̇i + − =0.
∂ q̇j ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇j ∂qi ∂ q̇j ∂t ∂qj

However, the first three terms here can be identified as

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T d ∂T

q̈i + q̇i + =
∂ q̇j ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇j ∂qi ∂ q̇j ∂t dt ∂ q̇j

(check it directly) and we get

d ∂T ∂T
− =0,
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
i.e., the Lagrange equation.

Problem 1-9
The electromagnetic field is invariant under a gauge transformation of the scalar and vector
potentials given by

A → A + ∇Ψ(r, t) ,
1 ∂Ψ
ϕ → ϕ− ,
c ∂t
where Ψ is an arbitrary (but differentiable). What effect does this gauge transformation have on
the Lagrangian of a particle moving in the electromagnetic field? Is the motion affected?

Solution.

1
 veff

Eeff

r_ r+

Figure 1: Dependence Vef f (r) and the graphic solution for the values of r± .

Problem 1-21
Two mass points of mass m1 and m2 are connected by a string passing through a hole in a smooth table
so that m1 rests on the table surface and m2 hangs suspended. Assuming m2 moves only only in a vertical
line, what are the generalized coordinates for the system? Write the Lagrange equations for the system
and, if possible, discuss the physical significance any of them might have. Reduce the problem to a single
second-order differential equation. What is its physical meaning? (Consider motion only until m1 reaches
the hole.)

Solution: The position of the mass m on the plane will be determined by the radius r and angle ϕ.
Since the total length of the thread is l = const, the vertical position of the second mass M is given by
y = r − l < 0 (we define the y-axis as pointing up). The kinetic energy is given by
m 2 M 2 m+M 2 m 2 2
T = (ṙ + r2 ϕ̇2 ) + ẏ = ṙ + r ϕ̇
2 2 2 2
The potential energy is
V = M gy = M gr + const
and the Lagrangian is
m+M 2 m 2 2
L= ṙ + r ϕ̇ − M gr + const
2 2
Lagrange equations are now written down as

mr̈ − mϕ̇2 r + M gr = 0
d
(mr2 ϕ̇) = 0
dt
The second equation simply expresses the angular momentum conservation: the total angular momentum
L = mr2 ϕ̇ = const. We can express now ϕ̇ = L/mr2 and substitute that into the first equation. Then we
get
L2
(M + m)r̈ − + Mg = 0
mr3
which can be re-written as ( )
d 2L2
(M + m)r̈ = − M gr + (1)
dr mr2
This equation is the same as the one for a one-dimensional motion of the effective particle with mass M + m
in the effective potential Vef f = M gr + 2L2 /mr2 . This means that the effective energy

2L2
r2 + M gr +
mr2

2
is conserved. Mathematically, Eef f is the first integral of (1). Effective potential is shown in the figure. We
see that the effective particle will perform non-linear oscillatory motion. The actual solution r(t) of (1) is
complicated. However, the end-points r± of the oscillations are easily determined from the initial value of
Eef f since ṙ = 0 holds at the end-points. This gives

2L2
Eef f = Vef f (r± ) = M gr± + 2 , (2)
mr±

where Eef f and L are determined by the initial conditions r(0), ṙ(0) and ϕ̇(0).
A graphic solution of (2) is shown in the figure. Solution r− is always positive for L ̸= 0. This means
that mass M can never pull mass m down through the hole, except when L = 0. The opposite process of
pulling M up through the hole can happen is r+ > t holds. For r+ < t the system will perform oscillations
with M going up and down. The second term in (2) is called a centripetal potential and is often encountered
in problems with rotational symmetry.

Problem 2-22
Suppose a particle moves in space subject to a conservative potential V (r) but is constrained
to always move on a surface whose equations is σ(r, t) = 0. (The explicit dependence on t
indicates that the surface may be moving.) The instantaneous force of constraint is taken as
always perpendicular to the surface. Show analytically that the energy of the particle is not
conserved if the surface moves in time. What physically is the reason for non-conservation of the
energy under this circumstance?

Solution: The Lagrangian of the free particle in external potential equals

mṙ2
L= − V (r) .
2
The modified Lagrangian L′ = L + λ(t)σ(r, t) with yet unknown Lagrange multiplier λ(t) will describe the
particle constrained to the surface. From L′ we get the following system of differential equations
∂V ∂σ
mr̈i = − +λ , i = x, y, z
∂ri ∂ri
σ(r, t) = 0

for unknown functions ri (t) and λ(t).

Energy non-conservation. Suppose we found a trajectory r(t). The change of the particle energy
E = mṙ2 /2 + V (r) on the trajectory will be given by
dE ∂V
= (mr̈i )ṙi + ṙi .
dt ∂ri
Substituting (mr̈i ) from the first Lagrange equation we get
dE ∂σ
=λ ṙi .
dt ∂ri
Vector ∂σ/∂ri is directed perpendicular to the σ = 0 surface. The velocity ṙi is not completely arbitrary
but has to be compatible with the second Lagrange equation. From σ(ri (t), t) = 0 we get
∂σ ∂σ
ṙi + =0. (3)
∂ri ∂t
Using the above we can rewrite
dE ∂σ
= −λ ,
dt ∂t

3
which shows that E is not conserved when the surface is moving.
Physical reason for energy non-conservation. For the moving surface the velocity of the particle is
not tangential to the surface (see Eq. (3)). Therefore the reaction force can have a non-zero scalar product
with the velocity, N · ṙ ̸= 0. That means that the reaction force performs some work which changes the total
energy of the particle. For example, in the case of σ = z − vt, V = mgz one simply lifts the particle in the
gravitational field. The energy is obviously increased.

Problem 2-23
Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 . Let m1 be confined to move on a circle of radius a
in the z = 0 plane, centered at x = y = 0. Let m2 be confined to move on a circle of radius b in
the z = c plane centered at x = y = 0. A light (massless) spring of spring constant k is attached
between the particles.
(a) Find the Lagrangian of the system and write down the Lagrange equations of motion.
Solution:
(a) We choose to polar angles ϕ1,2 of the particles on the circles as the coordinates. Then
x1 = a cos ϕ1
y1 = a sin ϕ1
z1 = 0
and
x2 = a cos ϕ2
y2 = a sin ϕ2
z1 = c
The distance l between the particles is given by
√
l(ϕ1 , ϕ2 ) = c2 + a2 [(cos ϕ1 − cos ϕ2 )2 + (sin ϕ1 − sin ϕ2 )2 ]
The speeds of the particles are vi = aϕ̇i . This gives
a2 k
L= (m1 ϕ̇21 + m2 ϕ̇22 ) − (l − l0 )2 ,
2 2
where l0 is the length of the unstrained spring.
Lagrange equations read
∂l
m1 a2 ϕ̈1 + k(l − l0 ) =0
∂ϕ1
∂l
m2 a2 ϕ̈2 + k(l − l0 ) =0
∂ϕ2
The derivatives of l(ϕ1 , ϕ2 ) are calculated as
∂l a2
= sin(ϕ1 − ϕ2 )
∂ϕ1 l
∂l a2 ∂l
= sin(ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) = −
∂ϕ2 l ∂ϕ1
Substituting them into the Lagrange equations we get
( )
k l0
ϕ̈1 + 1− sin(ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 0 ,
m1 l(ϕ1 , ϕ2 )
( )
k l0
ϕ̈2 + 1− sin(ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) = 0 .
m2 l(ϕ1 , ϕ2 )