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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AN OVERVIEW

The ancient Greek word, ‘Tropikos’ signified the tropic of Cancer

and Capricorn. Today this designation covers most of the areas lying between
them, that is approximately 40% of the total land surface of the earth. In the
tropics, buildings were designed with great care and thought, and with due
regard to climate. Life patterns of people, activities and behaviour are greatly
influenced by the elements of climate. The basic elements, namely, air
temperature, solar radiation, humidity, rainfall and wind form the general
climate of a place.

Regional climatology is concerned with the aerial distribution of

climate over the earth. The many variations of climate from place to place as
determined by different combinations of climatic controls, produce
correspondingly a large number of climate types. In order to facilitate the
mapping of these climatic regions, it is necessary to classify these climatic
types and establish criteria for their identifications.

After analysing various climate classifications, the Bureau of Indian

Standards (B.I.S, 1978, reconfirmed in 1999) classification on humid region is
found to be an ideal one for Indian climate. Accordingly, the study area falls
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under identified hot and humid region and fits well with the description and
climatic data.

Shelter design in hot and humid region down the ages has exhibited
adaptive built-forms in response to the climate as well as locally available
materials and skilled labour. Various references are available depicting the
rationality of traditional and contemporary built forms, but this rationality has
yet to be quantified for hot and humid region.

1.2 BASES FOR CLASSIFYING CLIMATE

All satisfactory systems of classification of geographic facts have

three characteristics in common. They attempt to organise the facts into an
orderly arrangement of categories proceeding from broad generalisation to
small units which differ only slightly in detail; they provide a language for
communication in terms of the material classified, and they establish means of
identifying boundaries so that the facts may be mapped.

Empiric and genetic are the two fundamental approaches to

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classification of climate. The empiric is based upon the observable

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characteristics namely the climatic elements. The genetic is based upon the
factors that determine the different climate controls. Two or more elements or
controls or combinations of elements and controls have been used as bases for
climate classification. The ancient Greeks recognised the relationship between
latitude and temperature and devised a system of Klima or Zones (torrid,
temperature, and frigid).
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The classification used here has been developed for the design of
buildings for the protection and comfort of people. It differs from those used by
agriculturists, mariners and air -transport industry etc., as each requires a
different emphasis. Accordingly, the main determining factors for the
classification of the climatic zones, namely, air temperature and relative
humidity, are those that predominantly influence heat exchange between human
body and the surroundings. The two other factors, namely solar radiation and
precipitation are those that influence building design.

1.3 CLIMATE COMPONENTS

The weather is a description of the atmospheric conditions of a

particular location over a period of hours, days or weeks, while the climate is
the mean of the weather conditions over a period of years or decades. The
different factors that make up a description of the climate are:

a) Temperature of the air

b) Humidity of the air
c) Sky conditions and the amount of direct solar radiation.
d) Amount of rainfall and
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e) Air movement and prevailing wind direction.

1.3.1 Air Temperature

The temperature of the air or Dry Bulb Temperature (D.B.T.) is the

temperature measured in the shade. It is recorded at one or two metres above
the ground surface by a mercury thermometer in degree Celsius.
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It is important to know the mean maximum and mean minimum daily

air temperatures for each month of the year. The mean maximum and mean
minimum daily air temperatures are the mean of the highest and mean of the
lowest air temperatures respectively, of each day of every month, averaged
again by the number of the years for which recordings are available. The
highest temperature usually occurs between noon and 2.00 p.m. and the lowest
just before sunrise, which is the end of the period during which, the location has
not been receiving any solar heat, i.e., during nights.

Meteorological stations often supply absolute maximum and

minimum temperatures. These readings are the highest and the lowest ever
recorded in the locality and though essential for some purposes, they are not of
use to designers of buildings.

1.3.2 Relative Humidity

The humidity of the air is the amount of water contained as vapour in

the air. It can be expressed as absolute humidity, which is the moisture content
of the air in terms of grams of water per kilogram of dry air. However, a much
more useful expression is relative humidity, which is the water content of the
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air as a percentage of the maximum amount of water that the air could hold at
that temperature at which the reading is made. As the temperature of the air
rises, it expands and can contain more water vapour than when it is cold.
Therefore, the relative humidity of 50% at dawn and 25% at midday does not
necessarily mean that there is half the amount of water in the air at midday but
that the air at its midday temperature can hold twice the amount of water as its
dawn temperature.
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Readings of the mean daily maximum and minimum relative

humidities for each month are essential for climatic analysis for the designer.

1.3.3 Air Movement

Air movement and prevailing wind directions are usually recorded in

terms of the average of daily or monthly changes in wind direction in degrees
and speed in metres per second.

Caution should be exercised by the designer in the interpretation and

use of meteorological wind data, as both the velocity and direction of air
movement are extremely sensitive to local conditions. Usually data of air
movement are recorded ten metres above an open ground (often the local
airport); but different topographical conditions, vegetation and buildings can
reverse the prevailing wind direction and change its velocity as it affects a
particular site.

1.3.4 Sky Conditions

Sky conditions are usually described in terms of the proportion of the

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sky covered by cloud, averaged over the days of each month and again over the
number of years for which records have been maintained. This may be
recorded twice a day (morning and afternoon) as percentages, tenths or eighths
of the hemisphere of the sky. This description does not necessarily indicate the
amount of direct sunshine that a locality receives, which is of information to the
designers of buildings. However, some meteorological stations do record the
average daily hours of sunshine.
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1.3.5 Precipitation

The amount of rainfall or precipitation is usually recorded as the

average mm/day or mm/month and this gives a useful indication of seasonal
changes. Often, average maximum rainfall in 24 hours or the average number
of days in which a certain amount (say 2.5 cm.) of rain has fallen is also
provided. This information is useful as an indicator of the intensity of rain,
which will influence the design of openings, roofs, gutters, etc.

1.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CLIMATIC ZONES FOR INDIA

The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the

gravitational forces, together with the distribution of land and sea masses,
produce an almost infinite variety of climates. However, certain zones and
belts of approximately uniform climates can be distinguished. It is essential for
the designer to be familiar with the character and location of these zones, as
they are indicative of the climatic problems he is likely to encounter.

Boundaries of climatic zones cannot be accurately mapped. One

zone merges gradually and almost imperceptibly into the next. It is,
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nevertheless, easy to identify the zone or the transition area between two zones,
to which a particular settlement belongs.

The classification of climate for different types of buildings is an aid

to the functional design of dwellings. Our country is zoned into several regions
such that the differences of climate from region to region are capable of being
reflected in building design, warranting some special provision for each region.
The constituents of climate, which promote a particular mode of heat
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dissipation from the human body and thus require some specific features in
building design, are grouped together to form a climatic zone.

With the on set of the technological influence and scientific awareness,

the word 'Human Comfort' has gained prominence. While talking of buildings
in particular, there has been a wide range of solutions to the building design for
tempering the harsh extreme climate to comfortable indoor environment. A
large body of research literature available for extreme climate discusses the
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physiological aspects of the climate, its influence on the building envelope and
its interiors. However, for hot and humid climate, there is not much of
information available on human comfort requirements. There are two
published climate classifications for India available for climatic designers.

1. Bureau of Indian Standards climate classification IS : 3792 (1978),

reconfirmed in 1999
2. Climatic zones of India by N.K. Bansal and G. Minke (1988).

1.4.1 Bureau of Indian Standards Climate Classification

IS: 3792 (1978)

The Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.) classified the climates of

India into four major types of climate relevant to building design, namely, hot
and arid, hot and humid, warm and humid, and cold zones which were
generated for the first time based on the identified locations given in
Appendix - 1 (Fig. 1.1). In India, many regions alternately experience two or
even three types of climate during the course of the year with varying intensity
and duration. Such regions are said to have a composite climate. For instance,
the plains of northern part of India experience hot and dry condition from April
to June, warm and humid conditions from July to September and cold to very
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cold conditions from December to February. The climatic designer ought to

incorporate the salient design requirements in respect of all the prevailing types
depending upon their duration and severity, and to compromise on decisions
regarding the conflicting features.

As guidance, the country may be divided into the following climatic

zones as described in IS: 3792 (1978) First revision.

i. Hot and Arid Zone

The regions, where mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature is

38°C or higher and relative humidity of 40% or less prevail during the hottest
month of the year and where the altitude is not more than 500m above Mean
Sea Level (M.S.L), may be classified as hot and arid zones. Some
representative towns falling under this zone are given in Appendix - 1.

ii. Hot and Humid Zone

The regions, where mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature is

above 32°C and relative humidity above 40% prevail during the hottest month
of the year and where the altitude is not more than 500m above Mean Sea Level
(M.S.L), may be classified as hot and humid zones. Some representative towns
falling under this zone are given in Appendix -1.

iii. Warm and Humid Zone

The regions, where mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature is

26°C to 32°C and relative humidity of 70% or above prevail during the hottest
month of the year and where altitude is not more than 100 m above Mean Sea
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Level (M.S.L) may be classified as warm and humid zones. Some

representative towns falling under this zone are given in Appendix -1.

iv. Cold Zone

The regions where mean daily minimum dry bulb temperature of 6°C
or less prevail during the coldest month of the year and where the altitude is
more than 1200m above Mean Sea Level (M.S.L), may be classified as cold
zones. Some representative towns under this zone are given in Appendix -1.

According to Bureau of Indian Standards (1978), a hot and humid

climate essentially means whose air temperature is more than 32°C and the
relative humidity is above 40% during the hottest month of the year. So far, the
literature available talks of light weight structure and high ventilation rates
within the structure itself for an acceptable indoor environment. In reality, the
wind speed levels available at the opening is so low that it is insufficient to
meet ventilation demand, due to which human response is to go mechanical.

It is noted that 35% of the Indian sub-continent is surrounded by the

Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. It is largely this zone, which
is classified as hot and humid zone.

The detailed zonal classification under hot and humid regions was
not mapped so far.

1.4.2 Climate Classification by N.K. Bansal and G. Minke (1988)

India is a country whose climatic variations differ with the latitude

and longitude and ranges from hot desert regions of high altitude locations with
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severely cold conditions, similar to northern Europe. Based on monthly mean

data the country was divided into six climatic zones by Bansal and Minke [9]
from the point of climatic design (Fig. 1.2). Based on monthly mean data
recorded in 233 stations located in various parts of India, it was found
convenient to divide the country into the following 6 climatic zones.

i. Hot and dry (HD)

ii. Warm and Humid (WH)
iii. Moderate (MO)
iv. Cold and Cloudy (CC)
V. Cold and Sunny (CS)
vi. Composite (CO)

Table 1.1 shows the criteria for the classification of climates. The
delineated six climatic zones are presented in Figure 1.2.

Table 1.1 Criteria for the classification of climates

Mean monthly Relative

Precipitation No. of
Climate temperature Humidity
(mm) clear days
(°C) (%)
Hot and Dry (HD) >30 <55 <5 >20
Warm and Humid (WH) >30 >55 >75 <20
Moderate (MO) 20-30 <75 <5 <20
Cold and Cloudy (CC) <25 >55 >5 <20
Cold and Sunny (CS) <25 <55 <5 >20
Composite (CO) This applies, when six months or more do not fall within
any of the above categories.
Source: Climatic zones and rural housing in India (Bansal and Minke, 1988)
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However, the proposed climate classification for the climatic

designers is discussed in the eighth chapter under results, discussions and
conclusions.

1.5 THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDING ENVELOPE

In the course of thousands of years, man has learnt to regulate the

heat loss from his body and withstand wide variations of climate in suitable
enclosed spaces. Indoor comfort is greatly influenced by the climatic
conditions prevailing outdoors, which are modulated by appropriate building
design.

A building envelope separates the inside spaces from the outside

environment for creating stable and comfortable thermal conditions for the
occupants. The internal environment within a building results from the
response of the building to the changing outdoor solar radiation, temperature,
humidity and wind velocity. Building elements like roof, and walls (with
different orientation, thickness, absorptivity, structure and texture) react to the
outdoor conditions. The building should be designed so that it opens itself to
those climatic factors, which make seasonal conditions more comfortable, and
closes itself to the ones, which make the seasonal comfort worst, which reduces
the cooling requirement of the building.

A building is acceptable from a climatic point of view if it provides

indoor conditions, which permit sound sleep at night and the pursuit of normal
physical and mental activities by day without strain from excessive heat or
humidity. This can be achieved only if each of its parts or elements is designed
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to have a favourable effect on the indoor climate or, if this is not possible, if
care is taken to limit harmful effects to such an extent that they can be tolerated.

From the thermal performance point of view, in the context of

cooling in summer, bio-climatic architectural design can only minimise the
solair elevation. Bio-climatic architecture in hot region, involves architectural
design and choice of materials, aiming at providing comfort while minimising
the demand for energy used to cool a building (Givoni, 1994). It involves
minimising heat gain by the building, minimising solar heating of the envelope
and providing comfort by natural ventilation etc.

Architectural means for achieving these aims include conventional

design elements, such as the layout of buildings, orientation, the number and
size, location and details of its windows, the shading devices surrounding it,
and the thermal resistance and heat capacity of its envelope. Appropriate
architectural bio-climatic design in a region with hot summers can be
considered as a precondition for the application of passive cooling systems.

While dealing with the hot and humid region, very little has been
researched about the thermal performance. The hot and humid air blowing over
the human body and the stickiness of the skin accompanied by unpleasant body
odour drive the human mind to tackle this problem.

1.6 COMMENTS

Research is a field, which is never ending, and the scope is immense.

However, the basic purpose of research is lost when either the information is
not disseminated or the research itself is fragmented. This is one of the
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problems while dealing with this subject. The books reviewed so far contain
information, which are repeated over and over again in each of the books.
Where detailed study of hot and humid climate is concerned, none of the books
follow the classification brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standards on
Functional Efficiency in Buildings. The other major drawback is most of the
books deal with the humid regions qualitatively and in fragments.
Quantification of the aspects of design and climate is very essential. There now
exists an extensive and growing body of knowledge of direct use to the
designers of buildings.

However, as so often happens, there tends to be a professional

‘Language barrier’ between the producers and users of information; in this case
between the scientists and architects. Therefore among the objectives of this
study is that of interpretation, the translation of scientific and mathematical
jargon to the graphical language of designers, wherever possible during the
analysis. An in-depth analysis of human comfort at the user level is lacking and
needs to be dealt with in a holistic manner.

1.7 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This study aims in helping the climatic designer with a methodology

of evaluating the performance of buildings in a systematic manner in hot and
humid regions. There have been many studies carried out on hot and dry and
desert climates as well as cold climates, but not much work was done on hot
and humid climate. The different house typologies of traditional coastal housing
are also compared in this work.
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The study will concern the following objectives:

i) To identify the house typologies in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry.
ii) To identify the predominant materials used in built forms.
iii) To analyse the performance of indoor space of the identified house
typologies.
iv) To develop an architectural programme and methodology for prediction
of the change in the inside surface temperature.
v) To suggest guidelines for bio-climatic housing design for hot and humid
regions.

1.8 SCOPE AND CONTENT

The studies will greatly help in most housing in coastal states of

Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in south India. It gives
broad design strategies in housing in order to provide human comfort in the
built forms. The study also helps in choosing appropriate locally available
building materials in built forms thereby achieving comfort and economy.
Computer programme is developed to determine the internal surface
temperature and to test the thermal comfort. The detailed study is first of its
kind for hot and humid regions of India. This could open out new concepts, use
of newer materials and detailing in the design of buildings in the hot and humid
region.

The scope of this research lies in its use by the architects, engineers
and planners in planning and designing housing in the coastal regions of Tamil
Nadu and Pondicherry in order to create a comfortable indoor and immediate
outdoor environment.
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1.9 LIMITATION

The entire study is limited to hot and humid climate- of coastal

regions of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry in south India, though there are many
more regions in India falling in this category (specific towns and cities
identified by the B.I.S., 1987). This region has been chosen because of
familiarity and vastness of area.

The locations of the case studies are broad representative samples of

this region. The study area stretches to nearly 200 km from Ennore (15 km
north of Chennai) and extends up to Pondicherry (195 km south of Chennai).

1.10 ORGANISATION OF REPORT

The entire study has been organised into eight chapters. The first
chapter confines to climate classification, outlines the problems of hot and
humid region and objectives of the research.

The second chapter deals with the historical review on climate

responsive built forms and finally climatic design in present context.

The third chapter outlines the thermal sensation and comfort, wherein
mechanism of thermal control in the body and the various comfort scales were
reviewed. Emphasis here was on thermal comfort in hot countries with special
reference to Indian context. More importantly, hot and humid location is
discussed in this chapter. An introduction to thermo physical properties of
building materials are also included here and thus providing the backdrop for
evaluation of thermal performance of housing in hot and humid region.
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Since ventilation is of prime consideration for cooling the buildings

in hot and humid region, this is covered in detail in chapter four. The two ways
in which ventilation can improve comfort namely, i) the comfort ventilation and
ii) nocturnal ventilative cooling are discussed here. Minimising cooling needs
by building design, specially for hot and humid region along with the guidelines
for buildings are outlined in this chapter.

The house typologies for the three case study locations in Ennore,
Tiruporur in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry coupled with the field measurements
which are the basis of analysis are dealt in chapter five.

Chapter six explains the newly generated climate classification for

India that could be used by climatic designers for analysis. The chapter also
provides a detailed methodology for evaluating the thermal performance of
building envelope namely roofs and walls. A flow chart is also developed
highlighting the methodology.

The climatic data collected for the analysis and evaluation of house
typologies identified in the case studies are presented here in chapter seven.
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In chapter eight, the summary on climate classifications, the results,

discussions and conclusions on the thermal performances of the roof, and walls
of house typologies that have been analysed for the case studies of Tamil Nadu
and Pondicherry are presented. Finally, guidelines and recommendations for the
housing design in hot and humid regions are presented based on the research.