Overview of Learning Theories

Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three basic types of
learning theory: behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. This
section provides a brief introduction to each type of learning theory. The theories are
treated in four parts: a short historical introduction, a discussion of the view of knowledge
presupposed by the theory, an account of how the theory treats learning and student
motivation, and finally, an overview of some of the instructional methods promoted by
the theory is presented.

Social
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism
Constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed within
behavioral actively constructed by social contexts
responses to learners based on pre- through interactions
environmental existing cognitive structures. with a knowledge
stimuli. community.
View of Passive absorption Active assimilation and Integration of
learning of a predefined accommodation of new students into a
body of knowledge information to existing knowledge
by the learner. cognitive structures. community.
Promoted by Discovery by learners. Collaborative
repetition and assimilation and
positive accommodation of
reinforcement. new information.
View of Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic; learners set their Intrinsic and
motivation positive and own goals and motivate extrinsic. Learning
negative themselves to learn. goals and motives
reinforcement. are determined both
by learners and
extrinsic rewards
provided by the
knowledge
community.
Implications Correct behavioral The teacher facilitates Collaborative
for responses are learning by providing an learning is
Teaching transmitted by the environment that promotes facilitated and
teacher and discovery and guided by the
absorbed by the assimilation/accommodation. teacher. Group
students. work.

LEARNING - DEFINITIONS
1. “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time
and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth.”
— From The Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne
2. “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior
due to experience. This definition has three components: 1) the duration of the
change is long-term rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the change is the
content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner; 3)
 the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather
than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention.”
–From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E. Mayer
3. “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that—
when internalized and mixed with what we have experienced—changes what we
know and builds on what we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is
what changes us.”
–From The New Social Learning by Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner
4. “It has been suggested that the term learning defies precise definition because it
is put to multiple uses. Learning is used to refer to (1) the acquisition and mastery
of what is already known about something, (2) the extension and clarification of
meaning of one’s experience, or (3) an organized, intentional process of testing
ideas relevant to problems. In other words, it is used to describe a product, a
process, or a function.”
–From Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults by R.M. Smith
5. “Acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory
so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities.” From Make It
Stick: The Science of Successful Learning by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger
III, Mark A. McDaniel
6. “A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential of improved performance and future learning.”
From How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart
Teaching by Susan Ambrose, et al.
7. “The process of gaining knowledge and expertise.”
From The Adult Learner by Malcolm Knowles
8. “Learning involves strengthening correct responses and weakening incorrect
responses. Learning involves adding new information to your memory. Learning
involves making sense of the presented material by attending to relevant
information, mentally reorganizing it, and connecting it with what you already
know.”
From eLearning and the Science of Instruction by Ruth C. Clark and Richard E.
Mayer
9. “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which]
must come about as a result of the learner’s experience and interaction with the
world.”
From Psychology of Learning for Instruction by M. Driscoll
10. “Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core
elements – not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as
actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organization or
a database), is focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the
connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current
state of knowing.”
DEVELOPMENT the process in which someone or something grows or changes and
becomes more advanced.
OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES
Learning theories try to better understand how the learning process works. Major
research traditions are behaviorism, cognitivism and self-regulated learning.
Many people recognize that each person prefers different learning styles and techniques.
Learning styles group common ways that people learn. Everyone has a mix of learning
styles. Some people may find that they have a dominant style of learning, with far less
use of the other styles. Others may find that they use different styles in different
circumstances. There is no right mix. Nor are your styles fixed. You can develop ability
in less dominant styles, as well as further develop styles that you already use well. Using
multiple learning styles and “multiple intelligences” for learning is a relatively new
approach. This approach is one that educators have only recently started to recognize.
Traditional schooling used (and continues to use) mainly linguistic and logical teaching
methods. It also uses a limited range of learning and teaching techniques. Many schools
still rely on classroom and book-based teaching, much repetition, and pressured exams
for reinforcement and review. A result is that we often label those who use these learning
styles and techniques as “bright.” Those who use less favored learning styles often find
themselves in lower classes, with various not-so-complimentary labels and sometimes
lower quality teaching. This can create positive and negative spirals that reinforce the
belief that one is “smart” or “dumb.” By recognizing and understanding your own learning
styles, you can use techniques better suited to you. This improves the speed and quality
of your learning.
LEARNING STYLES
The visual (spatial) learning style
If you use the visual style, you prefer using images, pictures, colors, and maps to
organize information and communicate with others. You can easily visualize objects,
plans and outcomes in your mind’s eye. You also have a good spatial sense, which gives
you a good sense of direction. You can easily find your way around using maps, and you
rarely get lost. When you walk out of an elevator, you instinctively know which way to
turn.
The whiteboard is a best friend (or would be if you had access to one). You love drawing,
scribbling and doodling, especially with colors. You typically have a good dress sense
and color balance (although not always!).
The aural (auditory-musical-rhythmic) learning style
If you use the aural style, you like to work with sound and music. You have a good sense
of pitch and rhythm. You typically can sing, play a musical instrument, or identify the
sounds of different instruments. Certain music invokes strong emotions. You notice the
music playing in the background of movies, TV shows and other media. You often find
yourself humming or tapping a song or jingle, or a theme or jingle pops into your head
without prompting.
The verbal (linguistic) learning style
The verbal style involves both the written and spoken word. If you use this style, you find
it easy to express yourself, both in writing and verbally. You love reading and writing.
You like playing on the meaning or sound of words, such as in tongue twisters, rhymes,
limericks and the like. You know the meaning of many words, and regularly make an
effort to find the meaning of new words. You use these words, as well as phrases you
have picked up recently, when talking to others.
The physical (bodily-kinesthetic) learning style
If the physical style is more like you, it’s likely that you use your body and sense of touch
to learn about the world around you. It’s likely you like sports and exercise, and other
physical activities such as gardening or woodworking. You like to think out issues, ideas
and problems while you exercise. You would rather go for a run or walk if something is
bothering you, rather than sitting at home.
You are more sensitive to the physical world around you. You notice and appreciate
textures, for example in clothes or furniture. You like “getting your hands dirty,” or making
models, or working out jigsaws. You typically use larger hand gestures and other body
language to communicate. You probably don’t mind getting up and dancing either, at
least when the time is right. You either love the physical action of theme park rides, or
they upset your inner body sense too much and so you avoid them altogether.
When you are learning a new skill or topic, you would prefer to “jump in” and play with
the physical parts as soon as possible. You would prefer to pull an engine apart and put
it back together, rather than reading or looking at diagrams about how it works.
The thought of sitting in a lecture listening to someone else talk is repulsive. In those
circumstances, you fidget or can’t sit still for long. You want to get up and move around.
The logical (mathematical) learning style
If you use the logical style, you like using your brain for logical and mathematical
reasoning. You can recognize patterns easily, as well as connections between seemingly
meaningless content. This also leads you to classify and group information to help you
learn or understand it.
You work well with numbers and you can perform complex calculations. You remember
the basics of trigonometry and algebra, and you can do moderately complex calculations
in your head.
You typically work through problems and issues in a systematic way, and you like to
create procedures for future use. You are happy setting numerical targets and budgets,
and you track your progress towards these. You like creating agendas, itineraries, and
todo lists, and you typically number and rank them before putting them into action.
Your scientific approach to thinking means you often support your points with logical
examples or statistics. You pick up logic flaws in other peoples words, writing or actions,
and you may point these out to people (not always to everyone’s amusement).
You like working out strategies and using simulation. You may like games such as
brainteasers, backgammon, and chess. You may also like PC games such as Dune II,
Starcraft, Age of Empires, Sid Meier games and others.
The social (interpersonal) learning style
If you have a strong social style, you communicate well with people, both verbally and
non-verbally. People listen to you or come to you for advice, and you are sensitive to
their motivations, feelings or moods. You listen well and understand other’s views. You
may enjoy mentoring or counseling others.
You typically prefer learning in groups or classes, or you like to spend much one-on-one
time with a teacher or an instructor. You heighten your learning by bouncing your
thoughts off other people and listening to how they respond. You prefer to work through
issues, ideas and problems with a group. You thoroughly enjoy working with a “clicking”
or synergistic group of people.
You prefer to stay around after class and talk with others. You prefer social activities,
rather than doing your own thing. You typically like games that involve other people, such
as card games and board games. The same applies to team sports such as football or
soccer, basketball, baseball, volleyball, baseball and hockey.
The solitary (intrapersonal) learning style
If you have a solitary style, you are more private, introspective and independent. You
can concentrate well, focusing your thoughts and feelings on your current topic. You are
aware of your own thinking, and you may analyze the different ways you think and feel.
You spend time on self-analysis, and often reflect on past events and the way you
approached them. You take time to ponder and assess your own accomplishments or
challenges. You may keep a journal, diary or personal log to record your personal
thoughts and events.
You like to spend time alone. You may have a personal hobby. You prefer traveling or
holidaying in remote or places, away from crowds.
You feel that you know yourself. You think independently, and you know your mind. You
may have attended self-development workshops, read self-help books or used other
methods to develop a deeper understanding of yourself.
You prefer to work on problems by retreating to somewhere quiet and working through
possible solutions. You may sometimes spend too much time trying to solve a problema
that you could more easily solve by talking to someone.
You like to make plans and set goals. You know your direction in life and work. You
prefer to work for yourself, or have thought a lot about it. If you don’t know your current
direction in life, you feel a deep sense of dissatisfaction.
THE ANTECEDENTS OF A PSICOLOGY OF LEARNING
The psychology of learning is a theoretical science.
Plato and Aristotle.
Grinder traces the origins of Educational Psychology to Plato who believed thatall
knowledge is innate at birth and is perfectible by experiential learningduring growth.
Aristotle, Plato's student, was the first to observe that "association"among ideas
facilitated understanding and recall. He believed thatcomprehension was aided by
contiguity, succession, similarity and contrast.
Locke
In the late 1600's, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learnprimarily from
external forces. He believed that the mind was like a blank wastablet (tabula rasa), and
that successions of simple impressions giverise to complex ideas through association
and reflection. Locke is creditedwith establishing "empiricism" as a criterion for testing
thevalidity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for laterdevelopment of
excremental methodology in the natural and social sciences.
Comenius
John Comenius (1592-1670) was a Moravian clergyman, and the first person torecognize
the age differences in children's ability to learn. He also noticedthat children learn more
effectively when they are involved with experiencesthat they can assimilate.
Rousseau
In France, during the mid 18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau put forth a newtheory
of educational pedagogy. In his famous work Emile, published in1762, he explained his
views on the benefits of health and physical exercise, and the belief that knowledge
acquisition occurs though experience and thatreason and investigation should replace
arbitrary authority. He proposededucating children according to their natural inclinations,
impulses andfeelings.
Pestalozzi
Some people consider Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) to be the firstapplied
educational psychologist. He was one of the first educators whoattempted to put
Rousseau's teaching into practice and teach children by drawingupon their natural
interests and activities.
Spencer
Herbert Spencer helped transform sentiments about pedagogy into systematictheory
and method through his emphasis on the scientific study of theeducational process.
Herbart
Johann Friedrich Herbart is acknowledged as the "father of scientificpedagogy" (in
Grinder, 1989). He was the first scientist to distinguishinstructional process from subject
matter. According to Herbart, interestdevelops when already strong and vivid ideas are
hospitable towards new ones,thus past associations motivate apperception of current
ones. Herbartianism, inpredicting that learning follows from building up sequences of
ideas importantto the individual, gave teachers a semblance of a theory of motivation.
Wundt
Herbartian psychology led to the founding of Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory in1879. Wundt
extended Herbart's theory of apperception into a theory ofconsciousness, whereby he
sought to explain associations among mental processes.
Titchener
One of Wundt's students, Edward Bradford Titchener (1867- 1927) was one of thefirst
eminent Educational Psychologists to practice in America. He was directorof the
psychology laboratory at Cornell University, and he regarded the study ofthe generalized
mind to be the only legitimate purpose of psychologicalinvestigation. He focused on such
higher mental processes as concept formationand argued that introspection is a valid
form for interpreting great variety ofsensations and feelings.
Dewey
In 1896, John Dewey launched an attack against Titchener and his ideas. Dewey argued
that a stimulus and the response it elicits constitute a reflexarc, and that that arc should
be the minimal unit of analysis, and its functionshould be the basis for understanding it.
Dewey believed that individualsaddress aspects of their environment, not because these
features possess thequalities of being interesting, but because they are viewed
instrumentally asways of realizing a purpose. This belief gave rise to the theory of
"functionalism". Functionalism encouraged developments in mental testing,
investigation ofindividual differences and studies of adaptive behavior.
Thorndike
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) disdained what he considered to beintuitive, common
sense psychology. He agreed with functionalism, but preferredto be identified as a
"connectionist" because he sought to explain learning in terms of stimulus-response
connections. He is credited withestablishing the "Law of Effect" to account for
thestrengthening or weakening of connections as a result of experience. In
1914Thorndike completed the three volume series, Educational Psychology. For nearly
fifty years the field of Educational Psychology embraced the theoryof associationism
without question.
Cognitive Psychology
By the mid 1950s cognitive views of learning gained ascendency over thestimulus-
response approach. Now questions pertaining to the role of mentalphenomenon in
learning and development were resurrected. Thus, with the renewedresearch interest
into how individuals acquire, retain, recall and transforminformation, investigations of
higher mental processes achieved unprecedentedlevels of sophistication and "the mind
is once again at the forefront oftheory and research in contemporary psychology".
(Grinder, 1989, p.12)
Reference
Grinder, R.E. (1989). Educational Psychology: the master science. InM.C. Wittrock & F.
Farley (Eds.), The Future of Educational Psychology (pp.3-18). Hillsdale New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
OVERVIEW OF ASSESSMENT

In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that
educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning
progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students.
While assessments are often equated with traditional tests—especially
the standardized tests developed by testing companies and administered to large
populations of students—educators use a diverse array of assessment tools and
methods to measure everything from a four-year-old’s readiness for kindergarten to a
twelfth-grade student’s comprehension of advanced physics. Just as academic lessons
have different functions, assessments are typically designed to measure specific
elements of learning—e.g., the level of knowledge a student already has about the
concept or skill the teacher is planning to teach or the ability to comprehend and analyze
different types of texts and readings. Assessments also are used to identify individual
student weaknesses and strengths so that educators can provide specialized academic
support, educational programming, or social services. In addition, assessments are
developed by a wide array of groups and individuals, including teachers, district
administrators, universities, private companies, state departments of education, and
groups that include a combination of these individuals and institutions.
While assessment can take a wide variety of forms in education, the following
descriptions provide a representative overview of a few major forms of educational
assessment.
Assessments are used for a wide variety of purposes in schools and education
systems:
 High-stakes assessments are typically standardized tests used for the purposes
of accountability—i.e., any attempt by federal, state, or local government agencies
to ensure that students are enrolled in effective schools and being taught by
effective teachers. In general, “high stakes” means that important decisions about
students, teachers, schools, or districts are based on the scores students achieve
on a high-stakes test, and either punishments (sanctions, penalties, reduced
funding, negative publicity, not being promoted to the next grade, not being allowed
to graduate) or accolades (awards, public celebration, positive publicity, bonuses,
grade promotion, diplomas) result from those scores. For a more detailed
discussion, see high-stakes test.
 Pre-assessments are administered before students begin a lesson, unit, course, or
academic program. Students are not necessarily expected to know most, or even
any, of the material evaluated by pre-assessments—they are generally used to (1)
establish a baseline against which educators measure learning progress over the
duration of a program, course, or instructional period, or (2) determine general
academic readiness for a course, program, grade level, or new academic
program that student may be transferring into.
 Formative assessments are in-process evaluations of student learning that are
typically administered multiple times during a unit, course, or academic program.
The general purpose of formative assessment is to give educators in-process
feedback about what students are learning or not learning so that instructional
approaches, teaching materials, and academic support can be modified
accordingly. Formative assessments are usually not scored or graded, and they may
take a variety of forms, from more formal quizzes and assignments to informal
questioning techniques and in-class discussions with students.
 Summative assessments are used to evaluate student learning at the conclusion
of a specific instructional period—typically at the end of a unit, course, semester,
program, or school year. Summative assessments are typically scored and graded
tests, assignments, or projects that are used to determine whether students have
learned what they were expected to learn during the defined instructional period.

Formative assessments are commonly said to be for learning because educators

use the results to modify and improve teaching techniques during an instructional
period, while summative assessments are said to be of learning because they
evaluate academic achievement at the conclusion of an instructional period. Or as
assessment expert Paul Black put it, “When the cook tastes the soup, that’s
formative assessment. When the customer tastes the soup, that’s summative
assessment.”
 Interim assessments are used to evaluate where students are in their learning
progress and determine whether they are on track to performing well on future
assessments, such as standardized tests, end-of-course exams, and other forms of
“summative” assessment. Interim assessments are usually administered
 periodically during a course or school year (for example, every six or eight weeks)
and separately from the process of instructing students (i.e., unlike formative
assessments, which are integrated into the instructional process).
 Placement assessments are used to “place” students into a course, course level,
or academic program. For example, an assessment may be used to determine
whether a student is ready for Algebra I or a higher-level algebra course, such as
an honors-level course. For this reason, placement assessments are administered
before a course or program begins, and the basic intent is to match students with
appropriate learning experiences that address their distinct learning needs.
 Screening assessments are used to determine whether students may need
specialized assistance or services, or whether they are ready to begin a course,
grade level, or academic program. Screening assessments may take a wide variety
of forms in educational settings, and they may be developmental, physical,
cognitive, or academic. A preschool screening test, for example, may be used to
determine whether a young child is physically, emotionally, socially, and
intellectually ready to begin preschool, while other screening tests may be used to
evaluate health, potential learning disabilities, and other student attributes.
Assessments are also designed in a variety of ways for different purposes:
 Standardized assessments are designed, administered, and scored in a standard,
or consistent, manner. They often use a multiple-choice format, though some
include open-ended, short-answer questions. Historically, standardized tests
featured rows of ovals that students filled in with a number-two pencil, but
increasingly the tests are computer-based. Standardized tests can be administered
to large student populations of the same age or grade level in a state, region, or
country, and results can be compared across individuals and groups of students.
For a more detailed discussion, see standardized test.
 Standards-referenced or standards-based assessments are designed to
measure how well students have mastered the specific knowledge and skills
described in local, state, or national learning standards. Standardized tests and
high-stakes tests may or may not be based on specific learning standards, and
individual schools and teachers may develop their own standards-referenced or
standards-based assessments. For a more detailed discussion, see proficiency-
based learning.
 Common assessments are used in a school or district to ensure that all teachers
are evaluating student performance in a more consistent, reliable, and effective
manner. Common assessments are used to encourage greater consistency in
teaching and assessment among teachers who are responsible for teaching the
same content, e.g. within a grade level, department, or content area. They allow
educators to compare performance results across multiple classrooms, courses,
schools, and/or learning experiences (which is not possible when educators teach
different material and individually develop their own distinct assessments). Common
assessments share the same format and are administered in consistent ways—e.g.,
teachers give students the same instructions and the same amount of time to
complete the assessment, or they use the same scoring guides to interpret results.
Common assessments may be “formative” or “summative.” For more detailed
discussions, see coherent curriculum and rubric.
 Performance assessments typically require students to complete a complex task,
such as a writing assignment, science experiment, speech, presentation,
performance, or long-term project, for example. Educators will often use
collaboratively developed common assessments, scoring guides, rubrics, and other
methods to evaluate whether the work produced by students shows that they have
learned what they were expected to learn. Performance assessments may also be
called “authentic assessments,” since they are considered by some educators to be
more accurate and meaningful evaluations of learning achievement than traditional
 tests. For more detailed discussions, see authentic learning, demonstration of
learning, and exhibition.
 Portfolio-based assessments are collections of academic work—for example,
assignments, lab results, writing samples, speeches, student-created films, or art
projects—that are compiled by students and assessed by teachers in consistent
ways. Portfolio-based assessments are often used to evaluate a “body of
knowledge”—i.e., the acquisition of diverse knowledge and skills over a period of
time. Portfolio materials can be collected in physical or digital formats, and they are
often evaluated to determine whether students have met required learning
standards. For a more detailed discussion, see portfolio.
The purpose of an assessment generally drives the way it is designed, and there are
many ways in which assessments can be used. A standardized assessment can be a
high-stakes assessment, for example, but so can other forms of assessment that are not
standardized tests. A portfolio of student work can be a used as both a “formative” and
“summative” form of assessment. Teacher-created assessments, which may also be
created by teams of teachers, are commonly used in a single course or grade level in a
school, and these assessments are almost never “high-stakes.” Screening assessments
may be produced by universities that have conducted research on a specific area of child
development, such as the skills and attributes that a student should have when entering
kindergarten to increase the likelihood that he or she will be successful, or the pattern of
behaviors, strengths, and challenges that suggest a child has a particular learning
disability. In short, assessments are usually created for highly specialized purposes.
Reform
While educational assessments and tests have been around since the days of the one-
room schoolhouse, they have increasingly assumed a central role in efforts to improve
the effectiveness of public schools and teaching. Standardized-test scores, for example,
are arguably the dominant measure of educational achievement in the United States,
and they are also the most commonly reported indicator of school, teacher, and school-
system performance.
As schools become increasingly equipped with computers, tablets, and wireless internet
access, a growing proportion of the assessments now administered in schools are either
computer-based or online assessments—though paper-based tests and assessments
are still common and widely used in schools. New technologies and
software applications are also changing the nature and use of assessments in
innumerable ways, given that digital-assessment systems typically offer an array of
features that traditional paper-based tests and assignments cannot. For example, online-
assessment systems may allow students to log in and take assessments during out-of-
class time or they may make performance results available to students and teachers
immediately after an assessment has been completed (historically, it might have taken
hours, days, or weeks for teachers to review, score, and grade all assessments for a
class). In addition, digital and online assessments typically include features, or
“analytics,” that give educators more detailed information about student performance.
For example, teachers may be able to see how long it took students to answer particular
questions or how many times a student failed to answer a question correctly before
getting the right answer. Many advocates of digital and online assessments tend to argue
that such systems, if used properly, could help teachers “personalize” instruction—
because many digital and online systems can provide far more detailed information
about the academic performance of students, educators can use this information to
modify educational programs, learning experiences, instructional approaches,
and academic-support strategies in ways that address the distinct learning needs,
interests, aspirations, or cultural backgrounds of individual students. In addition, many
large-scale standardized tests are now administered online, though states typically allow
students to take paper-based tests if computers are unavailable, if students prefer the
paper-based option, or if students don’t have the technological skills and literacy required
to perform well on an online assessment.

What is assessment for learning?

Assessment for learning (AFL) is an approach to teaching and learning that creates
feedback which is then used to improve students’ performance. Students become more
involved in the learning process and from this gain confidence in what they are expected
to learn and to what standard.
One way of thinking about AFL is that it aims to ‘close the gap’ between a learner’s
current situation and where they want to be in their learning and achievement. Skilled
teachers plan tasks which help learners to do this.
AFL involves students becoming more active in their learning and starting to ‘think like a
teacher’. They think more actively about where they are now, where they are going and
how to get there.

Effective teachers integrate AFL in their lessons as a natural part of what they do,
choosing how much or how little to use the method. AFL can be adapted to suit the age
and ability of the learners involved.
AFL strategies are directly linked to improvements in student performance in summative
tests and examinations. Research shows that these strategies particularly help low-
achieving students to enhance their learning.
AFL and the relationship with formative and summative assessment
Traditionally, AFL has been closely associated with formative assessment because
practices such as questioning and providing feedback help ‘form’ or ‘shape’ student
learning. This differs from summative assessment which typically is an attempt to
measure student attainment at the end of a period of learning.
The following table, based on the UK’s National Foundation for Educational Research
report(NFER 2007), classifies types of formative and summative assessment as either
formal or informal.

It can be argued that all of the assessment strategies in this table support AFL if their
ultimate use is to help the student progress in terms of their learning.
A good example of using a summative assessment strategy in an AFL context is where
a test or exam is used to identify a lack of understanding (e.g. in a particular area of the
syllabus) and subsequently targets are set to rectify this.
There are five main processes that take place in assessment for learning:
(i) Questioning enables a student, with the help of their teacher, to find out what level
they are at.
(ii) The teacher provides feedback to each student about how to improve their learning.
(iii) Students understand what successful work looks like for each task they are doing.
(iv) Students become more independent in their learning, taking part in peer
assessment and self-assessment.
(v) Summative assessments (e.g. the student’s exam or portfolio submission) are also
used formatively to help them improve.
Six misconceptions about AFL
‘Assessment and testing are the same thing’
There are lots of different ways to assess a learner. This includes formal testing.
However, a teacher will use a variety of formal and informal assessment activities
throughout the learning process. Any activity which checks how well a student is learning
is assessing that student’s learning. Information from these assessment activities is used
to adapt teaching and learning approaches, which leads to improvements in learner
outcomes.
‘Teachers using AFL will lose control of their class’
AFL requires teachers to allow learners to discuss work between themselves in class.
This will naturally involve some talking and, therefore, some noise. However, the teacher
remains in control. The teacher decides when to let the class talk and when to ask them
to be quiet. It is also often the case that behaviour usually improves when learners’
understanding improves.
‘Peer feedback means students chatting to each other’ rather than working on a
task'
Peer feedback can only take place when learners have a clear idea about what they are
discussing and the areas that they should (and should not) be giving feedback about.
Learners should also think about, and understand, how they are judging each other’s
work. The more learners engage with, and think deeply about, the success criteria, the
more they are able to give useful feedback to their peers.
‘Examinations are the only type of assessment that matter’
Learners need to take formal exams to get qualifications to progress through their
education. Assessment for learning gives teachers more information throughout the
year. One of the results of an AFL approach is that it helps students to do better in
summative assessment. The two are linked and both inform future learning.
‘Assessment is a one-way process: teachers give students feedback about their
work’
The most effective feedback is a dialogue. Teachers can learn more about their learners’
progress when their learners take a more active role in assessing their own performance.
For example, through self-assessment learners can identify what they need help with
and then discuss this with their teacher.
‘Work should always be given a grade or mark’
In some circumstances, a grade will be given as part of teacher feedback. However,
research suggests that learners will often just read the grade and ignore the comments.
Where teachers want to give a grade, it is often more effective for learners to read
feedback and comments first, and then edit their work before they see a grade.
What are the challenges of AFL?
Misunderstanding
The word ‘assessment’ often leads to confusion, because it is usually used to refer to
summative testing. AFL mainly focuses on the use of informal formative assessment to
improve learning. Although teachers and learners can also learn from their work in formal
summative test papers, this is not the main emphasis of AFL.
Training and time
Introducing AFL into a school or classroom takes time. It sometimes requires additional
professional training, and it changes to the ways that teachers interact with their learners.
Fear of change
Teachers and learners may fear that the changes required in their classroom practice
will not help them. High-achieving and diligent learners may find it hard to look for faults
and mistakes in their work and thinking. They may feel that they do not want to show any
sign of weakness or failure.
Getting it right
Giving feedback to learners about their work can have a negative effect as well as
positive. A teacher must choose their words carefully when giving feedback. If the
teacher gives the impression that only the teachers can provide the right answer,
learners will find it hard to be independent.
Culture
Sometimes teachers are judged solely on their ability to get good results in high-stakes
summative assessments. Teachers may feel that they do not have time to do activities
that do not seem directly linked to final examination grades. However, using feedback to
modify instruction and help learners to better understand assessment objectives will
improve exam results.
Glossary
Active learning
Learning which engages students and challenges their thinking, using a variety of
activities.
Assessment for learning
Essential teaching strategies during learning to help teachers and students evaluate
progress in terms of understanding and skills acquisition, providing guidance and
feedback for subsequent teaching and learning.
Closed question
A question that can be answered with either a single word (usually ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or a short
phrase and the choice of answers is limited.
Cold calling
Questioning technique in which the teacher selects a learner at random to answer a
question, instead of learners putting up their hands to answer a question.
Critical thinking
The ability, underlying all rational discourse and enquiry, to assess and evaluate
analytically particular assertions or concepts in the light of either evidence or wider
contexts.
Ego-specific feedback
Feedback to the learner that focuses on their personal qualities.
Feedback
Information about how the learner is doing in their efforts to reach a goal. Feedback could
also come from the learner to the teacher about how they feel the teacher could help
them learn better.
Formative assessment
Activity that provides students with developmental feedback on their progress during the
learning programme and informs the design of their next steps in learning.
Marking scheme
Plan or guidelines used in the marking of learners’ work.
Metacognition
Metacognition is a term used to describe ‘thinking about thinking’. It refers to the
processes used to plan, monitor and assess one’s understanding and performance.
Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and learning and b)
oneself as a thinker and learner.
Mixed ability
A class that includes learners at several different levels of ability.
Objectively
Based on facts, and not influenced by personal feelings, interpretations or prejudice.
Open question
A question that cannot be answered with a one-word answer, e.g. ‘What do you think
about global warming?’
Reflective journal/log
A document, in digital or traditional book format, in which a learner (or teacher) critically
reflects on their learning (or teaching practice) regularly. By reflecting and evaluating
what they have experienced and how, students and teachers can find ways of improving
their learning.
Reflective practice
The process through which the teacher continuously learns from the experience of
planning, practice, assessment and evaluation and can improve the quality of teaching
and learning over time.
Reinforce
Strengthen or support (understanding, skill or learning).
Scaffold learning
The teacher provides appropriate guidance and support to enable students to build on
their current level of understanding progressively, to acquire confidence and
independence in using new knowledge or skills.
Self-efficacy
A learner’s confidence in their ability to reach targets through hard work and
determination.
Subject curriculum
The content and skills contained within a syllabus applied across sequential stages of
student learning. These stages normally refer to school year levels, and therefore a
particular age of learner.
Success criteria
Success criteria summarise the key steps or elements the student needs in order to meet
a learning intention.
Summative assessment
Typically end-of-learning assessment tasks such as examinations and tests, to measure
and record the level of learning achieved, for progression to the next level or for
certification.
Syllabus
A complete description of the content, assessment arrangements and performance
requirements for a qualification. A course leading to an award or certificate is based on
a subject syllabus.
Target
Educational/academic goal, set by a learner or teacher on behalf of a learner.
Task-specific feedback
Feedback to the learner that focuses on various aspects of their work.
Tutorial
A short class (15–30 minutes) conducted by a teacher for one learner or a small number
of learners. It is usually focused on personal target setting and reflection of the students’
own learning.
Wait time
The amount of time a teacher waits after asking a question and before selecting a learner
to answer it.
Getting started with Assessment for Learning
www.cambridge-community.org.uk/professional.../index.html