SUB-STATION EQUIPMENTS & ITS FUNCTIONS

Lightening Arrester
Lightening arrestors are the instrument that are used in the incoming feeders so that to
prevent the high voltage entering the main station. This high voltage is very dangerous to the
instruments used in the substation. Even the instruments are very costly, so to prevent any
damage lightening arrestors are used. The lightening arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on
the station. If some lightening occurs the arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth.
In any substation the main important is of protection which is firstly done by these lightening
arrestors. The lightening arrestors are grounded to the earth so that it can pull the lightening to
the ground. The lightening arrestor works with an angle of 30° to 45° making a cone.

CVT
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step-
down extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to
operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors
across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device to the
supply frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage for the
instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage
terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one set of
secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically
single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the
use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor, C1, is often
replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series. This results in a large voltage drop across
the stack of capacitors that replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small voltage drop
across the second capacitor, C2, and hence the secondary terminals.

Wave Trap
Wave trap is an instrument using for tripping of the wave. The function of this trap is that
it traps the unwanted waves. Its function is of trapping wave. Its shape is like a drum. It is
connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may be dangerous to
the instruments here in the substation.
Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformers are used to step-down the current or voltage to measurable
values. They provide standardized, useable levels of current or voltage in a variety of power
monitoring and measurement applications. Both current and voltage instrument transformers are
designed to have predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current
protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio
even during a short circuit.
These are further classified into two types which are discussed below.
a. Current Transformers
b. Potential Transformers
Current Transformer
Current transformers are basically used to take the readings of the currents entering the
substation. This transformer steps down the current from 800 amps to 1 amp. This is done
because we have no instrument for measuring of such a large current. The main use of this
transformer is
a. Distance Protection
b. Backup Protection
c. Measurement
A current transformer is defined as an instrument transformer in which the secondary
current is substantially proportional to the primary current (under normal conditions of
operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an
appropriate direction of the connections. This highlights the accuracy requirement of the current
transformer but also important is the isolating function, which means no matter what the system
voltage the secondary circuit need to be insulated only for a low voltage.
The current transformer works on the principle of variable flux. In the ideal current
transformer, secondary current would be exactly equal (when multiplied by the turns ratio) and
opposite to the primary current. But, as in the voltage transformer, some of the primary current
or the primary ampere-turns are utilized for magnetizing the core, thus leaving less than the
actual primary ampere turns to be transformed into the secondary ampere-turns. This naturally
introduces an error in the transformation. The error is classified into current ratio error and the
phase error

Potential Transformer
There are two potential transformers used in the bus connected both side of the bus. The
potential transformer uses a bus isolator to protect itself. The main use of this transformer is to
measure the voltage through the bus. This is done so as to get the detail information of the
voltage passing through the bus to the instrument. There are two main parts in it
a. Measurement
b. Protection
The standards define a voltage transformer as one in which the secondary voltage is
substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is
approximately equal to zero for an appropriate direction of the connections. This in essence
means that the voltage transformer has to be as close as possible to the ideal transformer.
In an ideal transformer, the secondary voltage vector is exactly opposite and equal to the
primary voltage vector when multiplied by the turn’s ratio.
In a practical transformer, errors are introduced because some current is drawn for the
magnetization of the core and because of drops in the primary and secondary windings due to
leakage reactance and winding resistance. One can thus talk of a voltage error which is the
amount by which the voltage is less than the applied primary voltage and the phase error which
is the phase angle by which the reversed secondary voltage vector is displaced from the primary
voltage vector.
Bus Bar
The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the instruments for
further step up or step down. The first bus is used for putting the incoming feeders in la single
line. There may be double line in the bus so that if any fault occurs in the one the other can still
have the current and the supply will not stop. The two lines in the bus are separated by a little
distance by a conductor having a connector between them. This is so that one can work at a time
and the other works only if the first is having any fault.
A bus bar in electrical power distribution refers to thick strips of copper or aluminum that
conduct electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation, or other electrical
apparatus. The size of the bus bar is important in determining the maximum amount of current
that can be safely carried. Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross sectional area ratio.
The skin effect makes 50-60 Hz AC bus bars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient, so
hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has higher
stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current carrying capacity, which allows a greater span
between bus bar supports in outdoor switchyards. A bus bar may either be supported on
insulators or else insulation may completely surround it. Bus bars are protected from accidental
contact either by a metal enclosure or by elevation out of normal reach.
Neutral bus bars may also be insulated. Earth bus bars are typically bolted directly onto
any metal chassis of their enclosure. Bus bars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of
bus duct or bus way, segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus.

Circuit Breaker
The circuit breakers are used to break the circuit if any fault occurs in any of the
instrument. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other instrument in the
station. For any unwanted fault over the station we need to break the line current. This is only
done automatically by the circuit breaker. There are mainly two types of circuit breakers used for
any substations. They are
a. SF6 circuit breakers
b. Spring circuit breakers.
The use of SF6 circuit breaker is mainly in the substations which are having high input kv
input, say above 220kv and more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker by force i.e. under
high pressure. When if the gas gets decreases there is a motor connected to the circuit breaker.
The motor starts operating if the gas went lower than 20.8 bar. There is a meter connected to the
breaker so that it can be manually seen if the gas goes low. The circuit breaker uses the SF6 gas
to reduce the torque produce in it due to any fault in the line. The circuit breaker has a direct link
with the instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell rings.
The spring type of circuit breakers is used for small kv stations. The spring here reduces
the torque produced so that the breaker can function again. The spring type is used for step down
side of 132kv to 33kv also in 33kv to 11kv and so on. They are only used in low distribution
side.

Transformer
 There are three transformers in the incoming feeders so that the three lines are step down
at the same time. In case of a 220KV or more KV line station auto transformers are used. While
in case of lower KV line such as less than 132KV line double winding transformers are used.
The transformer is transported on trailor to substation site and as far as possible directly
unloaded on the plinth. Transformer tanks up to 25 MVA capacity are generally oil filled, and
those of higher capacity are transported with N2 gas filled in them +ve pressure of N2 is
maintained in transformer tank to avoid the ingress of moisture. This pressure should be
maintained during storage, if necessary by filling N2 Bushings - generally transported in wooden
cases in horizontal position and should be stored in that position. There being more of fragile
material, care should be taken while handling them. Radiators – These should be stored with
ends duly blanked with gaskets and end plates to avoid in gross of moisture, dust, and any
foreign materials inside. The care should be taken to protect the fins of radiators while unloading
and storage to avoid further oil leakages. The radiators should be stored on raised ground
keeping the fins intact.

Oil Piping. The Oil piping should also be blanked at the ends with gasket and blanking plates to
avoid in gross of moisture, dust, and foreign All other accessories like temperature meters, oil
flow indicators, PRVs, buchholz relay; oil surge relays; gasket ‘ O ‘ rings etc. should be properly
packed and stored indoor in store shed. Oil is received in sealed oil barrels. The oil barrels
should be stored in horizontal position with the lids on either side in horizontal position to
maintain oil pressure on them from inside and subsequently avoiding moisture and water ingress
into oil. The transformers are received on site with loose accessories hence the materials should
be checked as per bills of materials.

Isolator

The use of this isolator is to protect the transformer and the other instrument in the line.
The isolator isolates the extra voltage to the ground and thus any extra voltage cannot enter the
line. Thus an isolator is used after the bus also for protection.

Control and Relay Panel

The control and relay panel is of cubical construction suitable for floor mounting. All
protective, indicating and control elements are mounted on the front panel for ease of operation
and control. The hinged rear door will provide access to all the internal components to facilitate
easy inspection and maintenance. Provision is made for terminating incoming cables at the
bottom of the panels by providing separate line-up terminal blocks. For cable entry provision is
made both from top and bottom. The control and relay panel accepts CT, PT aux 230 AC and
220V/10V DC connections at respective designated terminal points. 220V/10V DC supply is
used for control supply of all internal relays and timers and also for energizing closing and
tripping coils of the breakers. 230V AC station auxiliary supply is used for internal illumination
lamp of the panel and the space heater. Protective HRC fuse are provided with in the panel for
P.T secondary. Aux AC and battery supplies. Each Capacitor Bank is controlled by breaker and
provided with a line ammeter with selector switch for 3 phase system & over current relay (2
phases and 1 Earth fault for 3 ph system). Under voltage and over voltage relays. Neutral Current
Unbalance Relays are for both Alarm and Trip facilities breaker control switch with local/remote
selector switch, master trip relay and trip alarms acknowledge and reset facilities.

Protective Relaying
Protective relays are used to detect defective lines or apparatus and to initiate the
operation of circuit interrupting devices to isolate the defective equipment. Relays are also used
to detect abnormal or undesirable operating conditions other than those caused by defective
equipment and either operate an alarm or initiate operation of circuit interrupting devices.
Protective relays protect the electrical system by causing the defective apparatus or lines to be
disconnected to minimize damage and maintain service continuity to the rest of the system.
There are different types of relays.
i. Over current relay
ii. Distance relay
iii. Differential relay
iv. Directional over current relay
i. Over Current Relay
The over current relay responds to a magnitude of current above a specified value. There
are four basic types of construction: They are plunger, rotating disc, static, and microprocessor
type. In the plunger type, a plunger is moved by magnetic attraction when the current exceeds a
specified value. In the rotating induction-disc type, which is a motor, the disc rotates by
electromagnetic induction when the current exceeds a specified value.
Static types convert the current to a proportional D.C mill volt signal and apply it to a
level detector with voltage or contact output. Such relays can be designed to have various
current-versus-time operating characteristics. In a special type of rotating induction-disc relay,
called the voltage restrained over current relay. The magnitude of voltage restrains the operation
of the disc until the magnitude of the voltage drops below a threshold value. Static over current
relays are equipped with multiple curve characteristics and can duplicate almost any shape of
electromechanical relay curve. Microprocessor relays convert the current to a digital signal. The
digital signal can then be compared to the setting values input into the relay. With the
microprocessor relay, various curves or multiple time-delay settings can be input to set the relay
operation. Some relays allow the user to define the curve with points or calculations to determine
the output characteristics.
ii. Distance Relay
The distance relay responds to a combination of both voltage and current. The voltage
restrains operation, and the fault current causes operation that has the overall effect of measuring
impedance. The relay operates instantaneously (within a few cycles) on a 60-cycle basis for
values of impedance below the set value. When time delay is required, the relays energizes a
separate time-delay relay or function with the contacts or output of this time-delay relay or
function performing the desired output functions. The relay operates on the magnitude of
impedance measured by the combination of restraint voltage and the operating current passing
through it according to the settings applied to the relay. When the impedance is such that the
impedance point is within the impedance characteristic circle, the relay will trip. The relay is
inherently directional. The line impedance typically corresponds to the diameter of the circle
with the reach of the relay being the diameter of the circle.
iii. Differential Relay
The differential relay is a current-operated relay that responds to the difference between
two or more device currents above a set value. The relay works on the basis of the differential
principle that what goes into the device has to come out .If the current does not add to zero, the
error current flows to cause the relay to operate and trip the circuit.
The differential relay is used to provide internal fault protection to equipment such as
transformers, generators, and buses. Relays are designed to permit differences in the input
currents as a result of current transformer mismatch and applications where the input currents
come from different system voltages, such as transformers. A current differential relay provides
restraint coils on the incoming current circuits. The restraint coils in combination with the
operating coil provide an operation curve, above which the relay will operate. Differential relays
are often used with a lockout relay to trip all power sources to the device and prevent the device
from being automatically or remotely reenergized. These relays are very sensitive. The operation
of the device usually means major problems with the protected equipment and the likely failure
in re-energizing the equipment.
iv. Directional Over current Relay
A directional over current relay operates only for excessive current flow in a given
direction. Directional over current relays are available in electromechanical, static, and
microprocessor constructions. An electromechanical overcorrect relay is made directional by
adding a directional unit that prevents the over current relay from operating until the directional
unit has operated. The directional unit responds to the product of the magnitude of current,
voltage, and the phase angle between them or to the product of two currents and the phase angle
between them. The value of this product necessary to provide operation of the directional unit is
small, so that it will not limit the sensitivity of the relay (such as an over current relay that it
controls). In most cases, the directional element is mounted inside the same case as the relay it
controls. For example, an over current relay and a directional element are mounted in the same
case, and the combination is called a directional over current relay. Microprocessor relays often
provide a choice as to the polarizing method that can be used in providing the direction of fault,
such as applying residual current or voltage or negative sequence current or voltage polarizing
functions to the relay.

DC Power Supply
I . DC Battery and Charger
All but the smallest substations include auxiliary power supplies. AC power is required
for substation building small power, lighting, heating and ventilation, some communications
equipment, switchgear operating mechanisms, anti-condensation heaters and motors. DC power
is used to feed essential services such as circuit breaker trip coils and associated relays,
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and communications equipment. This
describes how these auxiliary supplies are derived and explains how to specify such equipment.
It has Single 100% battery and 100% charger, Low capital cost, No standby DC System outage
for maintenance. Need to isolate battery/charger combination from load under boost charge
conditions in order to prevent high boost voltages.
I I . Battery and Charger configurations
Capital cost and reliability objectives must first be considered before defining the battery
and battery charger combination to be used for a specific installation. The comparison given in
Table 5.1 describes the advantages and disadvantages of three such combinations.
Capital cost and reliability objectives must first be considered before defining the
battery/battery charger combination to be used for a specific installation. The comparison given
describes the advantages and disadvantages of three such combinations
III . 400V DC Battery

Make: Exide
Capacity: 300 AH at 27°
No. of Cells: 110 No.
Date of installation: 06/2001
Make: Universal,
Sr. No. : BC 1020/82
Date of manufacturing: 4/2000
Input Rating: Voltage: 415 V + 10 %
Output Rating : Float: 220 V, 10 Amp
Boost: 180 V, 30Amp
Functions of Associated System in Substation
Functions of Associated System in Substation is as shown below in table-4.1
Table-4.1 Functions of Associated System in Substation
Sr. System Function
1. Substation Earthing system To provide an earth mat for connecting neutral
- Earth mat points, equipment body, support structures to earth.
- Earthing spikes For safety of personnel and for enabling earth fault
- Earthing risers protection. To provide the path for discharging the
earth currents from neutrals, faults, Surge Arresters,
overheads shielding wires etc. with safe step-
potential and touch potential.

2. Overhead earth wire To protect the outdoor substation equipment from

shielding or Lightning lightning strokes.
masts.
3. Illumination system To provide proper illumination to substation yard.
(lighting)
- for switchyard
- buildings
- roads etc.
4. Protection system To provide alarm or automatic tripping of faulty part
- protection relay panels from healthy part and also to minimize damage to
- control cables faulty equipment and associated system.
- circuit breakers
- CTs, VTs etc.
5. Control cable For Protective circuits, control circuits, metering
circuits, communication circuits
6. Power cable To provide supply path to various auxiliary
equipment and machines.
7. PLCC system For communication, telemetry, tele-control, power
power line carrier line carrier protection etc.
communication system

8. Telephone, telex, For internal and external communication

microwave, OPF
9. Auxiliary standby power
system
10. Fire Fighting system
- Sensors, detection system
- water spray system
- fire port, panels, alarm
System.
- water tank and spray
system
For supplying starting power, standby power for
auxiliaries.
To sense the occurrence of fire by sensors and to
initiate water spray, to disconnect power supply to
affected region to pinpoint location of fire by
indication in control room.