Physics 1 Manual and Exercises

LECTURE GUIDE
AND
LABORATORY MANUAL
IN
COLLEGE PHYSICS
The Committee on Physics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Sta. Mesa, Manila
LECTURE GUIDE
AND
LABORATORY MANUAL
IN
COLLEGE PHYSICS
All rights reserved, © November 2004
No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner,

weather printed or in xeroxed form,
without the expressed, formal consent of the publisher.
PREFACE
This Lecture Guide and Laboratory Manual is intended as a workbook for non-engineering
students taking College Physics.
The authors, who have been teaching the subject for many years, choose the topics in this
book according to the sequential treatment of the general principles of physics discussed
in most science textbooks.
The problem sets have been selected to promote good study habits and check the students’
understanding of the physical and mathematical principles involved.
Special emphasis is made on the proper performance of the laboratory work and reliability
of experimental results by obtaining percentage errors within acceptable limits.
The Authors
ix
CONTENTS
Preface ………………………………………………………………………………….. ix
LECTURE GUIDE
CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENT
Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….... 1
1.1 Standard Units of Measure ………………………………………............................ 1
1.2 Derived Quantities and Units …………………………………………………...... 2 1.3
Significant Figures ……………………………………………………………….... 5 1.4
Rounding off of Numbers …………………………………………………………. 6 1.5
Scientific Notation …………………………………………………………………. 7 1.6
Conversion of Units ……………………………………………………………….. 9 1.7
Problem Set No.1 ……………………………………………………………..……. 12
CHAPTER 2 VECTORS AND SCALARS
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 14
2.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities ……………………………………………………. 14 2.2
Graphical Representation of Vectors …………………………………………...... 14 2.3
Concept of Vector, Scalar, and Resultant Vector ……………………………..… 15 2.4
Vector Addition ………………………………………………………………...... 15 2.5
Composition of Vectors ……………………………………………………………. 16
2.5.1 Graphical Method – Parallelogram Method …………………………… 16
2.5.2 Polygon Method (Head-to-Tail Method) ………………………………. 17
2.5.3 Analytical Method ……………………………………………………... 17
2.6 Resolution of Vectors or Forces ……………………………………………….. 19
Problem Set No. 2 …………………………………………………………………….... 25
x
CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 27
3.1 Simplifying Motions …………………………………………………….……... 27
3.2 Quantities Used in Describing Motion ………………………………………… 28
3.2.1 Position ………………………………………………………………… 28
3.2.2 Displacement …………………………………………………………... 29
3.2.3 Velocity ……………………………………………………………........ 30
3.2.4 Acceleration ……………………………………………………………. 31
3.3 Different Ways of Describing Motion …………………………………………. 32
3.4 Use of Algebraic ……………………………………………………………….. 36
3.5 Kinetic Equations and Problem Solving ……………………………………….. 39
3.6 Free Fall and the Acceleration of Gravity ……………………………………… 44
Problem Set No. 3 ……………………………………………………………………… 49
CHAPTER 4 FORCE AND THE LAWS OF MOTION
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 51
4.1 The Concept of Force ………………………………………………………….. 51
4.2 Mass ……………………………………………………………………………. 52
4.3 Newton’s Law of Motion ………………………………………………………. 52
4.4 Applications of Newton’s Second Law ………………………………………... 53
Problem Solving Strategy ……………………………………………………… 53
Sample Problems with Solutions ………………………………………………. 54
4.5 Friction …………………………………………………………………………. 60
Properties of Frictional Force ………………………………………………….. 60
Sample Problems ………………………………………………………………. 61
Problem Set No. 4 ……………………………………………………………………… 68
4.6 Torque and Rotational Motion ………………………………………………... 71a

4.7 Static Equilibrium …………………………………………………………….. 71c
4.7.1 First Condition of Static Equilibrium …………………………………. 71c
4.7.2 Second Condition of Static Equilibrium ……………………………… 71e
Problem Set No. 4a ………………………………………………………………….… 71i
xi
CHAPTER 5 WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 72
5.1 Work …………………………………………………………………………… 72
Sample Problems with Solutions ………………………………………………. 74
5.2 Energy ………………………………………………………………………….. 75
5.2.1 Gravitational Potential Energy …………………………………………. 75
5.2.2 Kinetic Energy …………………………………………………………. 76
5.2.3 Transformation and Conservation of Energy …………………………... 77
5.3 Power …………………………………………………………………………... 80
Problem Set No. 5 ……………………………………………………………………… 82
CHAPTER 6 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 84
6.1 Linear Momentum ……………………………………………………………... 84
6.2 Impulse …………………………………………………………………………. 86
6.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum ……………………………………………. 86
6.4 Applications of Conservation of Linear Momentum …………………………... 88
Elastic Collission in One Dimension …………………………………………... 90
Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension ………………………………………… 93
Problem Set No. 6 ……………………………………………………………………... 94
CHAPTER 7 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 96
7.1 Temperature and its Measurement ……………………………………………... 96
7.2 Temperature and Scales ………………………………………………………... 97
7.3 Heat …………………………………………………………………………….. 98
7.4 Specific Heat, Thermal Capacity, and Heat Capacity ………………………….. 98
7.5 Calorimetry and the Method of Mixture ……………………………………….. 99
7.6 Change of Phase and Latent Heat …………………………………………….. 100
7.7 Sample Problems with Solutions ……………………………………………... 102
Problem Set No. 7 …………………………………………………………………….. 104
xii
CHAPTER 8 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….. 106

8.1 Wave and its Different Kinds ………………………………………………… 106
8.2 Some Physical Quantities Used in Describing Waves ……………………….. 109
8.3 Some Properties of Waves ……………………………………………………. 111
8.4 Standing Waves ………………………………………………………………. 112
8.5 Power and Intensity in Wave Motion and Sound …………………………….. 114
8.6 Doppler Effect and Sound …………………………………………………….. 117
Problem Set No. 8 …………………………………………………………………….. 119
CHAPTER 9 LIGHT
Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………. 120a

9.1 The Nature of Light ………………………………………………………….. 120a
9.2 The Speed of Light …………………………………………………………... 120b
9.3 Propagation of Light in Matter ………………………………………………. 120c
9.4 Reflection and Refraction at Flat Surface …………………………………… 120c
Problem Set ………………………………………………………………………….. 120d
CHAPTER 10 MODERN PHYSICS
Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….. 121

10.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….... 121
10.2 The Particle Properties of Waves ……………………………………………... 122
10.2.1 Photoelectric Effect …………………………………………………… 122
10.2.2 Compton Effect ……………………………………………………….. 123
10.2.3 X-rays …………………………………………………………………. 124
10.3 The Wave Properties of Particles ……………………………………………... 125
10.4 Quantum Mechanics ………………………………………………………….. 125
10.4.1 Uncertainty Principle …………………………………………………. 126
10.4.2 Schrodinger’s Equation ……………………………………………….. 127
xiii
10.5 Atomic Physics ……………………………………………………………….. 127
10.5.1 Bohr Model of the Atom ……………………………………………… 128
10.5.2 Atomic Excitation …………………………………………………….. 129
10.6 Nuclear Physics ……………………………………………………………….. 129
10.6.1 Radioactivity ………………………………………………………….. 129
10.6.2 Nuclear Radiation …………………………………………………….. 130
10.6.3 Radiation Injury ……………………………………………………..... 132
10.6.4 Transmutation of Elements …………………………………………… 133
10.6.5 Radioactive Decay ……………………………………………………. 134
10.6.6 Activity ……………………………………………………………….. 134
10.6.7 Half-Life ……………………………………………………………… 135
10.6.8 Naturally Occuring Radiation Resources ……………………………. 136
Problem Set No. 10 …………………………………………………………………... 137
LABORATORY MANUAL
Experiment No. 1 Measurements ………………………………………………… 140

Experiment No. 2 Vectors ………………………………………………………... 152
Experiment No. 3 Uniformly Accelerated Motion ……………………………….. 158
Experiment No. 4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion …………………………….. 163
Experiment No. 5 Friction ………………………………………………………... 168
Experiment No. 6 Torque ………………………………………………………… 175
Experiment No. 7 Simple Machines ……………………………………………… 181
Experiment No. 8 Coefficient of Restitution ……………………………………... 188
Experiment No. 9 Specific Heat of Solids ………………………………………... 194
Experiment No. 10 Heat of Fusion of Ice ………………………………………….. 200
xiv
CHAPTER 1
MEASUREMENT 1
Objectives
 Understand the concept of significant figures and how to handle them when carrying
out simple arithmetic operations.
 Discuss the measurement of physical quantities.
 Describe the three widely used systems of units.
 Convert units from one system to another.
1.1 Standard Units of Measure
There are two systems widely used in measurement: the Metric and the
English systems of measurement, but the International Systems of Measurements opted to
use only the metric system. Except for the unit of time, the metric system is based on and
in agreement with the decimal number system. With the metric system, everything is
measured in terms of the three standard units. The length is measured in meters, the mass
in kilogram and the time in seconds. In these systems, prefixes such as centi- or milli- can
be used to indicate very small quantities and kilo for large quantity.
In using a system of measurement, it is necessary and important to distinguish

the difference between physical quantity and units of measurement. A physical quantity
can be measured with any desired unit but based on the metric unit of measure, [(length is
a physical quantity measured in meter (m). Mass is a physical quantity measured in
kilograms (kg), while time is measured in seconds (s)].
A unit based on a natural phenomenon is a conceptual unit. Another way to

establish fundamental units is to choose arbitrary values for them. A certain quantity of
matter can be chosen as a unit. A unit established in such a way is called a standard unit.
The arbitrary standard unit must be preserved to keep the system accurate because once it
is lost, the system is endangered. On the other hand, the conceptual unit can be
reestablished anytime.
Motion in One Dimension 2
In 1960, an international organization called the “General Conference on Weight

and Measure”, where all major countries were represented adopted an official name for the
metric system. This system was called the International System, which is abbreviated as
SI, meaning System International. This system was soon adopted by almost all nations.
The centimeter-gram-second system (CGS) was soon replaced by the meter-kilogram
system (MKS).
In 1971, the Fourth General Conference on Weight and Measure defined SI as being
made up of seven basic units corresponding to the seven basic physicsl quantities. Out of
seven basic units, the following table shows the first three basic units.
Table 1 – The Three Basic Physical Quantities and their Units
Physical Quantity Unit of Unit

Quantities Symbol Measure Symbol
length L meter m
mass M kilogram kg
time T second s
According to the SI units, all units which are names of persons must be written in
symbols using using only the first letter of the name of the units. For example, Newton is
a unit of force written as N; Ampere, which is a unit of electric current , is written as A;
and Volt, a unit of potential difference, is written as V.
1.2 Derived Quantities and Units
Some measurements cannot be done by direct measurement. In such case,

derivation is needed. Speed cannot be measured directly. So the length or distance and
time have to be measured, and dividing the distance by the time the speed is determined.
Area is measured by measuring the length and width of an object, then the product obtained
is the area. Area is in square unit, while volume is in cubic unit. Density can be measured
by dividing the mass or weight of an object by its volume.
Accuracy of measurement is necessary in the performance of an experiment.

In order to do this, special device is used to make measurement accurate. To get an accurate
measurement of the length to the nearest hundredths of a centimeter, a vernier caliper may
be used in measuring the length. While if the intention is measuring to the nearest
hundredths of a millimeter, a micrometer caliper is used. Likewise, a platform balance or
a triple beam balance is used in measuring mass and a stopwatch or recording timer for
very short interval of time.
The three basic fundamental quantities may be combined in different ways. If the
given length, L, of an object is multiplied by another length, which is the width (W) of the
same object, the area of the object is determined. That is, L x W = A, where A is the
area of the rectangular object. The area, which is equal to the length , times th width of a
rectangular object, is derived quantity.
Where: A = area, L = length, and W = width.
Sample Problem 1:
An object is 2.8 m long and 1.2 m wide. What is the area of the object?
Given: L = 2.8 m , W = 1.2 m
Required: area A
Solution: A=LxW
= 2.8 m x 1.2 m = 3.36 m2
Sample Problem 2:
A circle has a diameter of 35 cm. What is the area of the circular object?
Given: d = 35 m , π = 3.1416
Required: area A
Solution: A = πr2 = π(d/2)2
= 3.1416 x [35/2 cm]2 = 54.978 cm2
Sample Problem 3:
The length of a rectangular object is 68 cm and its width is 27 cm. What is the area
of the object?
Given: L=68 cm , W = 27 cm
Required: area A
Solution: A=LxW
= 68 cm x 27 cm = 1,836 cm2
Volume is another derived quantity obtained from the length, width and thickness
of an object. It is the product of three lengths. Mathematically,
Where V = volume, L = length, W = width, and H = thickness
Sample Problem 4:
The length of a rectangular object is 7.4 m, the width is 3.8 m and the thickness is
1.2 m. What is the volume of the object?
Given: L = 7.4 m , W = 3.8 m , H = 1.2 m
Required: volume V
Solution: V=LxWxH
= 7.4 m x 3.8 m x 1.2 m = 33.74 m3
Sample Problem 5:
What is the volume of a rectangular metal 52 cm long, 28 cm wide and 10.5 cm

thick?
Given: L = 52 cm , W = 28 cm , H = 10.5 cm
Required: volume V
Solution: V=LxWxH
= 52 cm x 28 cm x 10.5 cm = 15,288 cm
A derived quantity is expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities that define it. In
other words, it can be reduced as a combination of fundamental quantities.
Average speed is a derived quantity determined by dividing the distance traveled

by an object by the amount of time hat elapse while the object was traveling. Since length
and time are fundamental quantities, average speed is defined as:
ν=s/t
where: ν = average speed, s = distance, and t = time elapsed.
Derived physical quantities require derived units. Derived units are obtained from a
combination of the units of measure of the fundamental quantities. For example, if the
Measurement 5
length and width are given in m, then the resulting unit is given in m2. If the length, width
and thickness are given in cm, then the resulting unit is given in cm3.
Sample Problem 6:
A runner travels a distance of 120 m in 4 s. what is its average speed?
Given: s= 120 m , t = 4 s
Required: average speed v
Solution :
s 120 m
v= = = 30 m/s
t 4s
In the example above, the resulting unit m/s is a derived quantity. Distance is
equal to the product of the average speed and the time elapsed. That is s = v t
Sample Problem 7:
A fast runner travels at the rate of 11 m/s. if he travels in 6 s, what is the distance
traveled?
Given: v= 11 m/s, t = 6 s
Required: distance travelled s
Solution: s = vt
= 11 m/s (6 s) = 66 m
1.3 Significant Figures
Accuracy is measurement may be determined or indicated by means of significant

figures. Significant figures are those digits in a number that are known with certainty with
an added digit that is uncertain. For example, if the length of an object is found to be in
1,253.5 cm, the measurement is said to have five significant figures. The rightmost digit 5
is said to be an uncertain digit because it is just an estimate between two marks on the
meter stick. Therefore, the actual measurement is somewhere between 1253 cm and 1254
Measurement 6
cm, and not exactly 1253.5 cm. in dealing with significant figures, the value of the last digit
can be assumed.
The following rules are set to help us understand how significant figures are used
in physics.
 All non-zero digits are significant.
Examples:
314.6 cm has 4 significant figures
28.651 m has 5 significant figures
 All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant

Examples:
122.06 g has 5 significant figures
3.8007 kg has 5 significant figures
 Zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal
point are significant unless indicated otherwise. A bar is used to indicate the
number of significant figures.
 All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant.
Example:
0.00625 has 3 significant figures
 The zero is to the left before the decimal point only serves to call attention to
the decimal point.
Example:
0.06124 has 4 significant figures.
 All zeros to the right of a decimal point and non-zero digit are significant.
Examples;
1.4 Rounding Off of numbers

Numbers may also be written in definite number of significant figures by rounding
them off. To understand how rounding off numbers can be applied, the following rules may
be used.
 If the number to be dropped is less than 5, the last number to be retained
remains the same.
Examples:
Measurement 7
2463 2460
1452 1450
 If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, then the last number to be

retained is increased by one.
Examples:
3648 3650
4276 4280
 If the number to be dropped is 5, then the preceding number to be retained

remains the same if its even, or increased by one if it is odd.
Examples:
2935 2940
2945 2940
1.5 Scientific Notation

Scientist usually deal with very large and very small numbers, like the mass of the
earth, which is approximately 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg and the mass of an
electron, which is 0.000000000000000000000000000009109534 kg. Remembering or
simply writing these numbers is rather tedious so they designed a new way of representing
very small or very large numbers like these. In this representation, the mass of the earth
can be written as 6.0 x 10 24 kg and the mass of an electron as 9.11 x 10 -31 kg.
A number in scientific notation takes the form M x 10 n , where M is the number
with a single nonzero digit to the left of the decimal point and n is the positive or negative
exponent. Numbers in scientific notation may be understood and written by applying the
following rules.
 Move the decimal point to the right of the first nonzero digit to get M.
 Count the number of, times the decimal point, is moved to get n. The
exponent n is positive if the decimal point was moved to the left and negative
if it was moved to the right.
Examples:
0.00000415 m 4.15 x 10 -6 m
382,000,000,000 g 3.82 x 10 11 g
0.0000004578 kg 4.58 x 10 -7 kg
7,243,000,000 cm 7.24 x 10 9 cm
 To multiply numbers in scientific notation, the M’s are multiplied and the n ‘s
are added.
Examples:
Measurement 8
(4.2 x 10 7) (2.1 x 10 5) = 8.82 x 10 12
(4.2 x 10 7) (2.1 x 10 -5) = 8.82 x 10 2
(4.2 x 10 -7) (2.1 x 10 5) = 8.82 x 10 -2
(4.2 x 10 -7) (2.1 x 10 -5) = 8.82 x 10 -12
 To divide numbers in scientific notation, divide the M’s and then subtract the
n of the divisor from the n of the dividend.
 To add or subtract numbers in scientific notation, all the exponents n must be

of the same power of 10 before adding or subtracting.
Examples:
Addition:
1) 2.34 x 10 5 2) 5.23 x 10 -4
+ 6.23 x 10 5 + 4.15 x 10 -4
8.57 x 10 5 9.38 x 10 -4
3) 6.18 x 10 5 6.180 x 10 5
+ 2.36 x 10 4 + 0.236 x 10 5
6.416 x 10 5 = 6.42 x 10 5
Subtraction:
1) 8.31 x 10 7
4.53 x 10 7
3. 78 x 10 7
2) 5.15 x 1 8 5.150 x 10 8
8.52x 10 9 − 0.852 x 10 8
4.298 x10 9 = 4.30 x 10 9
3) 2.82 x 10 -4 2.8200 x 10 -4
5.60 x 10 -5 − 0.560 x 10 -4
2.260 x 10 -4 = 2.26 x 10 -4
Division:
8.9 x 107 5
6.3 x 10-7
1) 2 = 2.0 x 10 2) 2 = 2.1 x 10 -9
4.92 x 10 3.0 x 10
8.4 x 107
3) = 2.0 x 109
4.2 x 10-2
Measurement 9
1.6 Conversion of Units
Consistency of units is very important in solving problems in Physics. Before a

problem is solved, the units involved must be consistent with each other. In order to do
this, the conversion of units is necessary. In the conversion of units, conversion factor has
to be used. This conversion factor is the unit equivalent of the particular unit to be used.
Whenever we solved problems or exercises in physics, the units involved must be

consistent. When the problems in physics deal with physical quantities with different units,
we cannot arrive at any correct procedure unless we convert the units and make them
consistent with one another.
To change one metric unit to another of the same system of measurement, a

conversion factor is applied. The conversion factor is the equivalent of the given unit with
respect to the other unit.
Table 2 – Equivalents within the Metric System
10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

10 centimeters (cm) = 1 decimeter (dm)
10 decimeters (dm) = 1 meter (m)
10 meters (m) = 1 dekameter (Dm)
10 dekameters (Dm) = 1 hectometer (hm)
10 hectometer (hm) = 1 kilometer (km)
Table 3- Equivalents between two systems
English System Metric System

1 inch (in) 2.54 cm
2.205 pounds (lbs) 1 kilogram (kg)
2000 lbs 1 metric ton (mt)
Example 1:
Change 42 km to m
1 km = 1000 m
1000 𝑚
= 4200 m
42 𝑘𝑚 𝑥 1𝑘𝑚
1000 𝑚
The conversion factor is
1 𝑘𝑚
Measurement 10
Example 2:
Change 340 cm to m.
1m = 100cm
1m 340m
340 cm x =
100cm 100
= 3.4 m
Example 3
Add: 400 cm + 3.2 km + 4.18 m + 149.6 mm
Note: before adding, the units of the numbers to be added must be the same. Convert all
units to meter.
1m
400 cm x 100cm =4.0 m
100 m
3.2 km x =3,200 m
1 km
1m
149.6 m x =0.1496 m
1000mm
Adding
4.0 m
3,200.0 m
4.18 m
0.1496 m
3,208.3296 m The sum is 3,208.3296 m
Example 4:
What are the total area and the volume of a rectangular object that is 25 cm long,
18 cm wide and 7 cm thick? Express the answer in scientific notation.
Given: L = 25 cm , W = 18 cm , H = 7 cm
Required: total area A and volume V
Solution: A1 = L x W = 25 cm x 18 cm = 450 cm2 = 4.5 cm2

A2 = (18 cm x 17 cm) = 126 cm2
A3 = (25 cm x 7 cm) = 176 cm 2
Measurement 11
total area A = 2(450 + 126 + 175) cm2 = 1.50 x 10 3 cm2

V = L x W x H = 2 cm x 18 cm x 7 cm = 3150 cm3 = 3.15 x 103
Nowadays, it is important for everybody to know their heights and weights in

metric system. Applicants to any job or voters during registration period are required to
indicate their heights and weights in metric system. The following examples show the steps
in converting heights and weights to the metric system.
Example 5:
Convert 6 feet and 5 inches to meters.

Solution:
6 ft x 12 in + 5 in = 72 in + 5 in = 77 in
1 ft
77 in x 2.54 cm = 195.58 cm
1 in
1m
195.58 cm x = 19558 m or 1.96 m
100 cm
Example 6:
Change 145 lbs to kg.
Solution:
1 kg = 2.2 lbs
1 kg
145 lbs x = 65.909 kg or 65.91 kg
2.2 lbs
Problem Name:
Set No. 1 MEASUREMENT Course & Year:
Date:
A. CONVERSION: Indicate your solutions:
1. 150,000 meters = ______________ kilometers
2. 90 km/hr = ______________ m/s
3. 180 lbs = _______________ kg
4. 5 ft 9 in = ___________ meters
5. 17.2 km = ____________ mm
12
B. PROBLEM SOLVING: Solve the following with complete solutions.
1. A box is 35 cm long 22 cm wide and 10 cm high. What is the area of the box?
What is the volume of the box?
2. Find the sum of the following. Express your answers in meters.
42.3 km; 31.6 m; 241.30 cm; 128mm
3. The speed of a runner is announced to be 35.6 ft. per second. What is his speed in
m/s.
4. Add:
3.6 x 104
+ 2.9x 103
5. Multiply and divide
6.1 x 103 x 4.0 x 102

4.4 x 104
13
Chapter 2
VECTORS AND
SCALARS 2
Objectives
 Know the difference between vectors and scalars.
 Study the different mathematical operations involving vectors in two dimensions.
2.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
Some physical quantity may be described by a magnitude and unit only. For
example, the mass of an object is 15 kg. This information gives the magnitude and unit
which completely describes the object. If a quantity can be described by a magnitude and
unit only, such quantity is called a scalar quantity. Time, speed and distance are examples
of a scalar quantity which is represented by a magnitude only.
On the other hand, other quantities cannot be specific by considering the magnitude
and unit alone. The direction of the quantity must be indicated. Such quantity which is
described not only by the magnitude but with the direction is called a vector quantity. If a
quantity is described by magnitude only and the description of the quantity is not complete
ten the quantity is not a vector. Examples of vector quantity are force, weight, velocity and
acceleration. These quantities, if described by magnitude alone, will be incomplete. A
direction is needed to describe fully the quantity.
2.2 Graphical Representation of Vectors
A vector quantity can be represented by an arrow. Fig. 2.1 represents a vector drawn
as such arrow.
Vectors and Scalars 15
A scale is needed to represent a vector quantity.
Fig. 2.1
Fig.2.2 The arrow pointing
downward represents weight
For example, a weight of 50 newtons (N) is represented in Fig. 2.2. The scale
indicated by the arrow is 10 N = 1 unit; the weight therefore is 5 units downward. The
weight is represented as downward considering the center of the earth is below.
The arrow representing the vector quantity always points in the direction where the
vector s directed.
2.3 Concept of Vector, Scalar and Resultant Vector
A scalar is pure number which has only magnitude. The scalars may be added or
subtracted. A vector quantity has both direction and magnitude. For example, an
automobile moves north at 35 km/hr. A vector can be represented by an arrow drawn to
scale. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, the head of the arrow shows the
direction and the tail of the arrow represents the point of application.
Resultant vector is the vector sum of all the vectors added together vectorially. It
has the same effect as the original vectors taken together. The force which is opposite in
direction but in the same straight line with the resultant is equilibrant.
2.4 Vector Addition
When we add 4 mangoes to 5 mangoes, the sum is 9 mangoes. This denotes addition
of the same quantity. While vectors, on the other hand, cannot be added arithmetically. The
directions of the vectors have to be considered.
If the vectors to be added are acting in the same direction, such vectors are actually
following their common direction. However, if the vectors to be added are acting in
opposite directions, the vectors are subtracted following the direction of the greater vector.
Sample problem 1:
3N
What is the vector sum of the following vectors, 40 km/hr North and
30 km/hr North? Graphically, using 4N
10 km/hr = 1 unit
The vector sum is 7 N norths.
Sample problem 2:
A vector is 45 m/s is moving east and another vector of 30 m/s is moving west.
The vector sum is equivalent to
Scale: 5m/s = 1 cm 9cm
45 m/s = 9 cm
9 cm – 6 cm = 3 cm
3 cm x 5 m/s = 15 m/s
1 cm
The vector sum is 15 m/s moving east.
2.5 Composition of Vectors
If the vectors to be added are at a certain angle with each other, between 00 and
1800, then vectors are neither added nor subtracted. The vector sum is determined by
applying the following methods: graphically by parallelogram or polygon method and
analytical method.
2.5.1 Graphical Method – Parallelogram Method
In this method, the vector sum or resultant is determined by using a parallelogram

based on the given vectors to be added as shown in Fig. 2.5.
A vector allowed to move at 18 m/s to the right direction and another vector allowed
to move 12 m/s to the upward direction added vectorially. Using the parallelogram method,
the vectors are added. After completing the parallelogram using the given vectors, the
diagonal is drawn, which represents the resultant or the vector sum. In the diagram, the
scale used 3 m/s is to 1 cm.
r a = 12 m/s
a
b = 18 m/s
r when measured is 7.2 cm

b
7.2 cm x 3 m/s = 21.6 m/s
Fig. 2.5
1 cm
2.5.2 Polygon Method ( Head-to-Tail) Method
This is a method wherein a polygon is drawn using a given or selected scale. Fig.
2.6 shows that the polygon is drawn by connecting the vectors one after another. The tail
of the second vector is connected to the head of the first vector. Then by connecting the
two ends, the resultant vector or vector sum is determined. The resultant vector is the
vectorial sum of the vectors.
a = 12 m/s
r b = 18 m/s
a
r when measured is 7.2 cm
b
7.2 cm x 3 m/s = 21.6 m/s
Fig. 2.6 1 cm
2.5.3 Analytical Method
The third method, which can be adopted in determining the resultant, is by

analytical method. In as much as the figured formed is a right triangle, the Pythagorean
Theorem is applied c2 = a2 + b2, where c2 is the resultant obtained. The direction is
determined by using a protractor.
C = a2 + b2
= (12 m/s)2 + (18 m/s)2 r

a
= 144 (m/s) 2 + 328 (m/s) 2
= 21.63 m/s b
Fig. 2.7
Vectors and Scalars
18
18
If the vectors to be added are not at right angle to each other a different process will be
applied. The vectors to be added are as follows:
 Select a convenient scale and draw the vectors to form a parallelogram.

 Then draw the diagonal. The measure of the diagonal is the resultant vector
obtained.
Another method is by polygon or head-to-tail method.
Find the vector sum of:

a = 25 km⁄hr acting east
b = 25 km⁄hr 30° Northeast Scale: 5 km⁄hr = 1cm
(a) Parallelogram law: r, when measured, is 7.7 cm

5 km⁄hr
7.7 cm x =38.5 km⁄hr
1 cm
r r
b a b
a a
(a) (b)
Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9
Pythagorean Theorem can only be used if the concurrent vectors to be added are at
the right angle to each other, but if the vectors are at a certain angle to each other, a different
method is to be used. Cosine law will be used in determination of the magnitude of the
resultant and Sine Law for the direction.
A
Cosine Law: r = √a2 +b2 -2abcosθ
r
b SinA SinB SinC
Sine Law: = =
a b c
B aR
Vectors and Scalars
19
19
Determine the Magnitude and Direction of the following vectors:
a = 25km⁄hr acting east

b = 25 km⁄hr 30° Northeast
2 2
r = √(15 km⁄h ) +(25 km⁄h ) -2abcosθ
= √225 ( km⁄h )+625( km⁄h )-2(15 km⁄h )(25 km⁄h )(cos120)

2
= √8500 ( km⁄h ) -750(-.866)
2
= √(850+649.5) ( km⁄h )
= 37.72km⁄h
The direction is determined by the following method: Using the figure below, consider the
following formula:
SinB SinR
= A
b r
bSinR
Sin B =
r r
15 ⁄h (sin120)
km b
Sin B =
38.72 km⁄h a
7.5 hkm⁄
Sin B = B R
38.72 km⁄h
B = 11.5°
Therefore, r = 38.72 km⁄h, 11.5° N of E
2.6 Resolution of Vectors of Forces
At times, a force acts on a body in a direction wherein the body cannot move. It is then
necessary to compute the forces where the object will move, which will represent the actual
motion of the object. This is what we call resolution of force. Resolution of force is the
separation of a single force into two or more component forces acting in definite directions
on the same point. Usually, a force is resolved into two components that are at right angle
to each other.
Vectors and Scalars
20
20
When a force is exerted on a lawnmower, the direction of the force is diagonal to the ground
but the direction of the lawnmower is either parallel or horizontal to the ground as shown
in Fig 2.10.
A force of 80 N is exerted on a lawnmower, at an angle of 30° with the ground.

What force will make the lawnmower forward parallel to the ground?
Use a convenient scale to plot.
F = 80 N = 4cm when drawn to scale.

θ = 30°
D
3.4cm
A ground
O
B C
Figure 2.10
Force represented by DOB is resolved onto 2 components.

OD is in the direction 30° to the ground.
AO is parallel to the ground.
OC is perpendicular to the ground wherein the force cannot act.
OB is the force 80 N.
By measurement AO is 3.4 cm which is equal to

20N
3.4cm x 68N
1cm
Therefore, the force that will move the lawn mower horizontally is 68 N.
Vectors and Scalars
21
21
Sample Problem 1:
What are the northward and eastward components of a velocity of 150km⁄hr , directed
30° NE. Find the components by graphical and analytic method.
Solution:
The northward component which as measured is 4.3cm, which is
30 km⁄hr
4.3cm x = 129 km⁄hr northward 150 km⁄hr
1cm NW
30° NE
While the eastward component as measured is
30 km⁄hr
2.5cm x = 75 km⁄hr eastward 4.3cm
1N 30°
2.5cm
EW
Figure 2.11
Horizontal Component Vertical Component

side adjacent side opposite
cos θ = sin θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
side adj. = hypotenuse cosθ side opposite = hypotenuse sinθ

= 150 km⁄hr (cosθ) = 150 km⁄hr (sinθ)
= 150 km⁄hr (.866) = 150 km⁄hr (.5)
Northwards = 129.9 km⁄hr = 75 km⁄hr Eastward
Sample Problem 2:
Vectors and Scalars
22
22
An object 250 N rests on an inclined plane 25° with the horizontal. What are the
parallel and perpendicular components of the weight 250 N with the plane? Solve the
problem graphically. Figure 2.12 illustrates the problem.
Solution:
O
Given: Fw = 250 N , θ = 25°
C║
C┴
Required: parallel component C║
25°
perpendicular component C┴
Fw
The component parallel to the plane is

Figure 2.12 Scale used is 50 N = 1 cm
50N
2.1cm x = 105N
1cm
The component perpendicular to the plane is

50N
4.5cm x = 225N
1cm
Analytically:
Parallel component C║ = (250 N) sin 25° = 105.65 N
Perpendicular component C┴ = (250) cos 25° 226.58 N
Sample Problem 3:
A motorist travels 18 km⁄hr is still water. What will be the magnitude and direction
of the velocity of the boat if it is directed upstream on a river that flow at the rate of 6 km⁄hr
across the river?
A
V1
V1
Solution:
Given: V1 = 18 km⁄hr (velocity of the boat)

V2 = 6 km⁄hr (velocity of the river)
Required: Vu = velocity of the boat upstream θ

V2
O
Vectors and Scalars
23
23
Vd = velocity of the boat downstream
Va = velocity of the boat across the river
Figure 2.13 Velocity of the boat across the river
When the boat travels upstream, it moves against the current, so
Vu = 18 km⁄hr - 6 km⁄hr = 12 km⁄hr velocity upstream
If the boat travels downstream, it is in the same direction as the current so,
Vu = 18 km⁄hr + 6 km⁄hr = 24 km⁄hr velocity upstream
If the boat travels across the river, it will be directed ad shown in Figure 2.13
OA = Vu
Va = √(V1 )2 + (V2 )2
= √(18 km⁄hr)2 + (6 km⁄hr)2

= √324(km⁄hr)2 + 36(km⁄hr)2
= 18.97 km⁄hr
Moreover
18 km⁄hr
sin θ =
18.97 km⁄hr
sin θ = 0.949
-1
θ = 71.5° with the current
Sample Problems 4:
1) Find the x and y component of a 30-m displacement at an angle of 240°. The vector
displacement and its components are shown in the following figure.
x component = (30 N) cos 240° y

= -16N
240°
y component = -(30 N) sin 240°
= -25.98 N
x
Vectors and Scalars
24
24
2) Find the resultant R of the following farces all acting on the same point in a given
direction: 40 N 30° northeast; 60N south and 50 N southwest.
Choose east as the positive x-direction y
For the total x-component
40 N cos 60° = 40 N (0.500) = 40 N 60

-50 N cos 45° = -50 N (0.707) = -35.35 N
45 x
Rx = 4.65 N
For the total y-component

50N
40 N sin 60° = 40 N (0.866) = 34.64 N

-50 N sin 45° = -50 N (0.707) = -35.35N
Ry = -0.71 N
Rx
2 2 θ
r = √(4.65N) + (-0.71N) Ry
R
= √21.62N2 +.504N2
= 4.70N
0.71N
tan θ =
4.65N
θ = 8.68°
Vectors and Scalars
25
25
Problem Name:
Set No. 2 VECTORS AND SCALARS Course & Year:
Date:
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. A single vector which has the same effect as 2 or more vectors added is called.
a. Resultant vector
b. Vector force
c. Vector component
d. Vector arrow
2. Distance is
a. A vector quantity
b. A scalar quantity
c. A vector component
d. A vector arrow
3. A sum of 15 m⁄s acting north and a vector of 10 m⁄s acting south has a vector
sum of
a. 25 m⁄s
b. 1.5 m⁄s
c. 5 m⁄s
d. None of the above
4. The vector sum of a force of 12N and a force of 9N is 3N. The angle between
them is
a. 0° c. 45°
b. 90° d. 180°
5. Two forces acting on the same object will have the greatest resultant when the
angle between them is
a. 180° c. 45°
b. 90° c. 0°
25
B. PROBLEM SOLVING: Solve with complete illustrations and solutions and
proper units.
1. What is the vector sum of two vectors of 80N moving East and another of 125N
moving West. Represent your answers graphically.
2. Find the resultant of two forces of 75N acting North and another force of 100N
acting 30° South of East if they are acting at a common point. Solve
analytically.
3. Three places X, Y, and Z are connected by straight highways. X is 6 km from

Y, Y is 8 km from Z and Z is 5 km from X. Find the angle made by highways
XY and YZ.
4. An object weighing 70N rests on an inclined plane making an angle of 50° with
the horizontal. Resolve the weight into two components parallel to the plane
and perpendicular to the plane. Draw the figure.
5. A boat travels at the rate 25 m⁄s in still water. If the rate of the current is 18 m⁄s
, what is the rate of the boat
a. upstream
b. downstream
c. across the river?
26
5
CHAPTER 3
MOTION IN ONE
DIMENSION 3
Objectives
 Know the concepts used to describe and explain the motion of bodies
 Determine the position, distance traveled, and displacement undergone by a moving

object
 Calculate average and instantaneous speed or velocity.
 Compute the average instantaneous acceleration.
 Apply the equations of motion to a variety of problems involving constant

acceleration, such as free falling bodies.
3.1 Simplifying Motion
Among other things, physics deals with the description of physical phenomena we see
around us, the most common of which is that of moving bodies. For this reason, motion is
usually the first thing discussed in physics after the preliminary topic in the mathematics
of vectors.
Motion, which is defined as the change in position with time, is generally complicated for
the following reasons:
 As an object moves forward, it usually twists and turns; the forward motion alone
is sometimes called translation, while the turning motion alone is also known as
rotation.
29
 As an object moves backward or forward or backward, it may also turn left or right
in addition to the upward or downward motion it can undertake
Motion in One Dimension
28
28
 Different parts of the moving have different positions, like the front is farther from
the starting point than the rear.
 The object may accidentally blown by the wind to one side or the other as the body
moves.
To understand motion, we must begin with the simplest case. The following assumptions
must therefore be made in order to remove the complications:
 The moving object undergoes translation only without rotation.
 The object moves in one dimension only, so it can only move forward or backward,
like a car moving along a straight and narrow street.
 The distance traveled by the moving object is very large compared to the
dimensions of the extended body, like a 3-m-long car traveling a distance of 10
km (10,000 m), so that the difference in the distance of the front and the rear of
the car from the starting point becomes negligible. This has the important
consequence that it is enough to use only one number to specify each position of
the moving body as a whole and not different numbers for the various parts of the
body. In doing so, the actual motion of the extended body has been reduced to the
motion of a single point.
 There is no wind nor air resistance acting on the body which unpredictably
influences its motion.
3.2 Quantities Used in Describing Motion
There are five quantities used in describing motion, namely:

 Position
 Time
 Displacement
 Velocity
 Acceleration
3.2.1 Position
Position gives the location of the moving object at each instant of time. It is specified by
giving the distance of the object from an arbitrarily chosen fixed point. Mathematically,
this is done by using a one-dimensional (1-D) Cartesian coordinate system with the origin
as the fixed reference point. For 1-D motion along the horizontal, the coordinate axis with
x>0 to the right of the origin, as shown in Fig. 3.1, is normally used.
29
29
Note that saying that an object is located 4 m from the origin at a certain instant of time
does not uniquely specify the position of the object at that time. The object may be found
either 4 m to the left, or 4 m to the right of the origin, by saying that the object is located
at x = + 4 m, then we definitely mean to say that it is 4 m to the right of the origin. Similarly,
by saying that an object is at x = -4 m, then we definitely mean that the object is 4 m to the
left of the origin.
+x-axis
-6 -4 -2 O 2 4 6
[m]
Fig. 3.1
Thus, it is not enough to give the distance of the object from the origin alone to give its
position. We also have to say whether it is to the left or right of the origin, and the plus or
minus sign before the number which correctly gives the position of the object takes care of
that – plus (+) for “to the right” of the origin, minus (-) for “to the left”. Since left or right
normally specifies a direction, we say that the correct position of an object is given not just
by a magnitude (a number only for the distance) but also by a direction. From what was
discussed in the preceding chapter, we therefore conclude that position is a vector quantity.
Position, indicating the distance from a chosen reference point is measured in meters in SI
system.
Notice that position is not the same as the distance traveled since position refers to only
one location while distance refers to the spatial separation between two positions.
3.2.2 Displacement
Displacement, on the other hand, gives not just the change in position of the object without
regards to the time elapsed while that change is taking place but also the direction of motion
of the object. Let the quantities x1, x2 and t1, t2 denote the following:
x1 = position at time t1
x2 = position at time t2 > t1
Then, the displacement ∆x, where the Greek letter ∆ (delta) indicates a change in the
variable x, is given by
∆x = x2 – x1
Sometimes, the earlier time t1 is called the initial time ti (that is, ti = t1) in which
case x1 becomes the initial position xi (that is xi = x1). Likewise, the later time t2 is
30
30
sometimes called the final time tf (that is, tf = t2) in which case x2, becomes the final
position xf. The displacement is therefore also written as
∆x = xf – xi
Just always remember that the subscripts I and f (or 1 and 2, as the case may be) denote
initial and final values, respectively.
As mentioned previously, position x is a vector quantity. Since displacement is the
difference between the initial and final positions and the difference between two vectors is
just another vector, then, it follows that displacement ∆x is also a vector quantity.
In Fig. 3.1, notice that for an object moving to the right in the +x direction, xf is
greater than xi (xf > xi), so that xf – xi = ∆x > 0. On the other hand, for an object moving to
the left in the –x direction, xf xi (xf < xi), so that xf – xi = ∆x < 0. That is, using coordinate
system shown in Fig. 3.1.
+∆x motion in the +x direction
-∆x motion in the -x direction
The plus (+) or minus (-) sign of the displacement vector ∆x therefore indicates its
direction.
Now, displacement is also not the same as the distance traveled. Displacement,
being change in position, indicates how far out of place an object is, while distance tells
how much ground an object has covered during its motion. An object can have zero
displacement if it starts out from one point and turns back to its initial position, but its
distance traveled is certainly not zero since it has definitely covered some ground during
its motion.
3.2.3 Velocity
Velocity is the time rate of change of position; that is, it tells how fast the position
changes with time. It also tells the direction of motion of the object. Denoting the velocity
by vx, where the subscript x indicates horizontal motion along the x-axis, we have the
following definition:
∆x X2 -x1
vx = =
∆t t2 -t1
Since the elapsed time ∆t and its reciprocal is 1/∆t is a scalar and multiplication of a vector,
like displacement of ∆x, with a scalar is just another vector, then, the velocity vx is also a
vector. Its direction is also the same as that of the displacement vector; that,
+ vx motion in the +x direction
- vx motion in the –x direction
using the coordinate system shown in Fig. 3.1. The magnitude of the velocity vector is also
known as speed. Speed, without direction of the velocity vector, is therefore a scalar.
31
31
In SI system, velocity is measured in meter/second (m/s).
Average velocity vx refers to the velocity in an interval of time, namely, during the time
interval ∆t = t2 – t1 ≠ 0. The definition for vx given above using ordinary division can be
used to calculate the average velocity.
Instantaneous velocity, on the other hand, refers to the velocity in an instant of
time ∆t = Limit (t2 – t1) 0. It is like the speed of a moving object in a snapshot picture
t2 t1
at the instant the picture was taken. To compute the instantaneous velocity, differential
calculus is needed.
By customary usage, the word velocity alone is assumed to mean instantaneous velocity.
Although speed refers to the magnitude of the velocity vector, the term average speed does
not refer to the magnitude of the average velocity. Instead, average speed is often computed
using the following formula:
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐝
𝐚𝐯𝐞. 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 =
𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐩𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
3.2.4 Acceleration
Acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity vector. It tells how fast the velocity
changes with time. Given the following quantities:
Vx1 = instantaneous velocity at time t1
Vx2 = instantaneous velocity at time t2
then, acceleration a is defined as
𝚫𝑽𝒙 𝑽𝒙𝟐−𝑽𝒙𝟐
a= =
𝚫𝒕 𝒕𝟐−𝒕𝟏
The change in velocity ∆vx , being the difference between two vectors vx1 and vx2 , is also
a vector. Acceleration is therefore a vector since it is the product of a scalar 1/∆t and the
vector ∆vx. The acceleration vector a has the same direction as the same direction as the
change in velocity ∆vx.
Just as the plus or minus sign of the position vector x, or the velocity vector vx , indicate
their direction, the plus or minus sign of the acceleration vector also indicates its direction.
But this direction has nothing to do with +x or –x direction shown in Fig. 3.1. Positive
acceleration +a ( this is, a >0 ) means acceleration in the same direction as that of the
direction of motion, while negative acceleration -a ( this is, a<0 ) means acceleration in
the direction opposite of that of the direction of motion.
Acceleration in the same direction as that of the direction of motion has the effect of
increasing the speed of the moving object. On the other hand, acceleration in the direction
opposite to that of the direction of motion has the effect of decreasing the speed of the
object. That means that if an object is moving to the left in the –x direction. Similarly, an
object moving to the right in the +x direction and is at the same time losing speed, or is
moving slower, has negative acceleration, one whose acceleration vector points in the –x
direction. Negative direction is sometimes called deceleration.
Average acceleration refers to the acceleration in the interval of time, namely,
during the time interval ∆t = t1 ≠ 0. The definition for acceleration given above using
ordinary division can be used to calculate the average acceleration.
Instantaneous accelerationy, on the other hand, refers to the acceleration in an instant of
time ∆t = Limit (t2 – t1) 0. To compute the instantaneous acceleration,
t2 t1
differential calculus is required.
By customary usage, the word acceleration alone assumed to mean instantaneous
acceleration.
In SI system, acceleration is measured in m/s2.
3.3 Different Ways of Describing Motion
There are four ways of describing motion, namely

 by use of ordinary language;
 by tabulating either the position, or the velocity, at each instant of time;
 by graphing the position as a function of time, the velocity as a function of time, or
acceleration as a function of time;
 by use of an algebraic equation expressing the position and the velocity as a
function of time.
The illustration below of a car moving with a uniform acceleration of +4.0 m/s2 and whose
position are shown at the time indicated will be described according to the first different
ways mention above:
Motion with uniform acceleration of +4 m/s2.
A car initially at rest at the corner of a certain street and waiting for the traffic light to
turn green, started to move off with a positive acceleration of +4.0 m/s2, thereby moving
with increasing speed at a constant rate.
The tabulation of the position and velocity of the car, moving at a constant acceleration of
+4.0 m/s2, as a function of time, is given below:
Time Position Time Velocity
[s] [m] [s] [m/s]
0 0 0 0
1 2 1 4
2 8 2 8
3 18 3 12
4 32 4 16
5 50 5 20
Tabulation: Motion with uniform acceleration of +4 m/s2
If we plot the position as a function of time shown in the tabulation above, with time along
the horizontal axis and the position along the vertical axis, we get the position-vs.-time
graph. If we similarly plot the velocity as a function of time shown in the tabulation, we
get the velocity-vs.-time graph. Both graphical descriptions are shown below.
50 50
Velocity (m/s)
40 40
Position (m)
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s) Time (s)
Graphical: Motion with uniform acceleration of +4 m/s2.
The simpler the motion, the simpler the curve in each kind of graphical description. The
more complicated the motion, the complicated the curve. Recall that a curved line is more
complicated than a straight line. Therefore, an object whose position-vs.-time shows a
straight line is moving simpler than the example of uniformly accelerated motion just
previously considered whose position-vs.-time graph is a curved line. Such i the case of an
object moving with uniform velocity in the absence of acceleration that is illustrated below:
Motion uniform velocity 0f 10 m/s.

Time Position Time Velocity
[s] [m] [s] [m/s]
0 0 0 0
1 10 1 10
2 20 2 10
3 30 3 10
4 40 4 10
5 50 5 10
Tabulation: Motion with uniform velocity of 10 m/s.

50
40
Velocity
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
50 25
Position (m)
Position (m)
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s) Time (s)
Graphical: Motion with uniform velocity of 10 m/s
Now consider a car moving at a constant velocity of +5 Time Position

m/s (that is, it travels 5m each second) for 5 seconds, [s] [m]
abruptly stopping, and remaining at rest (v= 0 m/s) for 5 0 0
seconds. The tabulation of its position and the 1 5
corresponding time is shown at the right while its 2 10
position-vs-time graph is shown below. 3 15
4 20
Finally, consider the motion of a car which first travels 5 25
with a constant velocity (a=o m/s/s) of 2 m/s for four 6 25
seconds and then accelerates at a rate of +2 m/s/s for four 7 25
seconds. That is, in the first four seconds, the car is not 8 25
9 25
changing its velocity (the velocity remains by 2 m/s per
10 25
second over the next four seconds. This time, velocity-
time data and graph are delayed below.
10
Time Position Now, how can one tell whether
[s] [m]
8 the object is moving in the
Velocity (m/s) 0 2
positive direction (i.e., positive
16 2
velocity) or in the negative
24 2
direction (i.e., negative
3 2
42 2 velocity)? And how can one
50 4 tell if the object is speeding up
6 or slowing down?
0 1 26 3 5 4 6 7 8
7 8 The answers to these questions
Time (s) hinge on one’s ability to read a
8 10
graph. Since the graph is a
velocity-time graph, the velocity would be positive whenever the line lies in the positive
region (above x-axis) of the graph. Similarly, the velocity would be negative whenever the
line lies in the negative region (below x-axis) of the graph. As learned in a previous section,
a positive velocity means the object is moving in the positive direction; and a negative
velocity means the object is moving in the negative direction. So ones knows an object is
moving in the positive direction if the line is located in the positive direction of the graph.
And one knows an object is moving in the negative direction if the line is located in the
negative direction of the graph. And finally, if the line crosses over the x-axis from the
positive region of the graph (or vice versa),
then the object has changed directions.
But how can one tell if the object is

speeding up or slowing down? Speeding up means that magnitude (the value) of the
velocity is getting large. For instance, an object with a velocity changing from +3 m/s to
+9 m/s is speeding up. Similarly, an object with a velocity changing from -3 m/s to -9 m/s
is slowing down. In each case, the magnitude of the velocity (the number itself, not the
sign or direction) is increasing; the speed is getting bigger. Given this fact, one would
believe that an object speeding if the line of the velocity-time graph is changing from near
the 0-velocity point to a location further away from the 0-velocity point. That is, if the line
is moving away from the x-axis (the 0-velocty point), then the object is speeding up. And
conversely, if the line is moving towards the x-axis, then the object is slowing down.
3.4 Use of Algebraic

Equation in Describing Motion
In Mathematics, all simple curves can be described by a non-terminating polynomial

equation of the form
𝑦 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 × +𝑐2 ×2 + 𝑐3 ×3 + 𝑐4 ×4 + ⋯
where × is the independent variable, 𝑦 the dependent variable, and 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … are
constant numerical coefficient. If the independent variable × is replaced by the variable
time t while the dependent variable 𝑦 is replaced by the variable × denoting position, we
get the following polynomial equation in time for the position:
×= 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑡 2 + 𝑐3 𝑡 3 + 𝑐4 𝑡 4 + ⋯
Similarly, a polynomial equation can be used to describe the velocity 𝑣𝑥 as a function of

time, like the one indicated below:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2 + 𝑏3 𝑡 3 + 𝑏𝑡 4 + ⋯
where 𝑏0 , 𝑏, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4, … and so on, are also constant numerical coefficient. These last two
equations can be used to described the curves obtained in the graphical description of
motion discussed previously.
Examination of the coefficients 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … and 𝑏0 , 𝑏, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4, … in the

polynomial equations for × and 𝑣𝑥 given above leads to the following simple cases:
 if only 𝑐0 is non-zero while all other coefficients 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … and so on, are zero,
then we get ×= 𝑐0 valid for all values of time t. This means an object which remains
at rest at ×= 𝑐0 . Notice that the coefficient 𝑐0 must have the dimension, or unit, of
length for this to be true. Note also that since the object is at rest, then
𝑏0 , 𝑏, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4, … and so on are all zero.
 if only 𝑐0 and 𝑐1 are non-zero while all other coefficients 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … and so on, are
zero, then we get ×= 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡 which obviously gives an increasing value of × as
time t increases, definitely indicating a moving object. Note that since t has the
dimension of time, then 𝑐1 must have the dimension of the velocity if the product
𝑐1 𝑡 has to give the dimension of length. Moreover, since the simplest motion is that
of an object moving with uniform velocity (𝑣𝑥 = constant, independent of time, so
only 𝑏0 is non-zero while 𝑏, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4, … and so on are all zero), then an equation
linear in time must properly describe the position of the moving object in this
special case. Note also that 𝑏0 must have the dimension of the velocity since 𝑣𝑥 =𝑏0 .
For motion with uniform velocity, the correct set of equations for the position and
velocity are
×= 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥0 𝑡
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
where 𝑥0 is the position and 𝑣𝑥0 is the initial velocity. × is the final position while 𝑣𝑥 is
the final velocity.
 if this time 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are non-zero while all other coefficients 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … and so on,
are zero, then we get ×= 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑡 2 Since the next order of complication
after the simplest case of an object moving with uniform velocity is that where the
value of velocity changes uniformly with time (in other words, uniformly
accelerated motion with a = constant, then, that special case is described by an
equation quadratic in time, similar to the last equation given above. Notice that for
x to give properly the dimension of length, the factor 𝑐2 in the additional third term
must have the dimension of length. The correct equation for the position is actually
given by
1
×= 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 + ( ) 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Note that the so called dimensional analysis used here to know the significance of the first
few constant coefficients 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4, … in the polynomial equation for x cannot be used
to know the exact value of the coefficient. Finally, since in this case the speed changes
uniformly with time, then the velocity must be a linear function of time, so that
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑡
where only 𝑏0 and 𝑏1 are non-zero while the rest, namely, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4, … are all zero. Note
also that in order to give the correct dimension of velocity, then 𝑏1 in the second term of
the last equation must have the dimension of acceleration. The correct equation for the
velocity in this particular case is given by
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
Apart from the three simple cases mentioned above, all other kinds of motion are more
complicated and require general calculus for their proper discussion.
To summarize the results obtained in this section, we obtained the following two special
cases of motion requiring simple mathematics only for their understanding.
 Motion with uniform velocity
a=0
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥0 = constant
×= 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥0 𝑡
 Motion with uniform acceleration
a = constant
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
×= 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 + ( ) 𝑎𝑡 2
2
where a is the acceleration, 𝑣𝑥 is the final velocity, x is the final position, 𝑥0 is the initial
position, and 𝑣𝑥0 is the initial velocity.
Note that the first set of equations for motion with uniform velocity can be obtained
from those of more general case of uniformly accelerated motion by simply substituting
a=0 in the second set of equations.
3.5 Kinematic Equations and Problem Solving

Understanding motion means knowing the position and velocity of a moving object
at each instant of time. However, such completeness is not always known. It is often the
case that only a few parameters of an object’s motion are known, while the rest are
unknown. In such instances, the unknown parameters must be determined using physics
principles and mathematical equations called kinematic equations.
The kinematic equations, two of which were given in the preceding section
discussing the use of algebraic equations in describing motion, are a set of for equations
which can be utilized to determine unknown information about an object’s motion if other
information is unknown. The equations can be utilized for any motion which can be
described as being either a constant velocity motion (an acceleration of 0 m/s/s) or a
constant acceleration motion. They can never be used over any time period during which
the acceleration is changing. Each of the kinetic equations includes four variables; if the
values of three of the four variables are known, then the value of the fourth variable can be
calculated. In this manner, the kinematic equations provide a useful means of predicting
information about an object’s motion if other information is known.
To derive the kinematic equations, let us consider the more general case of
uniformly accelerated motion. Setting the initial time to 0 (t1 = 0) and the final time to t (tf
= t), we obtain the following from the definition of acceleration;
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎= = → 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 → 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
a result already known from the previous section.

Now from the definition of average velocity 𝑣̅ we get the following:
∆𝑣 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑣̅ = = = → 𝑣̅ 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 → 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 𝑡−0
where the average velocity, in the case of uniformly accelerated motion, is given by 𝑣̅ =
1
(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 ). Substituting this expression, together with that for final velocity, in the last
2
equation for the final position we find that
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1⁄2 (𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡
= 𝑥𝑖 + 1⁄2 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑣𝑓 𝑡
= 𝑥𝑖 + 1⁄2 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 1⁄2 (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
or simply
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
which is another result already known from the previous section.

𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
Using the following expression for the time, namely 𝑡 = obtained from the
𝑎
formula for the final velocity, we can get still another useful expression as follows:
1 1 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖 ) = 𝑥𝑖 +
2 2 𝑎 2𝑎
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = → 𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 )
2𝑎
The four kinematic equations obtained above which described an object’s motion are:
1
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑 = 2 (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡
1
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑑
where 𝑑 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 , namely the displacement, equal to the distance travelled by the moving
object only if there is no change in the direction of motion. Otherwise, if the direction of
motion changes, then the displacement is no longer equal to the distance travelled (see
section 3.2.2).
Each of the four equations above appropriately describes the mathematical
relationship between the parameters of an object’s motion. As such, they can be used to
determine unknown information about an object’s motion if other information is known.
The process involves the use of a problem-solving strategy which will be used throughout
this book. The strategy includes the following steps:
 Construct an informative diagram of the physical situation.
 Identify and list the given information in variable form.
 Identify and list the unknown information in variable form.
 Identify and list the equation which will be used to determine unknown information
from known information.
 Substitute known values into the equation and use appropriate algebraic steps to
solve for the unknown information.
 Check your answer to insure that it is reasonable and mathematically correct.
The use of this problem-solving strategy in the solution of the following problem is
modelled in Examples A and B below.
Example A
A car is approaching a stoplight moving with a velocity of +30.0 m/s. The light
turns yellow, and the driver applies the brakes and skids to a stop. If the cars acceleration
is -8.00 m/s2, then determine its displacement during the skidding process. (Note that the
direction of the velocity and the acceleration vectors are denoted by a+ and a- sign.)
Solution:
To solve this problem begin by constructing an informative diagram of the physical

situation. This is show below.
The second step involves the identification listing of known information in variable
form. Note that the vf value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since the car comes to a stop. The
initial velocity (vi) of the car is +30.0 m/s since this is the velocity at the beginning of the
motion (the skidding motion). And the acceleration (a) of the car is given as -8.00 m/s2.
(Always pay careful attention to the + and – sign for the given quantities.)
The next step of the strategy involves the listing of the unknown (the desired)
information in variable form. In this case, the problem requests information about the
displacement d of the car. So d is the unknown quantity. The results of the first three steps
are shown in the table below.
Diagram: Given: Find:
𝑎 = −8.00 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 𝑑 =? ? 𝑣𝑖 = +30.0 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 0 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑑 =? ?
𝑣𝑖 = +30.0 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑣𝑓 = 0 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑎 = −8.00 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
The next step of the strategy involves identifying the kinematic equation which
would allow you to determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic equations
to choose from. In general, you will always choose the equation which contains the three
known and the one unknown variable. In this specific case, the three known variables and
the unknown variables are 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑣𝑖 , a and d. Thus, you will look for an equation which has
these four variables listed in it. An inspection of the four equations above reveals that the
equation below is the correct choice.
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑑
where * denotes multiplication.
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step of the strategy
involves substituting known values into the equation and using proper algebraic steps to
solve for the unknown information. This step is shown below.
(0 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠)2 = (30.0 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠)2 + 2 ∗ (−8.00 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠 2 ) ∗ 𝑑
0 𝑚2 ⁄ 𝑠 2 = 900 𝑚2 ⁄ 𝑠 2 + (−16.0 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠 2 ) ∗ 𝑑
(−16.0 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠 2 ) ∗ 𝑑 = 900 𝑚2 ⁄ 𝑠 2
𝑑 = (900 𝑚2 ⁄ 𝑠 2 ) ⁄ (−16.0 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠 2 )
𝑑 = 56.3 𝑚
The solution reveals that the car will skid a distance of 56.3 meters. (Note that this value
is rounded to the third digit.)
The last step of the problem-solving strategy involves checking the answer to assure that it
is both reasonable and accurate. The value seems reasonable enough. It takes a car some
distance to skid from 30.0 m/s (approximately 65 mi/hr) to a stop. The calculated distance
is approximately one-half a football field, making this a very reasonable skidding distance.
Checking for accuracy involves substituting the calculated value back into the equation for
displacement and insuring that the left side of the equation is equal to the right side of the
equation. Indeed it is!
Example B
A car is waiting at a stoplight. When it finally turns green, Ben accelerated from
rest at a rate of a 6.00 m/s2 for a time of 4.10 seconds. Determine the displacement of Ben’s
car during this period.
Solution:
Once more, to solve this problem, begin by constructing an informative diagram of

the physical situation. This is again shown below.
The second step of the strategy involves the identification and listing of known
information in variable form. Note that the v1 value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since the
car is initially at rest. The acceleration (a) of the car is 6.00 m/s2. And the time (t) is given
as 4.10 s.
The next step of the strategy involves the listing of the unknown (or desired)
information in variable form. In this case, the problem requests information about the
displacement of the car. So d is the unknown information. The results of the first three steps
are shown in the table below.

𝑎 = 6.00 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 𝑑 =? ? 𝑣𝑖 = 0 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑡 = 4.10 𝑠 𝑑 =? ?
𝑣𝑖 = 0 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑡 = 4.10 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎 = 6.00 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
The next step of the strategy involves identifying a kinematic equation which would allow
you to determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic equations to choose from.
Again, you will always search an equation which contains the three known and the one
unknown variable. In this specific case, the three known variables and the unknown
variables are 𝑡, 𝑣𝑖 , a and d. An inspection of the four equations above reveals that the
equation below contains all four variables.
1
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 ∗ 𝑡 + ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑡 2
2
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step of the strategy involves
substituting known values into the equation and using proper algebraic steps to solve for
the unknown information. This step is shown below.
𝑑 = (0 𝑚/𝑠) ∗ (4.1 𝑠) + 0.5 ∗ (6.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) ∗ (4.1 𝑠)2

𝑑 = (0𝑚) + 0.5 ∗ (6.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) ∗ (16.81 𝑠 2 )
𝑑 = (0 𝑚) + 50.43 𝑚
𝑑 = 50.4 𝑚
The solution above reveals that the car will travel a distance of 50.4 meters. (Note that
this value is rounded to the third digit.)
is both reasonable and accurate. The value seems reasonable enough. A car with a pick-up
in speed of 6.00 m/s/s will reach a speed of approximately 24 m/s (approximately 50 mi/hr)
in 4.10 s. The distance over which such a car would be displaced during this time period
would be approximately one-half a football field, making this a very reasonable skidding
distance. Checking for accuracy involves substituting the calculated value back into the
equation for displacement and insuring that the left side of the equation is equal to the right
side of the equation. Indeed it is!
The two examples above illustrate how the kinematic equations can be combined with a
simple problem-solving strategy to predict unknown motion parameters for a moving
object. Provided that three motion parameters are known, any of the remaining values can
be determined.
3.6 Free Fall and the Acceleration of Gravity
A simplified example of uniformly accelerated motion found in

nature is that of a free falling body. A free-falling object is an object
which is falling under the sole influence of gravity. That is to say that any
object which is moving and being acted upon only be the pull of gravity
is said to be in a state of free fall." This definition of free fall leads to two
important characteristics about a free-falling object:
 Free-falling object do not encounter air resistance.

 All free-falling object (on Earth) accelerate downwards at a
rate of approximately 10 m/s2 (to be exact, 9.8 m/s2)
Free-falling objects accelerate downwards at a rate of 10 m/s2 (to

be exact, 9.8 m/s2). The position of free-falling object at regular time
intervals - say, every 0.1 second - is shown at the right. The fact that the
distance which the ball travels every interval of time is increasing is a
sure sign that the ball is speeding up as it falls downward. Recall that if
an object travels downward the speed up, then its acceleration is
downward.
The numerical value for the acceleration of a free-falling object is such an important
value that it is given a special name. It is known as the acceleration of gravity - the
acceleration for any object moving under the sole influence of gravity. As a matter of fact,
this quantity known as the acceleration of gravity is such an important quantity that
physicist have a special symbol to denote it - the symbol g. The numerical value for the
acceleration of gravity is most accurately known as 9.8 m/s2. There are slight variations in
this numerical value (to the second decimal place) which are dependent primarily upon on
altitude. We will frequently use the approximated value of 10 m/s2 in order to reduce the
complexity of the many mathematical tasks which we will perform with this number. By
so doing, we will be able to better focus on the conceptual nature of physics without too
much of a sacrifice in numerical accuracy. When the moment arises that we need to be
accurate (such as in lab work), we will use the more accurate value of 9.8 m/s2. But when
we need not to be very exact, we will take the following value
g= 10 m/s2, downward
Recall that acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity; it is the
ratio of velocity change to time between any two points in an object's path. To accelerate
at 10 m/s/s means to change the velocity by 10 m/s each second.
a = Δv/Δt = (10 m/s)/ 1 s = 10 m/s2

If the velocity and time for a free-falling object being dropped from a position of
rest were tabulated, then one would note the pattern
shown in the table at the right. Observe that the Time [s] Velocity[m/s2]**
velocity-time data reveal that the object's velocity is 0 0
changing by 10 m/s each consecutive second. That is, 1 10
the free-falling object has an acceleration of 10 m/s/s. 2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50
((** velocity values are based on the
approximated value 10 m/s/s for g)
The application of the four kinematic equations to the motion of an object in free fall
can be facilitated by a proper understanding of a few conceptual characteristics of free fall
motion. These concepts are described as follows:
 An object in free fall experiences an acceleration of -9.8 m/s/s. (The negative

sign indicates downward acceleration.) Whether explicitly stated or not, the
value of acceleration in the kinematic equations is -9.8 m/s/s for any freely falling
object.
 If an object is merely dropped (as opposed to being thrown) from an elevated
height to the ground below, then the initial velocity of the object is 0 m/s.
 If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical directly, then it will slow
down as it rises upward upwards. The instant at which it reaches the peak of its
trajectory, its velocity is 0 m/s. This value can be used as one of the motion
parameters in the kinematic equations; for example, the final velocity (Vt) after
travelling to the peak would be assigned a value of m/s.
 If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical directly, then the velocity
at which it is projected is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the velocity
which it has when it returns to the same height. That is, a ball projected vertically
with an upward velocity of +30 m/s will have a downward velocity of -30 m/s
when it returns to the same height.
These four principles and the four kinematic equations can be combined to solve
problems involving the motion of free falling objects. The two examples below illustrate
application of free fall principles to kinematic problem-solving. In each example, the
problem-solving strategy which was introduced earlier in this lesson will be utilized.
Example A
A pile of roof shingles from the top of a roof located 8.52 meters above the ground.
Determine the time required for the shingles to reach the ground.
Solution:
To solve this problem, begins by constructing an informative diagram of

the physical situation. This is shown below.
The second step involves the identification and listing of known information in
variable form. You might note that in the statement of the problem, there is only one piece
of numerical information explicitly stated: 8.52 meters. The displacement (d) of the
shingles is -8.52 m. (The negative sign indicates that the displacement is downward). The
remaining information must be extracted from the problem statement based upon your
understanding of the above principles. For example, the VI value can be inferred to be 0
m/s since the shingles are dropped (released from rest0. And the acceleration (a) of
the shingles can be inferred to be -9.8 m/s2 since the shingles are free-falling. (Always pay
careful attention to the + and - signs for the given quantities.)
The next step of the solution involves the listing of the unknown (or
desired) information in variable from. In this case, the problem request information about
the time of fall. So t is the unknown quantity. The results of the first three steps are shown
in the table below.

vi = 0.0 m/s
8.5 m vi = 0.0 m/s t = ??
d = -8.5 m
a = -9.8 m/s2 a = -9.8 m/s2
The next step involves identifying a kinematic equation which would allow you to
determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic equations to choose from. In
general, you will always choose the equation which contains the three known and the one
unknown variable. In this specific case, the three known variables and the one unknown
variables are d, Vi, a and t. Thus, you will look an equation which has these four variables
listed in it. An inspection of the four equations above reveals that the equation on the top
left contains all four variables.
d = Vi*t + ½ *a* t2
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step involves
substituting known values into the equation and using proper algebraic step to solve for the
unknown information. This is shown below.
-8.52 m = (0 m/s)* (t) + 0.5* (-9.8 m/s2)* (t)

-8.52 m = (0 m)* (t) + (-4.9 m/s2)* (t)2
-8.52 m = (-4.9 m/s2)* (t)2

(-8.52 m)/(-4.9 m/s2)=(t)2
1.739 s2 = t2
t= 1.32 s
The solution above reveals that the shingles will fall for a time of 1.32 seconds
before hitting the ground. (Note that this value is rounded to the third digit.)
is both reasonable and accurate. The value seems reasonable enough. The shingles are
falling a distance of approximately 10 yards (1 meter is pretty close to 1 yard); it seems
that an answer between 1 and 2 seconds would be highly reasonable. The calculated time
easily falls within this range of reasonability. Checking for accuracy involves substituting
the calculated value back into the equation for time and insuring that the left side of the
equation is equal to the right side of the equation. Indeed it is!
Example B
A crystal vase is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 26.2 m/s.
Determine the height to which the vase will rise above its initial height.
Solution:
Once again, to solve this problem begin by constructing an informative diagram of

the physical situation. This is shown in the next page.
The second step involves the identification and listing of unknown information in
variable form. You might note that in the statement of the problem, there is only
one piece of numerical information explicitly stated: 26.2 m/s. The initial velocity (vi) of
the shingles is +26.2 m/s. (The + sign indicates that the initial velocity is an upwards
velocity). The remaining information must be extracted from the problem statement based
upon your understanding of the above principles. Note that the vf value can be inferred to
be 0 m/s since the final state of the vase is the peak of its trajectory. The acceleration (a) of
the vase is -9.8 m/s2.
The next step involves the listing of unknown (or desired) information in variables
form. In this case, the problem requests information about the displacement of the vase (the
height to which it rises above its starting height). So d is the unknown information. The
results of the first three steps are shown in the table below.

vi = 0.0 m/s
a = -9.8 m/s2 vi = 26.2 m/s d = ??
d = ??
vf = 0 m
vi = 26.2 m a = -9.8 m/s2
The next step involves identifying a kinematics equation which would allow you to
determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematics equations to choose from.
Again, you will always search for an equation which contains the three known variables
and the one unknown variable are vi, vf, a and d. An inspection of the four equations above
reveals that the equations on the top right contains all four variables.
vf2= vi2 + 2*a*d
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step involves substituting known
values into the equation and using proper algebraic steps to solve for the unknown
information. This step is shown below.
(0 m/s)2 = (2.62 m/s)2 + 2*(-9.8 m/s2)*d

(0 m2/s2) = 686.44 m2/s2 + (-19.6 m/s2)*d
(-19.6 m/s2)*d = (0 m2/s2) - 686.44 m2/s2
(-19.6 m/s2)*d = - 686.44 m2/s2
d = (- 686.44 m2/s2) / (-19.6 m/s2)
d = 35.0 m
The solution above reveals that the vase will travel upwards for a displacement of
35.0 meters before reaching its peak. (note that this value is rounded to the third digit.)
The last step of the problem-solving strategy involves checking the answer to assure
that it is both reasonable and accurate. The value seems reasonable enough. The vase is
thrown with speeds of approximately 50 mi/hr (merely approximate 1m/s to be equivalent
to 2 mi/hr). Such a throw will never make it further than one football field in height
(approximately 10 meters), yet will surely make it past the 10-yard line (approximately 10
meters). The calculated answer certainly falls within this range of reasonability. Checking
for accuracy involves substituting that the left side of the equation is equal to the right side
of the equation. Indeed it is!
Problem Set MOTION IN ONE Name:
No. 3 DIMENSION Course & Year:
Date
Solve the following problems completely.
1. A sprinter ran the 100 m dash in about 10 s, while a long distance runner ran the
marathon (about 42 km) in 2 h 10 min. What are their average speeds? Compare
the two values obtained.
2. A car travels in a straight line with an average speed of 96 km/h for 2.5 and then
continues in the same direction with an average speed of 48 km/h for 1.5 h. (a) what
is the total displacement of the car for the 4-h trip? (b) What is the average speed
of the car for the total trip?
3. An airplane accelerates down a run-way at 3.20 m/s2 for 32.8 s until is finally lifts
off the ground. Determine the distance traveled before take-off.
4. A car starts from the rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 s for a
distance of 110 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.
49
5. It was once recorded that a Jaguar left skid marka which were 290 m
in length. Assuming that the Jaguar skidded to a stop with a constant acceleration
of -3.90 m/s2, Determine the speed of the Jaguar before it began to skid.
6. With what speed miles/hour (1 m/s = 2.23 mi/hr) must an object be thrown to reach
a height of 9.15 m (equivalent to one football field)? Assume negligible air
resistance.
7. If Michael John has a vertical leap of 1.29 m, then what is his take-off speed and
his hang time (total time to move upwards to the peak and then return to the
ground)?
8. A feather is dropped on the moon from a height of 1.40 m. The acceleration of

gravity on the moon is 1.67 m/s2. Determine the time for the feather to fall to the
surface of the moon.
50
Chapter 4
FORCE AND
THE LAWS OF
MOTION
4
Objectives
 Know the typical forces causing motion.
 Learn Newton’s Laws of Motion.
 Know how to apply Newton’s Laws in solving problems.
4.1 The Concept of Force
When you push or full an object, you exert a force on it. If an object moves
with uniform motion (constant velocity), no force is required to maintain the motion. Only
a force can cause a change in velocity that causes a body to accelerate.
A force is an interaction that causes an acceleration of body. The magnitude of

forces are defined in terms of the acceleration they give the standard kilogram. A force that
accelerates that standard body by exactly 1 m/s2 is defined to have a magnitude of
one Newton (1 N). The direction of the force is the direction of the acceleration. It is a
vector quality. Thus, the net force on a body is the vector sum of all the forces acting on it.
Some particular forces are described below:
1. Weight - is a force that pulls the body directly toward a nearby

astronomical body; in everyday circumstances, that astronomical
body is the earth. The force is primarily due to an attraction, called
gravitational attraction, between the astronomical body and any object
nearby.
Force and the Laws of Motion 52
2. Normal Force - is the perpendicular force (perpendicular of the

surface) experienced by a body that is pressed against a surface, or
pressed against another body.
3. Friction - is a force, which opposes the relative motion of a body at

rest or in motion.
4. Tension - is the force exerted by a string, rope or cable on an object

to which it is attached. A tension force pulls in the direction of the
rope and is exerted uniformly along its entire length.
4.2 Mass
Mass is a scalar quantity and is commonly known qualitatively as the amount of

matter which an object is made. It is also defined as a measure of an object’s inertia. The
greater an object’s mass, the greater its inertia and less its motion changes when pushed or
pulled by a force.
4.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton and his colleagues formulated three laws based on experimental.
Observations which are called the laws of motion. The three laws of motion are as follows:
1. Newton’s First Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia

A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue to move in
motion at constant velocity in a straight line unless, in either case, it is acted upon
by an external unbalanced force.
In an equation form, if
∑F=0
a=0
then
2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The Law of Acceleration

Unbalanced forces acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate in the
direction of the force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the vector sum of
all the forces acting on the object and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
In equation form,
3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: The Law of Action and Reaction Forces
Whenever one object exerts a force on another objects, the second object exerts a
reaction force of equal magnitude but in opposite direction to the first force.
Faction = - Freaction
It is equivalent to stating that forces always occur in pair, or that a single

Isolated force cannot exist.
4.4 Applications of Newton’s Section Law
Newton’s Second Law relates the forces acting on an object to its

acceleration. Kinematics is often used to relate an object’s acceleration to its changing
velocity and position.
Problem-Solving Strategy
The following procedure is recommended when dealing with problems involving

the application of Newton’s Second Law:
 Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system.

 Isolate the object of interest and draw the force diagram of free body
diagram for the object; a diagram showing all external forces acting on the
object. Do not include forces exerted by the object on its surrounding. For
systems containing more than one object, draw separate diagrams for each
object.
 Establish convenient coordinate axes for each object and find the
component of the forces along these axes.
 Solve for the unknowns. You must have as many independent equations as
the number of unknowns.
Sample Problems with Solutions:

1. A 7.0 kg body and 5.0 kg. body are suspended at the end of the cord that passes
over a mass less friction less pulley as shown below.
a.) What is the acceleration of the system?
b.) What is the tension in the chord?
Given: m1 = 7.0 kg , m2 = 5.0 kg
Solution:
For m1: For m2:
m1 g - T = m1 a T - m2 g = m 2 a
Therefore,
(m1g - T)+ (T - m2g) = m1a + m2a
(m1 - m2) g = (m1 + m2) a
a = [(m1 - m2) g] / (m1 + m2)
= [(7.0 kg – 5.0 kg) (9.8 m/s2)] / (7.0 kg + 5.0 kg)
= 1.6 m/s2
m1g - T = m1a => T = m1g + m1a => T = 57.2 N

2. An unbalanced force of 50 N acts on an object weighing 100 N. What acceleration
is produced?
Solution:
F = ma => |F| => a = (F/m),
F= 50 N, W = mg => m = (W/g)
a = (Fg / W) = [(50 N) (9.8 m/s2)] / 100 N =4.9 m/s2
3. A constant horizontal force of 40 N acts on a body on a smooth horizontal surface.

The body starts from rest and is observed to move 100 m in 5 s
a.) What is the mass of the body?
b.) If the force ceases to act at the end 5s, how far will the body move in the next 5
s?
Solution:
a.) F = ma => |F| = m|a| => m = (F/a),
S = vot + ½ at2, vo= 0

a = 2S/ t2 = [(2) (100m) / (5s)2)] = 8 m/s2
m= (F/a) = [40N / 8 m/s2] = 5kg
b.) F = 0 => a=0 => S = vt
V = v0 + at S = vt
= 0 + (8 m/s2) (5s) = (40 m/s) (5s)
= 40 m/s = 200m
4. An elevator with a mass of 2000 kg rises with an acceleration of 1 m/s2. What is the
tension in the supporting cable?
Solution:
∑ Fy = ma
T – mg = ma
T = m (g + a)
= (2000 kg) (9.8 m/s2 + 1 m/s2)
= 21, 600 N
5. A 100 g mass lies on a frictionless table and a cord is attached to one end as
shown. The cord passes over a mass less, frictionless pulley at the edge of the table while
a 10 g mass hangs at the other end. Find
a.) The acceleration, and
b.) The tension in the cord
Solution:
mg – T = ma where T = Ma
mg – Ma = ma => mg = (m + M)a
a = (mg) / (m + M)
= [(10 g)(980 cm/s2)] / [(10 g)(100g)]
= 49 m/s2
T = ma
= (100g) (89 cm/s2)
= 8900 dynes
6. Two inclined planes are arranged as shown below. The two bodies, 8N and 10N
are tied at the ends of a cord that passes over a massless, frictionless pulley. Find
a) The acceleration of the system, and
b) The tension in the cord
Solution:
The force acting is as shown:
For mass m along the x-axis R-mgsin30° = ma
For mass M along the x-axis Mgsin37°-T = m
Adding the two equations given above, we can solve for the acceleration. We find that
Now,
7. A traffic light, weighing 100N, hangs from a cable tied to two other cable fastened to a
support as shown in the figure below. Find the tension in the three cables.
8. A block slides down a smooth plane having an inclination of 15°, as shown in the
figure. If the block starts from the rest at the top and the length of the incline is 2m, find
a) The acceleration of the block
b) Its speed when it reaches the bottom of the inclined plane
Solution:
 The magnitude of۟ fs have a maximum value that is equal to µsN. That is, fs ≤µsN
where N is the magnitude of the normal force. If the component of F parallel to the
surface exceeds µsN, then the body begins to slide on the surface.
 Once a body begins to slide along a surface, the magnitude of the frictional force
rapidly decreases to a smaller constant value given by fk=µkN, where uk < us.
1. A box weighing 100N starts to move across a horizontal surface when a horizontal
force of 25N is applied to it, but a force of only 20N is needed to keep it moving in
uniform motion.
a) What are the coefficients of static and kinetic friction?

b) If the force is not applied horizontally but in a direction 300 above the
horizontal, find the coefficient of static and kinetic friction.
Solution:
1. A 50N body on an inclined plane, 4ft wide at the base and 3ft high, is pulled upward
by a force 30° above the plane as shown, making the body move upward uniformly.
Determine the magnitude of the applied force if the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the surfaces in contact is 0.25.
Solution:
3
Ө= arctan4 = 37°
The force acting on the block is as shown:
2. A 50kg block rest on the floor. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are
0.70 and 0.50, respectively.
a) What is the minimum force needed to move the block?
b) If the same force continues to push the block after it starts sliding, what will
be its acceleration?
Solution:
3. A 50 kg block rest on a rough horizontal floor. The coefficient of kinetic friction

between the block and the floor is 0.25. If a horizontal force is 180N acts on the
block for 3s, find the velocity of the block at the end of that time.
Solution:
As in the preceding problem,
4. Three blocks are connected as shown. The acceleration of the system is 2m/s2 to
the left and the surfaces are rough. Find the following:
a) The tension in the strings,
b) The coefficient of kinetic friction
Solution:
Substituting (3) into (1), we get the following:
Substituting (6) into (5), we find that
Adding equation (4) and (7), we get

Substituting for T2 by using equation (4)
1. In the figure shown, the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 2kg and 3kg
block is 0.3. The horizontal surface and the pulleys are friction less. The masses
are released from the rest. Determine the acceleration of each block and the
tension in the strings.
Solution:
Adding equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
Solving for T1 and T2, we finally get

Problem Set Name:
No. 4 FORCE AND THE LAWS OF MOTION Course and year
Date:
1. A force of 20N acts upon a body whose weight is 8N. What is the mass of the body?
What is its acceleration?
Ans.
2. Two masses of 8kg and 12kg are tied to each end of a string passing over a massless and
frictionless pulley. Find the resulting acceleration of each mass.
Ans.
3. A 1000kg mass elevator has an upward acceleration of 1m/s2. What is the tension in the
supporting cable?
Ans.
4. A 5kg block resting on a frictionless inclined plane with an inclination angle of 200 is
attached to another 5kg block that hangs freely by a string passing over a massless,
frictionless pulley. What is the resulting acceleration of the two blocks?
Ans.
68
5. A block weighing 60N rest on a horizontal floor. a) What is the minimum force that will
make the block move if the coefficient of static friction is 0.20? b) What is the minimum
force that will keep the block moving at uniform speed once it starts moving if the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.10?
Ans.a)
b)
6. Block A and B have weigh of 44N and 22N, respectively (see figure below)
a) Find the minimum weight of block C that must be placed on top of block A to keep it
from sliding. Take the coefficient of static friction between A and the table top to be
0.20.
b) Block C is suddenly lifted off A. Find the resulting acceleration of the system if the
coefficient of kinetic friction between A and the table is 0.15.
Ans. a)
b)
69
7. Block A has a mass of 4.20 kg and μk = 0.47
block B has a mass of 2.3 kg. The
B
coefficient of kinetic friction between
B and the horizontal plane is 0.47. The A
inclined plane is frictionless. Find 270
(a) the acceleration of the blocks, and
(b) the tension in the string passing over the mass less, frictionless pulley shown in the
figure.
Ans. a) ________________________________
b) ________________________________
8. The system moves at 1.5 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 while the inclined planes are rough. Determine the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the incline and the blocks, assuming that they
are the same on both sides. Calculate also the tension in the string.
2 kg 7 kg
350 350
Ans. ___________________________________
70
9. A 40 kg can of paint rest on ledge 20 m above the ground. A taut rope attached to the
can passes over a pulley and straight down to a 3.0 kg can of nails. If the can of paint
is accidentally knocked of the ledge, how much time does a carpenter have in order to
catch the can of paint before it smashes on the ground?
Ans.________________________________
10. A force of 150 N pushes a box. Starting from rest, the box achieves a velocity of 1.50
𝑚⁄ in 2.5 s. Find the coefficient of sliding between the box and the floor.
𝑠
Ans.________________________________
71
Force and the Laws of Motion 71a
4.6 Torque and Rotational Motion

Recall in Chapter 3 where it was mentioned early on that motion in general is
combined translation and rotation. In that chapter, we discussed only the kinematics if
translational motion to simplify the discussion. The kinematics of rotational motion can
similarly be described by using the appropriate rotational quantities. In fact, for every
translational quantity there is a corresponding rotational quantity, some of which are shown
below:
position x → angular position θ in radians (rad)

(360° = 2π radians)
displacement Δx → angular displacement Δθ also in radians
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝜃
velocity v = → angular velocity omega: ω = in
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
rad/s
𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝜔
acceleration a = 𝛥𝑡 → angular acceleration alpha: α = in
𝛥𝑡
rad/s2
force F which causes translation → torque L which causes rotation
The corresponding set of four kinematic equations for rotational motion can be
easily obtained by simply replacing the translational quantities in the kinematic equations
in Chapter 3 by their corresponding rotational quantities shown above. But we will not
discuss that anymore. Our main t=interest here is the cause of rotational motion which is
the torque.
Torque is a measure of the tendency of a force to cause an object to rotate. The
magnitude of torque (L) is the product of the magnitude of force (F) and the moment arm
(s). The moment arm is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to
the point about which the object rotates called axis of rotation. (See drawing below.)
Q O Q
O P
S P
Force and the Laws of Motion 71c
Fy L = Fy · S
F = 120 N sin300 (2m)
= 60 N (2m)
O 2m 300 = 120 N · m
Fx
For F3:
L =F·S
O
= 0 because S = 0
F
3
4.7 Static Equilibrium
Static equilibrium refers to the absence of any motion, both translation and
rotation. If a body does not move, its velocity is always zero (ν = 0 as well as the angular
velocity ω = 0, and therefore, there is also its acceleration. (α = 0 as well as the angular
acceleration α = 0). Consequently, there are two conditions for static equilibrium.
4.7.1 First Condition of Static Equilibrium
If a vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero, then there will not be
any change in its state of motion, and the body is in a state of translational equilibrium
under the action of these set of forces.
Σ𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ = 0
It satisfies then that the sum of the x components (F1x, F2x, F3x, . . . ) of all forces
acting on the object must be zero, and the sum of the y components (F1y, F2y, F3y, . . . )
must also be zero.
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹1 𝑥 + 𝐹2 𝑥 + 𝐹3 𝑥 + ⋯ = 0
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹1 𝑦 + 𝐹2 𝑦 + 𝐹3 𝑦 + ⋯ = 0
Force and the Laws of Motion 71d
These two equations are useful in calculating one or two unknown forces acting on
an object if all other forces acting on it are known. To use these equations correctly, here
are some steps to follow:
1. Make a drawing of the whole structure being considered.
2. Draw a separate force diagram known as the free body diagram for one part of
the structure.
3. Superimpose an x-axis and y-axis on the force diagram.
4. Writer the equations for the first condition of equilibrium.
5. Substitute the known information into the equations and algebraically solved
for the unknowns.
1. A 50-N body us supported by two ropes, one making 30° with the vertical and
another making 45° with the horizontal as shown below. What are the tensions in
the ropes?
y
T2 T1
300 T2
T1
0
45
450 600 x
50-N
Solution:
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
T1 cos 60° - T2 cos 45° = 0 T1 sin 60° - T2 sin 45° -50 N = 0
Force and the Laws of Motion 71e
0.5 T1 = 0.707 T2 (1) 0.866 T1 + 0.707 T2 = 50 N (2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we get the following:
0.707 𝑇2 0.707 𝑇2
𝑇1 0.866 ( ) + 0.707 T2 = 50 N
0.5 0.5
or
T2 = 26.8 N , T1 = 36.7 N
2. Determines the weights W1, and W2 shown in the figure below that cause the
tension T in the horizontal cable to be 64 N.
W1
0
T 30 T 300
x
W
1
W W2
2
Solution:
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
W1 cos 30° - T = 0 W1 sin 30° - W2 = 0
W2 = 73.9 sin 30°
64 𝑁
W1 = cos 30° W2 = 36.95 N
W1 = 73.9 N
4.7.2 Second Condition of Static Equilibrium
For an object to remain in rotational equilibrium, the positive torque that tends to
rotate it counterclockwise must be balance by a torque of equal magnitude that tends to
rotate it clockwise. Thus, the second condition of equilibrium is:
Force and the Laws of Motion 71f
ΣL = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . = 0
where L1, L2, L3 . . . represents the torque caused by all forces F1, F2, F3, . . . acting on the
object.
1. A uniform beam weighing 50 lbs and 12 ft long leans against a smooth wall with
its lower end 6 ft away from the wall. What are the reactions on the ground and of
the wall at the points of contact?
F2 B
121
61
A F1x
F1
F1y
Solution:
For the first condition of equilibrium:

ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
F2 – F1x = 0 F1y = 50 lbs = 0
F2 = F1x F1y = 50 lbs
For the first condition of equilibrium:

ΣLA = 0
F2 (√108) - 50 lbs (3) = 0
(50)(3)
F2 =
√108
= 14.4 lbs
thus F1x = 14.4 lbs
Force and the Laws of Motion 71g
and 𝐹1 = √(𝐹1 𝑥)2 + (𝐹1 𝑦)2

= √(14.4)2 + (50)2
𝐹1 = 52 𝑙𝑏𝑠
2. A uniform bar 3 m long is held by ropes at the ends making angle 60° and 30°,
respectively, with the horizontal. A weight of 200 N is hung 0.5 m from the left end
where the 60° ropes is attached. Find the tension in the rope and the weight of the
bar.
F
3m
F2
0.5
0 m 30
60 0
A B
200
N W
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹2 cos 300 −𝐹1 cos 600 = 0
𝐹2 cos 300 = 𝐹1 cos 600 → (1)
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹1 sin 600 + 𝐹2 sin 300 − 200 − 𝑊 = 0
𝐹1 sin 600 + 𝐹2 sin 300 = 200 + 𝑊 → (2)
∑ 𝐿𝐴 = 0
200(0.5) + 𝑊(1.5) − 𝐹2 sin 300 (3) = 0
100 + 1.5𝑊 = 1.5𝐹2 → (3)

1.5𝐹2 −100
𝑊= 1.5
Substituting equations (1) and (3) in (2), we get:

Force and the Laws of Motion 71h
𝐹2 cos 300 0 0
1.5𝐹2 − 100
[ ] sin 60 + 𝐹2 sin 30 = 200 +
cos 600 1.5
1.5𝐹2 + 0.5𝐹2 = 200 + 𝐹2 − 100⁄15
𝐹2 = 200 − 100⁄15
𝐹2 = 133.33 𝑁
(133.33)(.866)
𝐹1 = 0.5
= 230.9 𝑁
Problem Set FORCE AND THE Name:
No. 4a LAWS OF MOTION Course & Year:
Date:
1. Weights of 2, 4, 6, and 8 N are fastened to the corners of a frame 2 m2. If it weighs

10 N, where would a fulcrum (the support point) be placed to balance the frame
and the weight?
Ans.___________________________________
2. A ladder 12 m long leans against a vertical frictionless wall with its lower end 3 m
from the wall. The ladder weighs 40 N. Find the magnitude and direction of the
force exerted on the lower end of the ladder.
Ans.___________________________________
3. A uniform 25 N beam 6 m long is carried by two men A and B, one at each end of
the beam.
a) If A exerts a force of 20 N, where must a load of 45 N be placed on the

beam?
b) What force does B exert?
Ans. a) ______________________________
b) ______________________________
4. A 3 m long weightless beam is supported at each end by cables. A painter weighing

900 N stands 1 m from the left cable. Calculate the tension in each cable.
Ans.__________________________________
71i
5. Where must a 500 N weight be hung in a uniform 150 N pole with a length of 5 m
so that a girl at one end support ¼ as much as man at the other end?
Ans.___________________________________
6. Find the tension in each cord in Fig. 5.6 if the weight W of the suspended body is
150 N.
350 650
A 550
250
B
A B
C
C
C
W C
Fig. 5.6
W
Ans.___________________________________
7. Find the magnitude and direction of F3 in Fig. 5.7 for the given system to be in
equilibrium.
F3
F2 = 15N
θ
a 250
750
F1 = 30N
Fig. 5.7
Ans.___________________________________
71j
8. A uniform pole 20 ft. long and weighing 80 lbs is held by a boy 2 ft from one end
while a man caries the same poles 5 ft from the other end. At what point should a
load of 100 lbs be placed so that the man will carry twice as much weight as the
boy.
Ans._____________________________
9. A springboard diver of weight 582 N stands at one end of a uniform 4.48 m diving
board of weight 142 N. The board is attached to two pedestals, one at the other end
of the board and the second pedestal 1.55 m from the first. Find the force in each
of the two pedestal.
Ans._____________________________
10. A ladder, whose length is 10 m and whose mass is 40 kg rests against a frictionless
vertical wall. Its upper end is a distance of 7.7 m above the ground. The center of
mass of the ladder is ⅓ of the way up the ladder. The coeefficient of static friction
between the ladder and the ground is 0.53. If a carpenter climbs 85% of the way up
the ladder before it starts to slip, find the mass of the carpenter.
Ans._____________________________
71k
CHAPTER 5
WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER 5
Objectives
 Calculate the work done by an applied force that moves an object through a certain
displacement.
 Distinguished between kinetic and potential energy.
 Use the principle of conservation of energy to solve problems that involves moving
objects.
 Determine the power output of an energy source.
5.1 Work
The term work, commonly used in connection with widely physical or mental
activities, is restricted in physics, in cases wherein there is a force and displacement along
the direction of the force.
In general, work is defines as the product of the displacement and the component
of the force along the
F F
If the force and the displacement are in the same direction, as shown in the
preceding diagram, then the work done by force in moving the body is given by
Work Energy and Power 73
𝑊 = |𝐹⃗ | = |𝑆⃗| = 𝐹𝑆
where: is the applied force and is the displacement.

If the force and the displacement are not in the same direction, as shown in the diagram
below, then the work done by applied force is given by
𝑊 = | 𝐹 | + | 𝑆 | (cos 𝜃) + 𝐹𝑆 cos 𝜃
= (Fcos 𝜃)𝑆
𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗
𝜃 𝜃
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Where 0 is the angle between the two vector F and S.

There will be no work done if the displacement S and the applied force F are at
right angles at each other, since cos 90° = 0.
If the applied force does work by moving the direction of the force, the work done
is positive. If the body moves in the opposite direction of the force, the work is done by the
body and is considered negative.
In general, there are three ways on how work is done.
 If the force is just to impact uniform motion on the body, the force of friction
has done the same amount of work.
 In changing the position or configuration of the body system, as in the case
of force applied on a body to raise the body on an inclined plane.
 In imparting acceleration to the body or system.
Units of Work
Sample Problem with Solutions:

x
1. A wooden box is being pulled 10m from its original position along a horizontal
meter (m) surface by a constant force of 25N. Calculate the work done on the box if
a) the force is applied horizontally, and
b) the force makes an angle of 37o above horizontal
ot (ft)
Solution:
a) 𝑊 = 𝐹 ⦁ 𝑆
= 25𝑁 ⦁ 10𝑚
= 250𝑁 ⦁𝑚 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒)
b) 𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 37° ⦁𝑆
= (25𝑁 )(sin 37°) (10𝑚)
= 199.66𝑁⦁𝑚 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
2. A 100 lb box is pushed across a horizontal floor with a force of 50 lb. The
coefficient of sliding friction, µ, is 0.4.
a) Find the work done in pushing the box 60ft.

b) How much work went into overcoming friction?
c) How much work went into accelerating the box?
Solution:
1. 𝑊 = 𝐹 ⦁ 𝑆
= 50𝑙𝑏𝑠 ⦁ 60𝑓𝑡
= 3,000𝑓𝑡-lb
2. 𝑊 = 𝐹 ⦁ 𝑆 where F = f = µN = µW
= 0.4 (100 lb)
= 40 lbs
Therefore
𝑊 =𝐹⦁𝑆
= 40 𝑙𝑏𝑠 ⦁ 60 𝑓𝑡
= 2,400 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
3. Wa = 3,000 ft-lb − 2,400 ft-lb

= 600 ft-lb
5.2 Energy
The property of a body or system of bodies by virtue of which work can be performed
is called energy. Whenever work is done, there is always a change in energy.
Energy can exist in many forms and can be transformed from one form to another. The
energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy, or energy of
motion. Energy of position or configuration is called potential energy.
When work is done on a body in the absence of frictional force the work done is equal
to the sum of the increase in kinetic energy and the increase in potential energy. The units
in which energy is expressed are the same as the units of work. Energy is a scalar quantity.
5.2.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
Work is required to lift objects against the

2
gravitational pull of the earth. The potential
mg
energy due to elevated positions is called
h
gravitational potential energy, or simply PE.
1
The amount of gravitational potential energy
///////////////////////////////////////
possessed by an elevated object is equal to the
work done against gravity on lifting it.
If a mass m is raised from position J to position
2, a distance h, as shown in the diagram on the
right, work is done on the body against with the
magnitude.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
where mg is the force and the negative sign signifies a force against gravity.
If the body is allowed to fall, the weight of the body will do the same amount of work.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Which, in another way, is called the potential energy of the body. In other words, energy
was stored in the body by virtue of its position relative to the surface. Therefore,
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Since weight w = mg, then

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑤ℎ
Consider now the work done in dragging a body of mass m along a frictionless plane as
shown on the next page. Since the component of the vertical force, (the weight = mg) along
the plane is (mg sin 𝜃), the woek done against this component of the weight along the plane
of length L is.
𝑊 = (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃) 𝐿 F
but
ℎ
sin 𝜃 = L
𝐿 h
Therefore,
mg
𝑊 = (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃) 𝐿
𝜃
Note that the height h is the distance above some reference level, such as the ground
or the floor of a building. The potential energy or the work done on a body raised to a
height is independent of the path, or course, taken by the body. The potential energy is
relative to some reference level and depends only on mg and the height h.
The potential energy of a body at high altitude with respect to the surface of the earth is
given by
1 1
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( )
𝑅 𝑟
where the universal gravitational constant 6.67 x 10-11 m3/ kg-s2, M is the mass of the earth,
m is the mass of the body, R is the radius of the earth, and r is the distance of the body from
the center of the earth. Note that r is not just the altitude above the earth’s surface but
includes the radius of the earth as well.
6.2.2 Kinetic Energy
If an object is moving, then by virtue of that motion, it is capable of doing work. It is

called energy of motion, or kinetic energy (KE).
The kinetic energy lf the moving object can be measured by the amount of work it of
work it will do if brought to rest or by the amount of work originally need to impart velocity
to it, in circumstances where the work cannot also go into potential energy.
Consider a body with initial speed V1 on which a steady unbalanced force f acts as it
moves a distance s. The body gains speed at a rate given by a= F/m until it reaches a final
speed V2. The work done on the body by the unbalanced force that accelerated it appears
as a change in its kinetic energy.
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐹𝑠
Since F=ma, multiplying by s gives

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠
so that
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠
Using one of the kinematic equations, namely

2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉22 𝑉11
𝑎𝑠 = 1⁄2 ( 𝑉22 𝑉11 )
we finally obtain
∆𝐾𝐸 = 1⁄2𝑚 ( 𝑉22 𝑉11 )
= 1⁄2𝑚 𝑉22 𝑉11
If the body was initially at rest, then V1 = 0 and the gain in kinetic energy is the final
kinetic energy. Thus, the kinetic energy of a body, moving with velocity V, at any instant
is
𝐾𝐸 = 1 ⁄ 2 𝑚𝑉 2 )
6.2.3 Transformation and Conservation of Energy
Energy is given to a body or system of bodies when work is done upon it. In this process,
that is merely a transfer of energy from one body to another. In such transfer no energy is
created nor destroyed; it merely changes from one form to another. This statement is known
as a law of conservation of energy.
An example of the law of the conservation of
energy is the conservation of mechanical energy ///////////////////////////////////////////
(potential and kinetic) in the case of a simple
pendulum of mass m shown in the diagram on the
right. If the pendulum is raised to a height h it
acquires potential energy. When it reaches the 1
lowest point of the arc, its potential energy is
minimum, but its velocity maximum showing
that the potential energy of the pendulum has
been converted to kinetic energy. This
conservation is 100%; friction at the point of
support in air resistance is neglected. The kinetic
energy at the lowest point of the pendulum to the same height in the other side of the swing.
The law of conservation of energy still holds even if friction and air resistance are taken
into account, because in that case, when the body eventually stops swinging after some
time, both its potential and kinetic energies, by then, will all have been dissipated into heat
energy.
Sample Problem with Solution:
1. Calculate the kinetic energy in joules in 11.0g rifle bullet travelling at 250m/s
Solution:
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
1 1𝑘𝑔
= 2 [(11.0𝑔) (1000𝑔)] (250 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
= 343.75 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2. A 40- lb stone is hoisted to the top of a building 100 ft high. By how much does its
potential energy increases?
Solution:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑤ℎ
= (40 𝑙𝑏)(100𝑓𝑡)
= 4000 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
3. A body of mass m is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 25𝑚⁄𝑠

a) How high will it rise?
b) What is its velocity at height of 20 m?
Solution:
a) KE bottom = PE at the highest point

1
𝑚𝑉12 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
𝑉2
ℎ= h
2𝑔
(25)2 V2
= 20m
2(9.8)
= 31.88 𝑚
V1
b) 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
1 1
𝑚𝑉12 = 2 𝑚𝑉22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2
2
1 1
(25 𝑚⁄𝑠)2 = 𝑉22 + (9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠)(20𝑚)
2 2
1
𝑉2 = 2 [2 (25 𝑚⁄𝑠)2 (9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) (20𝑚)]
2
𝑉2 = 15.26 𝑚⁄𝑠
4. A volcanic ash flow is moving across horizontal ground when it encounters a 10° up
slope. It is observed to travel 920 m o the upslope before coming to rest. The volcanic
ash contains trapped gas, so the force of friction with the ground is very
Small and can be ignored. At what speed was the ash flow moving just before encountering
the up slope? Consider an arbitrary mass m of the ash flow and see how it moves.
V2 = 0
S= 920m
h
V1 10°
Solution:
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸
1
𝑚𝑉12 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
𝑉12 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑉1 = √2𝑔ℎ
= √(2)(9.8)(90 sin 10°)
= 55.95 m⁄s
5. An 800 kg car moving at 6 𝑚⁄𝑠 begins to coast down a hill 40 m high with its engine
off. The driver applies the brake so that the car’s speed at the bottom of the hill is
𝑚
20 ⁄𝑠. How much energy was lost to friction?
Solution:
m = 800 kg V1 = 6𝑚⁄𝑠
V2 = 20𝑚⁄𝑠
𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑓
1 1
𝑊𝑓 = 2 (800)(6)2 + [(800)(9.8)(40)] [2 (800)(20)2 ]
= 14400 + 313600 160000
𝑊𝑓 = 168,000 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
6.3 Power
The time rate of doing work is knownas power. Power measures the amount of work
done in given time.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊 𝐹𝑆 𝑆
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = = 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑣
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
In the MKS system, the unit of power is in joules per second, also known as the watt,
named after James Watt. In the CGS system, the unit of power is erg per second. In the
English system, the standard unit of power is the horsepower (hp).
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏⁄
1ℎ𝑝 = 33,000 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏⁄
= 550 𝑠
= 746 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
= 0.75 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡(𝑘𝑤)
1𝑘𝑤 = 1000 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Sample Problem with Solution:
1. How much power is expanded by a man who can push a load with a force of 190 lbs
to a distance of 100 ft in 4 min?
Solution:
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
100𝑓𝑡
= (80𝑙𝑏𝑠) ( 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏⁄
= 2000 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏⁄
= 2 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2. An engine is needed to pump 10,000 gallons of water per hour nto a reservoir 100 ft
above the level ground. How many horsepower is required?
Solution:
1 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 8.34𝑙𝑏𝑠
100 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 = 8.34 𝑥 105 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏⁄
𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑝 = 33,000
834
=
19.8
= 42.1
3. Water is pumped from a river with a depth of 80 m to a reservoir on the surface at a

3
rate of10 𝑚 ⁄ℎ𝑟. What is the minimum power in watts required in pumping the water
up?
Solution:
𝐹𝑆 𝑚𝑔𝑆
𝑃= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔
= (10 ⁄ℎ𝑟) (9.8)(80) (1000 ⁄𝑚3 )
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒⁄
= 7,840,000 ℎ𝑟
= 2,178 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Problem Name:
WORK, ENERGY
Set No. 5 Course  Year:
AND POWER
Date:
1. An elevator with a 10-person capacity (each person with an average mass of 68 kg)
raises passengers to a height of152 m in 55.0 s at constant speed. Find the power output
of the motor assuming no friction losses?
Ans.______________________________________
2. A child pulls a 5.6 kg box a distance of 12 m along a horizontal surface at a constant

speed. What work does the child do on the box if the coefficient of kinetic friction is
0.20 and the cord makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal?
Ans.______________________________________
3. A horse pulls a cart with a force of 42.0 lbs at an angle of 27° with the horizontal and
moves along at a speed of 6.20 𝑚𝑙⁄ℎ𝑟 .
a) How much work does the horse do in 12 min?

b) Find he power output of the in hp
Ans. a) ________________________________
b) ________________________________
82
4. A body of mass m starts down from the top of an inclined plane 20ft long and 10 ft
high. What is its velocity at a point 12 ft from the top if coefficient of friction is 0.1?
Ans. __________________________________
5. To push a 25 kg crate up a 27° incline, a worker exerts a force of 120 N, parallel to the
incline. As the crate slides 3.6 m, how much is done on the crate by each of the
following:
a) the worker
b) the force of gravity, and
c) the normal force due to the incline?
Ans. a)____________________________
b)____________________________
c)____________________________
83
CHAPTER 6
IMPULSE AND
MOMENTUM 6
Objectives
 Relate Newton’s second Law of Motion to impulse and momentum.
 Calculate the impulse of a force and relate it to the change in momentum.
 Know when momentum is conserved.
 Learn how to apply conservation of momentum to a variety of problems involving
collisions.
6.1 Linear Momentum
Newton’s Second Law of Motion in the form 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ is only approximately true.
It is valid in the special case where the mass of the moving object does not change. In the
case where the mass of the object varies while it moves, as in the case equation for
Newton’s Second Law of Motion takes the form
∆p
⃗⃗ change in linear momentum vector
⃗⃗=
F = = {time rate of change of the linear momentum} (6)
∆t elapsed time in changing the momentum
where linear momentum is defined as
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Impulse and Momentum 85
so that
∆𝑝⃗ = 𝑝⃗ f - 𝑝⃗i
𝑝⃗ f = final linear momentum
𝑝⃗I = initial linear momentum
Newton’s Second Law of Motion can therefore be related as follows:
The total external force acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of
the linear momentum.
In the figure shown below, where the particles hits ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑣
the wall while the direction of motion is reversed, the m
direction point
as positive. Therefore, it follows that the initial linear 𝑣⃗
momentum
𝑝⃗ i = 𝑚(+ 𝑣⃗) = +𝑚𝑣⃗
while the final linear momentum is
𝑝⃗ f = 𝑚( 𝑣⃗) = 𝑚𝑣⃗
The change in linear momentum is then found to be
∆𝑝⃗ = 𝑝⃗ f - 𝑝⃗I = 𝑚𝑣

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑚𝑣⃗ = 2𝑚𝑣⃗
The negative sign means that the change in linear momentum vector is pointing to the
left.
If, in addition, the particles comes in control with the vertical wall for a time t 0,
we find from Newton’s Second Law of Motion that the force exerted by the wall on the
particle is given by
∆𝑝⃗ 2𝑚𝑣⃗ 2𝑚
𝐹⃗ = = = 𝑣⃗
∆𝑡 𝑡0 𝑡0
The negative sign indicates that the force exerted by the wall on the particle is acting to
the left, which must be the case if the particle, originally moving to the right, is to turn
back. The magnitude of the force exerted by the wall the particle is therefore
2𝑚 2𝑚𝑣
𝐹 = |𝐹⃗ | = |𝑣⃗| =
𝑡0 𝑡0
Notice that for a given mass m and speed v the shorter the time t0 of contact with the wall
(the smaller t0), the larger the F that acts on the particle.
6.2 Impulse
From equation (6.21), we find that the change in linear momentum Δ 𝑝⃗ is given by
𝛥 𝑝⃗ = 𝐹⃗ Δt (6.2)
The product 𝐹⃗ Δt is called impulse. It follows that
Impulse = change in linear momentum
Obviously, impulse has the same unit as the momentum, namely N · s. However, there is
no commonly used symbol for impulse.
Note further that equation (6.2) is valid only if the force 𝐹⃗ acting is constant within the
time interval Δt. If the force varies with the time, the average force 𝐹⃗ ave must be used in
computing the change in linear momentum:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ave Δt
𝛥 𝑝⃗ = 𝐹 (6.3)
A knowledge of this impulse-momentum relationship is basic to an understanding of

some phenomena, like the following:
 When jumping from a height, one tries not to land stiff-legged. The sudden stop
(small Δt) would apply a large force to your leg bones and joints and could cause
some injury. Instead, the knees must be bent on landing, delaying the stop and
increasing the time interval Δt, thereby making the force smaller since the change
in momentum, and therefore the impulse, remains the same.
 When an automobile airbag inflates during a car accident, stemming the driver
against the steering wheel, increasing the contact time, and decreasing the force that
could cause injury.
 When hitting a ball with a baseball bat or driving a golf ball, in which a given
constant applied force with a longer contact time, causes a greater impulse (or
change in momentum), thereby imparting a higher final velocity to the ball and
increasing its range.
6.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum
For the linear momentum of a moving particle to be conserved, or remain constant wih
time, a certain condition must hold. This condition can be clearly seen from the momentum
form of Newton’s second law (eqution 6.1). If there is no external force acting on the
particle, then
𝛥𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ = =0 → Δ𝑝⃗ =𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑓 - 𝑝⃗𝑖 = 0 → 𝑝⃗ 𝑓 = 𝑝⃗ 𝑖 = constant
𝑡
The conservation of momentum may be extended easily to a system of many particles

by writing Newton’s second law in terms of the sums (resultants) of all the external foces
acting on the system and the momenta (plural of momentum) of the particles:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑝1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑝2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑝3
𝐹⃗ T = ∑𝑖 𝐹⃗ i = 𝐹⃗ 1 + 𝐹⃗ 2 + 𝐹⃗ 3 + ⋯ = 𝛥𝑡 + + + …
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
1 1
= {Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 + Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃2 + Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃3 + ….} = {Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 + Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃2 + Δ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃3 + ….}
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
1 1 ⃗⃗𝑃
𝛥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗T
= { ∑𝑇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑖 } = Δ { ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃 T} =
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
Recall that the symbol delta (Δ) denotes a change in quantity.
The law of conservation of linear momentum can be stated as follows:
If the total external force acting on a system is zero, then, the total linear momentum of
the system is conserved.
In the case of a system of many particles, we find that
𝐹⃗ T = ∑ 𝑖 𝐹⃗ 𝑖 = 0 → Δ𝑃⃗⃗T = 0 → Δ { ∑ 𝑖 𝑃𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ } = 0 → ∑ 𝑖 𝑃𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = constant
⃗⃗⃗⃗ of individual particles or objects

An important point to remember is that the momenta 𝑃𝑖
within a system may change. But if the total external force acting on the system is zero,
then, the sum of all momenta remains the same.
Within a system, internal forces may be acting, for example, when particles collide.
However, these are forces pairs of Newton’s third law. So, there is a good reason why suh
forces are not reffered to in the condition for the conservation of momentum. By Newton’s
third law, these internal forces are equal and opposite and cancel each other out. Therefore,
the net internal force of a system is zero.
In many instances, external forces may be acting on the system, which means that the
linear momentum is not conserved. But the conservation law can still be applied to a good
approximation if the internal forces, for which linear momentum is conserved, are much
greater than the external forces, such as gravity and friction.
6.3 Application of Conservation of Linear Momentum
The law of conservation of linear momentum is one of the most important laws in
physics. It is very useful in analyzing the recoil of a gun, the propulsion of squids and
octopuses in water, as well as rockets in space. It also applies to problems involving
collisions of moving bodies.
Recoil of a Gun
Before being fired, the gun and bullet are both stationary so the initial total linear
momentum of the system (gun plus bullet) is zero. During firing, the exploding charge
forces the bullet out of the gun barrel at high speed. Since the internal force exerted by the
exploding gunpowder is much larger than the smaller external gravitational force on the
gun and the bullet, conservation of linear momentum applies. To make the final total linear
momentum of the system (gun plus bullet) remain zero after the firing, the gun recoils and
move opposite to the direction of motion of the bullet t cancel out the linear momentum
acquired by the bullet.
Suppose a gun of mass MG fires a bullet of mass mb with a speed vb. If the final linear
momentum pf of the system (gun plus bullet) where due only to the bullet, then pf = mbvb
≠ 0. But since the gun and the bullet where both at rest before firing, the initial linear
momentum pi of the system (gun plus bullet) must be zero, that is pi = 0. There is obviously
a contradiction here, since pf ≠ pi, in violation of the lawof conservation of linear
momentum. To resolve the contradiction, the gun must contribute to the final linear
momentum of the system. Assuming the gun also moves with speed V G after firing, we
now find that
mb
pf = mb vb + MG VG = pi = 0 → MG VG = - mb vb → VG = - MG vb
The negative sign indicates that the gun moves opposites to the direction of motion of the
bullet.
Propulsion of Squids and Octopuses in Water
Squids and octopuses move themselves by squirting water from their bodies with great
internal force, which are again larger than the external gravitational force. These aquatic
animal take in water and suddenly expels it out. The linear momentum of the expelled
water moving backward is cancelled out by the linear momentum of the forward moving
squid or octopus.
There is, by the way, another way of looking at what was described above, namely from
the point of view of Newton’s third law. Since force was needed to expel the water out, the
expelled water, in turn, exerts a reaction force on the aquatic animal, causing it to move
forward.
Propulson of Rockets in Space
A rocket moves forward in empty space by burning fuel and exhausting the gases
created out the rear of the rocket. If the rocket is at rest when the engines are turned on and
there are no external forces, as in vacuum, then the instantaneous linear momentum of the
exhaust gas moving backward out the rear of the rocket is equal and opposite to that of the
rocket moving forward. The numerous exhaust gas molecules have smaller masses and
high velocities, while the rocket has a much larger mass and a smaller velocity.
Equivalently, as the rocket exerts a force on the exhaust gas to expel it out of the rear
of the rocket, the exhaust gas exerts an equal but opposite force on the rocket in accordance
with Newton’s third law, propelling it forward.
But unlike a gun firing a single shot or a squid squirting water out from its body, a
rocket engine continually losses mass when burning fuel. Therefore, a rocket moving in
space is a system for which the mass is not constant, so that its motion is naturally more
complicated.
Collision
In physics, collision does not always have to involve physical contact between the
colliding bodies. Basically, collision is an interaction of objects in which there is an
exchange of momentum and energy. It is therefore only natural to apply not only
conservation of linear momentum but also conservation of energy in analyzing collisions.
The total kinetic energy is considered for two types of collisions, namely, elastic and
inelastic. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy is conserved. That is, the total
kinetic energy of all objects of the system after the collision is the same as their total kinetic
energy before the collision. In an inelastic collision, on the other hand, the total kinetic
energy is not conserved because some energy is lost during the collision.
In an elastic collision, both the total linear momentum and the total kinetic energy are
conserved. In an inelastic collision, only the total linear momentum is conserved.
Perfectly elastic collisions occur when the colliding bodies immediately separate during
the collision so that the time of constant is negligible. Perfectly inelastic collisions occur
when the colliding bodies stick together during the collision and move off with a common
speed after the collision.
Easiest to understand is collision in one-dimension that occurs when the colliding bodies
move along the same line before and after the collision.
Elastic Collision in One-Dimension
Imagine two bodies 1 and 2 moving initially along the line joining their centers, then
colliding head-on and moving along the same straight line after collision. These bodies
exert forces on each other during the collision that are along the initial line of motion, so
that the final motion is also along the same line.
The masses of the colliding bodies are m1 and m 2, the velocity components being v1 and
v2 before collision and u1 and u2 after collision. We take the positive direction of the linear
momentum and the velocity to be to the right.
By conservation of linear momentum, we find that since all velocities are in the positive
direction
m1 v1 + m 2 v2 = m1 u1 + m 2 u2 (6.4)
Moreover, since the collision is elastic, the total kinetic energy of the system is also
conserved. So we get the following additional equation:
1 1 1 1
m1v12 + 2 m2v22 = 2 m1u12 + 2 m2u22 → m1 v12 + m2 v22 + m2 v22 = m1 u12+ m2 u22 (6.5)
2
If we know the masses and the initial velocities, we can calculate the two unknown final
velocities u1 and u2.
Solving for u1 we eliminate u2. From eq. (6.4), for example, we find that
m1v1+m2v2−m1u1 𝑚
U2 = 𝑚2
= 𝑚1 (v1 - u1) + v2 (6.6)
2
Substituting the above resulting eq. (6.5), we get the following:
𝑚
m1 v12 + m2 v22 = m1 u12+ m2 { 𝑚1 (v1 - u1) + v2}2
2
𝑚12 𝑚
= m1 u12+ m2 {𝑚22 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 𝑚1 (v1 - u1) v2 + v 22}
2
𝑚12
= m1 u12+ m2 { 𝑚2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1 (v1 - u1) v2 + m2 v 22}
Multiplying by m2 , we obtain the following results:

m1m2v12 + m2 v22 = m1m 2u12 + {m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2+ 2 m1m2 (v1 - u1) v2 + m2 v22 }
m1m2v12 = m1m 2u12 + {m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1m2 (v1 - u1) v2 }
m1m2v12 - m1m 2u12 = { m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1m2 (v1 - u1) v2 }
m1m2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 = { m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1m2 (v1 - u1) v2 }
m1m2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 ) (𝑣1 + 𝑢1 ) = { m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1m2 (v1 - u1) v2 }
Cancelling (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 ) common to all the terms and solving for u1, we finally get
m1m2 (𝑣1 + 𝑢1 ) = { m1 2 (𝑣1 - 𝑢1 )2 + 2 m1m2v2 }
(m1m2 + m1 2) u1 = { (m1 2- m1m2 ) v1 + 2 m1m2v2 }
m1 (m2 + m1 ) u1 = m1 { (m1 -m2 ) v1 + 2 m2v2 }
(m1 + m2 ) u1 = (m1 -m2 ) v1 + 2 m2v2

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 2𝑚2
u1 = 𝑚 v1 + 𝑚 𝑣2 (6.7)
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2
Substituting the preceding result in eq. (6.6), we obtain u2 :

𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 2𝑚2
u2 = (v1 - u1) + v2 = {v1 - v1 - 𝑣2 } + v2
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚1 2𝑚2 2𝑚2 𝑚 2𝑚2

= {𝑚 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 } + v2 = 𝑚1 𝑚 (𝑣1 − v2) + v2
𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2 1 + 𝑚2
2𝑚1 2𝑚1 2𝑚2

=𝑚 (𝑣1 − v2) + v2 = 𝑚 𝑣1 + { 𝑚 + 1} v2
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2
2𝑚1 −𝑚1+ 𝑚2
=𝑚 𝑣1 + v2
1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
2𝑚1 𝑚1− 𝑚2
Or u2 = 𝑚 𝑣1 + 𝑚 v2 (6.8)
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2
Equations (6.7) and (6.8) are general results that allow us to find the finsl velocities in
any one-dimensional elastic collision.
We now consider certain special cases that are of interest.
 Equal masses. When the colliding particles have equal masses, m 1=m2,
equations (6.7) and (6.8) simply become
u1 = v2 and u2 = v 1
That is, the colliding particles simply exchange velocities: the final velocity of one particle
is equal to the initial velocity of the other.
 Target particle is at rest. Another case of interest is that in which particle m2

is initially at rest. Then
𝑚1− 𝑚2 2𝑚1
v2 = 0 → v1 = 𝑚 v1 and 𝑣1
1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Combining this special case with the previous one where m1 = m2, that is, a collision
between equal masses in which the target particle is initially at rest, we see that
v2 = 0 → u1 = 0 and u2 = v1
In other words, the bombarding particles comes to rest while the stationary target particle
moves off with the velocity the first particle originally had.
 Massive targt at rest. If m2 is much larger than m1 (m2 >> m1), that is, m1 is
negligible in comparison to m2, so that
m1 + m2 is approximately equal to m2 (m1 + m2 ≈ m2)

m1 - m2 is approximately equal to -m2 (m1 - m2 ≈ -m2)
we find that
𝑚1− 𝑚2 2𝑚2 𝑚 2𝑚2

u1 = 𝑚 v1 + 𝑚 v2 ≈ - 𝑚1 v1 + v2 → u1 = - v1 + 2 v2
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2 2 𝑚2
2𝑚1 𝑚2− 𝑚1 𝑚
u2 = 𝑚 v1 + 𝑚 v2 ≈ 0 ● v1 + 𝑚2 v2 → u2 ≈ v 2
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2 2
Moreover, since v2 = 0, we finally obtain
U1 ≈ - v 1 and u2 ≈ 0
That is, when a light bombarding particle collides with a very massive particle at rest, the
velocity of the light particle is approximately reversed, and the massive particle remains
approximately stationary.
Inelastic Collision in One-Dimension

We now consider inelastic collisions, in which by definition kinetic energy is not
conserved, although of course conservation of linear momentum always holds. In one
special case, that of the completely inelastic collision, wherein the colliding particles stick
together and move with a common velocity u1 = u 2 = u after the collision, there is only one
unknown, and the momentum equation alone is sufficient. In that particular case, we find
the following result:
𝑚1 𝑚2
m1 v1+ m 2v 2 = (m1 + m2)u → u=𝑚 v1 + 𝑚 v2
1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2
When m2 is initially at rest, so that v2 = 0, the common final velocity of the two colliding
bodies reduces to
𝑚1
u=𝑚 v1
1 + 𝑚2
The larger m1 is , the faster the combination moves after collision; the smaller m1 , the
slower.
The discussions in this chapter showed the importance not only of the conservation of
linear momentum but all the conservation laws in physics in general. Although we have
discussed conservation of energy and linear momentum at this point, there are other
conservation laws in physics. Even without knowing all the forces acting on the system, so
that Newton’s second law of motion cannot be applied, we can still say something about
what will happen if the conditions stated in conservation laws are applicable.
Name:
Problem Set IMPULSE AND
Course & Year:
No.6 MOMENTUM
Date:
1. a) What is the momentum of a 12000 kg truck whose velocity is 50 m/s?

b) What velocity must a 6000 kg truck attain in order to have the same momentum?
Ans. a) ___________________________
b) ___________________________
2. A rubber ball with mass 140 g moving at 7.8 m/s strikes a wall perpendicularly and
rebounds with undiminished speed. If the duration of collision is 3.9 ms, what is
the average force exerted by the ball on the wall?
Ans. _______________________________
3. A force that averages 984 N is applied to a 420-g steel ball moving at 13.8 m/s by
a collision lasting 27.0 ms. If the force is in a direction opposite to the initial
velocity of the ball, find the final speed of the ball.
Ans. _______________________________
4. A 3 kg block moving to the right on a frictionless table at 4 m/s makes a head-on

collision with another 3 kg block moving 5 m/s to the left.
a) If the collision is completely elastic, find the final velocity of the blocks.
94
b) If the collision is completely inelastic, find the final velocity of the blocks.
Ans. a) _________________________
b) __________________________
5. A 5.18 g bullet moving at 672 m/s strikes a 715 g wooden block at rest on a
frictionless surface. The bullet emerges with a speed reduced to 428 m/s. Find the
resulting speed of the block.
Ans. ____________________________
95
CHAPTER 7
TEMPERATURE
AND HEAT 7
Objectives
 Know the commonly used temperature scales.
 Learn the difference between temperature and heat.
 Relate the temperature change of an object to the quantity of heat given to or taken
from the objects.
 Determine the quantity of heat required to convert a pure substance from one phase
to another.
 Calculate the temperature changes and/or those changes of pure substances

resulting from the conversion of some other form of energy into thermal energy
7.1 Temperature and its Measurement
Temperature is a term that is used to express the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
or a system. It is the property that determines whether a body is in thermal equilibrium with
another. Thermal equilibrium is the state wherein all the bodies present in a system have
the same temperature.
A thermometer is a device capable of assigning a numerical value to the temperature of

body that it is in contact with it. There are many possible kinds thermometers, since almost
all properties of material objects change as temperature changes. Some physical properties
that change with temperature are the length of a rod, the volume of liquid, and the electrical
resistance of wire. All these changes are utilized in the construction of various types of
thermometers.
Impulse and
Momentum 97
7.2 Temperature Scales
Various temperature scales are in used: the Fahrenheit scale, the Celsius scale, the Rankine
scale, and the Kelvin scale. Thus, a particular temperature could have four distinct
numerical values on the four different scales. Fig. 3.1 below gives the relation of the four
temperature scales mentioned above.
˚C ˚F ˚K ˚R
Boiling ____:__________:___________:____________:______________
point of water :100 :212 :373.2 :
: : : :
: : : :
: : : :
Melting point ___:__________ :___________:____________:______________
Of water : : : :
Fig. 7.1 Relation between the different the temperature scales
In the Celsius scale, the temperature of the melting point of ice is assigned the value 0˚C
and the temperature of the boiling point of water is assigned the value 100˚C. In the
Fahrenheit scale, these same two fixed points are assigned the values of 32˚F and 212˚F
respectively. Thus, both the size of the degree and zero of the scale are different in the two
scales. From this information, we can derive the necessary conversion factor by ratio and
proportion:
˚C → ˚F or ˚F → ˚C
˚𝐶−0 ˚𝐹−32 ˚𝐶 ˚𝐹−32 ˚𝐹−32
= → = → ˚C =
100−0 212−32 100 180 1.8
Therefore
˚F = 1.8 ˚C + 32 (7.1)
The size of the graduation in the Kelvin scale is the same as that of the Celsius scale, while
that of the Rankine scale is similar to the Fahrenheit scale.
To convert to the other temperature scales, we have the following relatios:
Impulse and
Momentum 98
˚K = ˚C + 273.2 (7.2)
˚R = ˚F + 460 (7.3)
7.3 Heat
Heat is a fundamental form of energy that can be transferred from one body to another and
can be transformed from one form to another. A heat flow is an energy transfer that takes
place exclusively due to temperature differences. When two objects at different
temperatures are placed in contact with each other, the final temperature is between the
two initial temperatures, which means that heat energy flows from the hotter body to the
colder body.
7.4 Specific Heat, Thermal Capacity, and Heat Capacity
Specific heat c (lower case letter) is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
Units: MKS CGS FPS
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑇𝑈

c ,
𝑘𝑔.𝐶˚ 𝑔.𝐶˚ 𝑙𝑏.𝐹˚
Examples:
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙
Cice = 0.5 𝑔.𝐶˚ Cwater = 1.0 𝑔.𝐶˚ = 1.0 𝑘𝑔.𝐶˚ Csteam = 0.48 𝑔.𝐶˚
Table 7.1 Specific Heat Capacities

(cal/g.C˚)
Ethanol 0.55 glass 0.1 0.2
Paraffin 0.51 Iron 0.11
Ice 0.50 Copper 0.093
Steam 0.46 Mercury 0.033
aluminum 0.22 Lead 0.031
Thermal capacity (upper case letter) is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of the total mass of a substance that is
BTU = British thermal unit

Impulse and
Momentum 99
(7.4)
Heat Quantity Q is the total amount of heat needed to change the temperature of
the total mass of a substance when the change in temperature is not equal to 1.00. That is
Q = mc∆T
(7.5)
Units: joules, calories, BTU
7.5 Calorimetry and the Method of Mixture
The measurement of quantities of heat is called calorimetry. This is done with the
help of an instrument called a calorimeter. A calorimeter is a thermally insulated
container shown in the next page. The inner vessel is supported in the outer vessel by an
insulated cover, on which a thermometer and a stirrer can be inserted. The inner vessel is
the one that contains the substances whose heat quantities are to be determined, while the
outer vessel minimizes the transfer of heat from the inside to the surrounding or vice
versa.
The instrument works on the principle of method of mixture, that is, if a cold
substance is mixedwith a hot one, the heat gained by the cold substance must be equal to
the heat lost by the hot substance:
Heat gained Qg = Heat lost Ql
Heat gained is characterized by an increase in the temperature of the substance

while heat lost is characterized by a decrease in temperature.
Let: mc = mass of calorimeter
cc = specific heat of calorimeter
mw = mass of water inside the calorimeter
Impulse and
Momentum 100
Temperature and Heat 100
mm = mass of metal
Tw = intial temperature of water calorimeter
Tm/x= temperature of the mixture
Tm = temperature of the hot metal
It follows that
Q𝜀 = QI → ( mc cc + mw) ( Tm/x – Tw ) = mm cm ( Tm – Tm/x )
7.6 Change of phase and latent Heat
Change of Phase
1. Liquefaction
a) melting – the process of changing the phse of a substance from the solid
state to liquid state
b) condenstation – the process of changing the phase of a substance from the
gas state to the liquid state
2. Solidification
a) freezing – the reverse process of melting it is the change in phase of a
substance from liquid state to the solid state
3. Vaporization
a) evaporation – the change in the phase of a substance from the liquid
state to the gas state
b) sublimation – the change in phase of a substance form the solid state
to the gas state without passing through the liquid state
Latent Heat
Latent heat is the amount of heat required to effect a complete change of unit mass
of a substance without a change in temperature. The two most common latent heats are
latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
1. Latenet heat fusion LF is the amount of heat needed to change a unit mass of a solid
to liquid or vice versa without any change in temperature ( ∆T = 0 ).
𝑄
LF = 𝑚 → 𝑄 = 𝑚LF
For example,
LF of ice = 80 cal/g = 80 cal/g = 144BTU/lb
2. Latent heat of vaporiztion LF is the ammout of heat needed to change a unit mass
of a liquid to gas or vice versa without any change in temperature ( ∆T = 0 ).
𝑄
LF = → 𝑄 = 𝑚LV
𝑚
For example,
Lf of water = 540 cal/g = 540 cal/g = 972 BTU/lb
Table 7.2 Latent Heats
substance Boiling temp. Vaporization Melting temp. Fusion

( C° ) ( cal/g ) ( C° ) ( cal/ g)
nitrogen -196 48 -210 6.1
oxygen -183 51 -219 3.3
ethanol +78 204 -114 25
water 100 539 0 80
mercury 357 65 -39 2.8
Lead 327 5.9
Summary:
1. When ∆T = 0 is not equal to 0 andthere is no change in phase,

Q= mc∆T
2. When ∆T = 0 is equal to 0 and there is a change in phase,
Q = mLF or Q = mlF
3. When ∆T = 0 is equal to 0 adn there is no change in phase,
Q=0
7.7 Sample Problem with solutions
(1) If the temperature of a body is 55℃, what is it in Farenheit?
Solution :
℉ = 1.8 ℃ + 32 = 1.8 (55) + 32 = 131
(2) Calculate the temperature at which the Celsius reading is the same as the Fahrenheit
reading
Solution :
℉ = 1.8 ℃ + 32 Where ℉ = ℃ 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

℃ = 1.8 ℃ + 32 → ℃ − 1.8 ℃ = 32
℃ = ℉ = −40
(3) Calculate the total amount of heat needed to change temperature of a 500 g piece of
copper form 20℃ to 120℃. (the specific heat of copper is 0.93 cal/g-℃).
Solution :
Q = mc ∆T
= 500 g ( 0.093 cal/g-℃) (120 – 20) ℃
= 4,650 cal
(4) An aluminum (Al) container has a msss of 50 g and holds 200 g of water at 20 ℃
find the final temperature of the resulting mixture when a mass of 500 g of lead (Pb) at
95 ℃ is placed in the water (cAl = 0.22 cal/g-℃ ; cPb = 0.031 cal/g-℃)
Solution :
Heat los by lead = heat gained by the aluminum and water
QPb = QAl + Qwater
( mc∆T )Pb = ( mc∆T )Al ( mc∆T)water
Substituting the given values and solving the final temperature Tmix of the mixture we get
500 ( 0.031 ) (95 - Tmix) = [50 (0.22) +200 (1.0) [ Tmix – 20]
Tmix = 25. 13
(5) How much heat is needed to change 10 g of ice at -20℃ to steam at 140℃,
assuming no heat losses due to the surrounding?
Solution:
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4+ Q5
Q1 = mc∆T ← heat needed to rais the temperature of ice from -20℃ to 0℃

= 10 g (0.5 cal/g-℃) (0 – 20 )℃
= 100 cal.
Q2 = mLf ← heat needed to melt the ice at 0℃ to ice watere still at 0℃
= 10g (80 cal/g)
= 800 cal
Q3 = mc∆T ← heat needed to raise the temperature of water from 0℃ to
100℃
= 10 g ( 1.0 cal/g-℃) (100 – 0) ℃
= 1000 cal
Q4 = mLf ← heat needed to change water at 100℃ to steam at 100℃
= 10 g (540 cal/g)
= 5,400 cal
Q5 = mc∆T ← heat needed to raise the temperature of steam at 100℃ to
140℃
= 10g (0.48 cal/g-℃) (140 – 100) ℃
= 192 cal
Finally,
QT = 100 + 800 + 1000 + 5400 + 192 = 7,492

Problem Set Name:
No. 7 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Course and Year:
Date:
1. Calculate the following temperature readings to the Celsius scale a) 68℉, b) 98.6 ℉,
c) -60℉, d) 240K.
Ans. a)____________________________________
b)____________________________________
c)____________________________________
2. A copper vessel whose mass is 150 g contains 60 g of water at 15.5 ℃. How ,many
calories are required to heat and water to a final temperature of 85℃? The specific heat
of water is 1.0 cal/g℃
Ans._____________________________________
3. A copper caloriemeter whose mass is 250 g contains 700 g of water at 25℃. When 25
g of a certain metal at 98℃ is immersed in water, the resulting temperature is 30℃.
What is the specific heat of the metal? The specific heat of copper is 0.093 cal/g-℃
Ans.______________________________________
104
4. IF 8000 cal of heat is needed to change the temperature of a certain amount of ice at
5℃ to steam at 135℃, determine the mass of the ice. The specific heat of ice is 0.50
cal/g ℃ while its heat of fusion is 80 cal/g. The specific heat of steam is 0.46 cal/g ℃
while its heat of vaporization is 540 cal/g
Ans.______________________________________
5. An alumminun contaioner whose mass is 205 g contains 300 g of water at 20℃. In this
container is then placed 250 g of iron at 150℃ and 20 g of ice at -10℃. Find the final
temperature of the mixture. The specific heat of aluminum and iron is 0.21 cal/g ℃ and
0.11 cal/g ℃, respectively. The specific heat of ice is 0.50 cal/g ℃ while its heat of
fusion is 80 cal/g.
Ans.______________________________________
105
CHAPTER 8
WAVE MOTION
AND SOUND
8
Objectives
 Define wave and know it is propagated.
 Distinguish between the different types of waves.
 Know the diffferent characteristics and properties of waves.
 Understand the phenomena related to sound.
 Understand how frequency of sound is affected when the state of motion of the
observer, source and medium changes.
8.1 Waves and its Different kinds
Wave or wave motion is essentially the propagation of a disturbance. As learned in

Chapter 4, disturbance is caused by a force. Recall that according to Newton’s Law of
motion, an object that is not disturbedd, or not acted upon by any force, either remains at
rest, if initially or rest , or continues to move wtih a uniform velocity (motion with uniform
speed along stright line), if initially moving. Moreover, according to Newton’s Second law,
the force or the prescence of disturbance is shown by the acceleration of the object.
In chapter 5, it was discusse d that work done whenever the force is not acting
perpendicular to the displacement. Since Work indicates a change in energy, the what is
propagated as the disturbance caused by force is none other than energy and not matter it
self. Wave motion, in other words, is process of energy transfer.
Wave Motion and Sound 107
Depending upon the bsis of 0classification, there are different kinds of wave.
According to whether or not a wave requires a mediu for propagation, we have three kinds,
namely
 Mechanical waves
 Electromagnetic waves
 Matter waves
Mechanical waves are waves which requires a medium for the propagation of the
disturbance. As mentioned earlier, only energy is propagated and not he medium itself.
Examples of mechanical waves are ocean waes, sound waves, seismic waves, and wave on
a streched rope or string. Ocean waves need seawater while sound waves need air. Without
air, it is not possible to produce sound waves. Seismic waves are waves that propagate
through the rocks of the earth.
Electromagnetic waves, on the other hand. Are those which do not require an medium
for the propagation of disturbance, like waves of light coming from the sun traveling
through the near vacuum of interplanetary space and finally reaching the earth.
Although matter waves also do not need a medium for porpagation they are waves with
strange properties unlike the first two mentioned earlier. They are waves associated with
the actual behavior of matter in the very small scale of the atom and subatomic particles
found in nature.
Matter waves will not be discussed in this chapter, only mechanical waves in general,
and sound waves in particular.
Based on the orientation of the disturbance relative to its direction of propagation, we
distinguish between three kinds of wave, namely
 Traverse wave
 Longitudinal (or compressional) wave
 Combination of both traverse and longitudinal waves
Transverse waves is a wave in which the disturbane is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. Example are waves in a stretched strong and electromagnetic
waves. For transverse waves in a streched stirng, the distrurbance is measeured by the
vertical displacement of the particles of the string.
Longitudinal wave is a wave in which the disturbance is parallel to the direction of

propagation of the wave. Two examples are waves in a coil spring and sound wave, in
which the air molecules, in the case of sound, move back and forth about their equilibrium
position parallel to the direction of propagation. For sound waves, the disturbance is
customarily expressed in terms of variation in air pressure.
Some seismic waves, ir earthquake waves, are transverse waves whileothers are
longitudinal waves.
Still other waves are neither completely transvers nor compltely longitudinal, but a
compbination of the two. A typical example of this are water waves, where in the water
paricles on the surface move along eliptical paths (nearly circles) having both longitudinal
and transverse components.
Based on the number of dimensions of space in which energy is proagated, waves can
be classified as follows:
 One-dimentional
 Two-dimentional
 Three-dimentional
Waves moving along a stretched string or coil spring are one-dimensional. Surface
waves like ripples on water and earthquake waves traveling on the ground are two-
dimensional. Sound waves and light waves propagating radially outwards from a small
source are three-dimensional.
Waves may be calsifed further according to how the dsturbance at each point in space,
with or without matter, behave with time. We distinguish between the following:
 Pulse
 Train of waves
 Periodic train waves
 Non-periodic train waves
A pulse is produced by a single momentary disturbance traveling out in a certain

direction from its place of origin. Each point in space along the direction of travel of the
pulse has initially no disturbance until the pulse reaches it. For a brief momment, a
disturbance exists at that point, but then it eventuall disappears there, as the disturbance
moves farther onward to the other points. IF the disturbance is continually produced at the
source of origin of the pulse, a train of waves is craeted traveling along the direction of
proapgation of the pulse. If the continuous production of the disturbance is periodic, so it
occurs reularly in the same time interval, a periodic train of waves is created. The simplest
special case of a periodic wave is a harmonic wave whose wave train is similar to the graph
of the sine and csione function. Finally, if the disturbance is continually produced at the
same point without any regualrirty non-periodic train of waves are created.
8.2 Some Physical Quantities Used in Describing Waves
The following physical properties among others, are used in describing waves:
 Wave amplitude
 Wavelength
 Phase velocity
 Period
 Frequency
Wave amplitude is the maximum displcacement from equlibrium or undisturbed,
position. It corresponds to the height of a crest, the highest point in a transverse wave, or
the depth or a trough, the lowest point in a transverse wve (see previous illustration of
transverse ewave).
Wavelength λ (Greek letter lambda) is a distance between two points in the wave that
exactly the same motion (at identical points on the wave form) at the same time. It is the
distance between two successive crest (or troughs) in atransverse wave. In a longitudinal
wave, wavelength is the distance between two successive compression or rarefactions (see
previous illustration of longitudinal wave).
Phase velocity vp gives the wave speed (or wave velocity, if direction is specified), the
speed (or velocity) or propagation of the distrubance. The term wave speed will be used to
mean the magnitude of phase velocity. A general property of waves is that their wave speed
depends on the properties of the medium in which the wave is propagating. In a streched
string the transverse wave travels with a wave speed given by
𝑣p =√𝐹/𝜇 (8.1)
where F is the tension in the string and 𝜇 is the linear mass density ( mass M per unit
length L, 𝜇 = 𝑀/𝐿) of the string. For longitudinal wave, the wave speed is
𝑣p =√𝐵/𝜌 (8.2)
where B is the bulk modulus and 𝜌 is the density of the medium. Bulk modulus is
inversely proportional to the compressability. The more compressible the medium, like any
gas, the higher its compresibility and the smaller the bulk modulus, Liquid and solids have
very small compressability.
Period T is the time it takes for the wave to travel a distance of one wavelength. In
other words:
Λ = vp T (8.3)
Frequency f is the reciprocal of the period;

1
f=𝑇 (8.4)
That is, the frequency is inversely proportional to the period; the longer ther period the
smaller the frequency and vice versa. But according to eq. (8.1), the longer the period, the
longer the wavelength Λ for a given phase velocity 𝑣p. And of course, the longer the
wavelength, the longer it takes for one wave to pass through a given point in space, or what
is equivalently true, the fewer the number of waves passing through a given point in a given
time. Frequency, therefore, tells just that. It gives the number of waves passing through a
given point in a given time. The smaller the frequency ( and so the longer the period) the
smaller the number of waves passing through a given point in a given time. Frequency is
measured in units of
1
= ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧)
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Substituting eq. (8.2) in eq. (8.1) we find the following relationship between wavelength,
phase velocity, and frequency:
vp
Λ = vp T = 𝑓
vp = f Λ
8.3 Some Properties of Waves

All waves no matter what kind. Have the following properties, among others:
 Reflection
 Refraction
 Superposition
 Interferance
 Diffraction
Reflection occurs when a wave strikes an object or comes to a boundary of another
medium and is partly diverted backward, so the wve bounces back. An echo is an example
of reflection of sound waves, and mirrors reflect light waves.
Refraction is the transmission of a wave in a direction different from that of the incident
wave when it crosses a boundary into another medium. This bending of the direction of the
propagation of the wave arises because the new material has different properties from that
of the first, cauusing thee wavses to move with another velocity. Refraction of light is
commonly seen but sound refraction is less cmmon because it requires certain special
conditions where alayer of cooler air near the ground lies immediately below a layer of
warmer air above it. As sound waves pass through the overlying layer of warm air, the may
be bent towards some distant person. Increasing hte number of sound waves reaching that
person and making the sound more audible.
Superposition refers to the ability of two or more waves to pass simultaneously through
the same region in space ( with matter in the case of mechanical waves, without matter in
the case of electromagnetic and matter waves) and proceed unchanged in form independent
of hte other waves, as if they were no present.
Interference refers to the ability of two or more waves to combine together and form a
new resultant wave when the pass simultaneously through the same region in space. If the
amplitude of the resultant wave is grater than that of any of the constituent wave, the we
have the case of constructive inerference. The figure belw shows the combination of two
waves that have the same wavelength and amplitude that are almost in phase. On the other
hand, if the amplitude of the reultant wave is maller than that of any of the constituent.
wave, then we have the case of destructive interference. The figure below shows the
combination of two waves that have the same wavelength and amplitude that are almost
out of phase with each other.
Diffraction refers to the bending of wavs arouund the edges of an obstacles. For example,
standing near the corner of an outsid e wall along the street, people can be heard talking
from the othr side of the corner due to diffraction. The effects of diffraction are greater
when the size of the obstcle is about the same or smaller than the wavelength of the waves
8.3 Standing Waves
In the previous dicussin of interference, we have assumed that the two waves move in
the same direction. But if the two waves withe same wavelength and amplitude move in
opposite directions, an interesting phenomena accurs when the wave frequencies are such,
that the resulting interference produce large-amplitude waes, one whose waveform appears
to stand in place, seemingly statuibary in space wtih its so-called nodes and antinodes. As
can be seen below in the cas of a plucked, stretched string fixed at both ends. Transverse
wavs traveling toward one end are reflected back to the other
end. Nodes are points in the waves that do not undergo any displcement due to the
complete cancellation of the crest of a wave moving in one direction with a trough of the
other wave moving in the other direction. Antinodes are points of maximum amplitude
due to constructive interference of the two waves propagating in opposite directions.
Adjacent nodes are separated by half of a wavelength just like adjacent antinodes. Note
that the
Amplitude is not the same for different points along the string but varies with the location
of the point. Strings fixed at each end are found in musical instruments such as violins and
guitars.
It is important to remember that standing waves appear
only when certain conditions are satisfied. And when
conditions are right, standing waves appear in different
form as shown on the right. The number of loops that
will fit between the nodes at the ends (along the length of
the string) is equal to an integral number of half-
wavelengths.
That is
L=nλ/2
Where n = 1, 2, 3, … . Solving the wavelength, we find that λ depends on n, so we have
the expression
λn = 2L / n (for n = 1,2,3, …) (8.6)
Using equation (8.5) we find that standing waves in a stretched string with each end fixed
are formed only if the two waves with the same wavelength and amplitude moving in
opposite directioncs have the following frequencies:
fn = vp / λn = nvp / 2L (for n = 1,2,3, … ) (8.7)
The frequencies at which the standing waves are produced are called natural
frequencies.
The lowest natural frequency ( f1 = vp / 2L) at which standing waves are formed in
a stretched string is called the fundamental frequency. All of the other standing wave
frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. The set of frequencies fn
= nf1 where n = 1,2,3,.. is called a harmonic series: f1 is the first harmonic, the second
lowest frequency f2 the second harmonic, and so on.
Substitute eq. (8.1) in eq. (8.7), we find that
Fn = nvp / 2L = n / 2L (F/μ)1/2 (for n = 1,2,3,…)
Note that the greater the linear mass density μ of a string, the lower its natural frequencies
are. As you may know, the low-note (or low-pitch) strings on a guitar are thicker, or more
massive, than the high-note (or high-pitch) strings. Moreover, the greater the tension F in
the string and the shorter its length L, the higher its natural frequency fn, and so, the higher
the note produced.
Being a property of all waves, standing waves can also be formed by longitudinal sound
waves, as shown by musical instruments like a piano organs and flutes, which utilize the
air column contained in pipes built inside the instruments. When a sound wave reaches one
end of a pipe, a reflection occurs, in analogy with transverse wave on a string, and the
reflected wave travels back down the pipe in the opposite direction. The behavior of the
wave at the reflecting end, however, depends whether the pipe is open or closed.
The analysis of the formation of standing longitudinal waves in air pipes is somewhat more
complicated than that of standing transverse waves in stretched string so it will not be
discussed here. But the same is true in both cases that only certain wave frequencies are
allowed and not just any frequency.
8.4 Power and Intensity in Wave Motion and Sound

Wave motion involves the propagation of energy from one place to another. The
rate of energy transfer is expressed in terms of intensity I, which is the energy transported
per unit time across a unit area. Since energy/time is power/area:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
I= = power / area (8.9)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
The standard units for intensity are watts per squared meter (W/m2).
In eq. (8,9), the surface area is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave for the definition of sound intensity. For a point source that sends out spherical sound
waves that propagate outward in all directions from the source, the sound intensity at a
distance R from source is
I = power / area = P / 4πR2 (8.10)
where P is the power of the source and 4πR2 is the area of a sphere with radius R, through
which the sound energy passes perpendicularly. The intensity for a point source of sound
is therefore inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source:
I α 1 / R2
Two intensities at different distances from a source of constant power may,
therefore, be compared using ratio and proportion and eq. (8.10) as follows:
I1/I2 = P1/4πR12 / P2/4πR22
Since P1 = P2 , we find that
I1/I2 = R22/R12 (8.10)
As an example, suppose that the distance from a point source of a sound is doubled; that is
R2 = 2R1. Then substituting eq. (8.11), we find that
𝐼1 𝑅2 (2𝑅1 )2 4𝑅12
= 𝑅22 = = =4
𝐼2 1 𝑅12 𝑅12
or
𝐼1
𝐼2 = 4
Doubling the distance therefore decreases intensity by ¼.
Sound intensity is perceived by the ear as loudness. On the average, the human ear can
detect sound waves (at 1kHz) with an intensity as low as 10-12 W/m2. This intensity Ih is
referred to as the threshold of hearing. Therefore, for us to hear a sound, it must not only
have a frequency in the audible range (between about 20Hz and 20 kHz), but also of
sufficient intensity. As the intensity is increased, the perceived sound becomes louder. At
an intensity of 1.0 W/m2, the sound is uncomfortably loud and may be painful to the ear.
This intensity Ip is called the threshold of pain.
Note that the thresholds of pain and hearing differ by

factor of 1012:
𝐼𝑝 1.0 𝑊∕𝑚2
= 10−12 𝑊∕𝑚2 = 1012
𝐼ℎ
It is therefore convenient to compress the large range

of sound intensities by using a logarithmic scale (base
10) to express intensity levels. The commonly used
unit for measuring sound intensity is the decibel (dB)
defined as follows:
𝐼
𝛽 = 10 log 𝐼 (8.12)
0
where the Greek letter β beta denotes the relative sound intensity, and I0 is the standard
reference sound intensity taken to be that of the threshold of hearing, I0 = Ih = 0-12 W/m2.
The decibel intensity scale and some familiar sounds at some intensity levels are shown on
the table. Threshold of pain is at 120 dB.
Sample Problem
Show that the difference in the intensity levels for intensities I2 and I1 is given by
10 log I2/I1.
Solution:
From eq. (8.12), we have for intensity I1 the following intensity level:
I
β1 =10 log I1 .
0
Similarly, we have for intensity I2 the intensity level
𝐼
𝛽2 = 10 log 𝐼2
0
The difference ∆𝛽 in intensity levels is obtained as follows:
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
∆𝛽 = 𝛽2 − 𝛽1 = 10 log 𝐼1 − 10 log 𝐼2 = 10 (log 𝐼2 − log 𝐼1 ) = 10 {log 𝐼2 + (−1) log 𝐼1 }
0 0 0 0 0 0
Using the properties of logarithm function, such as
log xy = y log x and log xy = log x + log y
and the following property:
𝑎 1
= = (𝑏⁄𝑎)−1
𝑏 (𝑏⁄𝑎)
We finally get
𝐼2 𝐼1 −1 𝐼2 𝐼1 −1 𝐼2 𝐼0 𝐼2
∆𝛽 = 10 {log + log ( ) } = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 { ( ) } = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 { } = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼1 𝐼1
Now, we recall from chapter 6, section 6.3 that power is the product of the velocity and
the component of the force parallel to the velocity
power = vF = Fv
The larger the wave intensity, the larger the power, and the larger the velocity and the
component of the force parallel to the velocity. If we consider a transverse wave in which
the disturbance, let us say in the form of a displacement, is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave, the force producing the disturbance is also perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. Therefore, assuming that the wave propagation is along the
horizontal, a large force causes a large vertical displacement or a large wave amplitude A.
Also, for a given fixed time interval, the larger the vertical displacement or the wave
amplitude, the larger the velocity. Therefore, we can say that both the force and the velocity
are directly proportional to the wave amplitude, and their product which gives the power,
must be directly proportional to the square of the wave amplitude. It follows that the wave
must be directly proportional to the square of the wave amplitude. It follows that the wave
intensity given by eq.(8.7) is also directly proportional to the square of the wave amplitude
A.
I ∝ A2 (8.13)
The above result is true not only for transverse waves but for all types of waves.
8.5 Doppler Effect and Sound

The change in the observed frequency of a wave when there is relative motion
between the source and an observer is called the Doppler effect. This phenomenon is
particularly evident in the case of sound. When a car, with its horn blowing, moves past a
person quickly, a change in the frequency of the note will be observed. As the car
approches, the frequency seems higher than normal and then suddenly drops below normal
as the car moves away.
To understand how the Doppler effect arises, consider first that obth source and
observer are stationary. If the source sends out waves of frequency f, the number of waves
passing through a point at the position of the observer is also f. In other words, the observer
does not find any change in the frequency of the wave coming from the source when they
are at rest relative to each other. But if the source moves toward the observer, more waves
arrive at every instantaneous position of the observer because he now appears to be
approaching the source. This is what causes an increase in frequency of the wave observed.
On the other hand, if the source moves away from the observer, fewer waves arrive at every
instantaneous position of the observer because he now appears to be running away from
the source, thereby causing decrease in the frequency of the wave received.
Using the following symbols:
f0 = frequency heard by the observer
fs = frequency of sound produced by the source
v = speed of sound
v0 = speed of the observer
vs = speed of source
we find the following formulas for the Doppler effect:
● Source moves, Observer at rest
𝑣 1
𝑓0 = (𝑣 ∓𝑣 ) 𝑓𝑠 = (1∓𝑣 ∕𝑣) 𝑓𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
- for source approaching stationary observer
+ for source moving away from stationary observer
● Source at rest, Observer moves
𝑣±𝑣0 𝑣
𝑓0 = ( ) 𝑓𝑠 = (1 ± 𝑣0 ) 𝑓𝑠
𝑣
(8.15)
- for observer approaching stationary source
+ for observer moving away from stationary source
● Both Source and Observer move (most general case)
𝑣±𝑣
𝑓0 = (𝑣∓𝑣0 ) 𝑓𝑠
𝑠
(8.16)
where the sign convention is the same as that in eqs. (8.15) and (8.16).
Sample Problem
As a truck traveling at 96km/h approaches and passes a person standing along the
highway, the driver sounds the horn. If the horn has a frequency of 400 Hz, what are the
frequencies of the sound heard by the person (a) as the truck approaches and (b) after it has
passed? (Assume that the speed of sound is 346 m/s.)
Solution:
(a) First, convert the speed of the truck to m/s as follows:
96000 𝑚
𝑘𝑚 96000𝑚
ℎ 96000 𝑚 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 96000𝑚 𝑚
96 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑠 = = 27
ℎ 60 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 3600𝑠 𝑠
ℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Now, since the source is moving toward the observer and we expect to get a higher
frequency, we use the formula eq. (8.16) that has the smaller denominator and with v0 = 0:
𝑣
𝑓0 = (𝑣−𝑣 ) 𝑓𝑠
𝑠
Substituting the values, we get

346 m/s
𝑓0 = ( ) (400 Hz) = 434 Hz
346 m/s− 27 m/s
(b) Since the source is now moving away from the observer and we expect to get a lower
frequency, we use the formula eq.(8.16) that has bigger denominator with v0 = 0:
𝑣
𝑓0 = (𝑣+𝑣 ) 𝑓𝑠
𝑠
Substituting the values, we get

346 m/s
𝑓0 = (346 m/s + 27 m/s) (400 Hz) = 371 Hz
Problem Name:
Set No. 8 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND Course & Year:
Date:
1. Aluminum has a bulk modulus of 1.0 x 1010 N/m2 and a density of 2.7 x 103 kg/m3.
Calculate the speed of sound in aluminum.
Ans.
2. When the tension un a stretched rope is 15N, the wave speed is 28 m/s. What tension is
needed to produce a wave of speed 45 m/s?
Ans.
3. A person on a pier observes incoming waves that have a sinusoidal form with adistance
of 1.6m between crests. If a wave laps against the pier every 4.0s, what are (a) the frequency
and (b) the speed of waves?
Ans. (a)
(b)
119
4. Will a standing wave be formed in a 10-m length of a stretched string that transmits
waves with a speed of 12 m/s if it is driven at a frequency of (a) 15 Hz or (b) 20 Hz?
Justify your answer.
Ans. (a)
(b)
5. A point source of sound emits energy at a rate of 6.0 x 10-13 W. (a) What is the intensity
at a distance of 1.55 m from the source? (b) What is the intensity level at that location?
Ans. (a)
(b)
6. A car moving at 40 m/s and a truck moving at 15 m/s travel along the same straight road.
The car’s horn has a natural frequency of 400Hz. What is the frequency observed by the
truck driver as the car passes the truck? Assume that the car and truck are traveling (a) in
the same direction; (b) in oppsite direction.
Ans. (a)
(b)
120
CHAPTER 9
LIGHT 9
Objectives
 Know the nature of light
 Understand the physical properties of light
 Know how light is propagated
 Understand some phenomena related to electromagnetism
 Know the laws of electromagnetism
9.1 The Nature of Light

Light is one among the many kinds of electromagnetic (EM) wave, the wave which does
not require any medium for propagation as discussed in the previous chapter. We
distinguish between the different kinds of EM wave by the wavelength (or frequency) of
the wave only. The so called EM spectrum, shown below in logarithmic scale, gives the
range of wavelength (and frequency) of EM wave to which no limits exist. All frequencies
and wavelengths are theoretically possible.
Light 120b
Light is the small region of the visible part of the EM spectrum, the only part of the
spectrum to which the human eye is sensitive. Typically it ranges in wavelength from 400
nm to 700 nm (corresponding to a range of frequency of 7 x 1014 Hz to 4 x 1014 Hz), where
one nanometer = 1 x 10-9 m
Different frequencies of light are perceived by the brain as different colors. The
approximate range of wavelengths associated with each color are as follows:
 red (700 – 625 nm)
 orange (625 – 600 nm)
 yellow (600 – 560 nm)
 green (560 -520 nm)
 blue (520 – 450 nm)
 violet (450 -400 nm)
White light is a mixture of all the different wavelengths of light. Black is the absence of all
colors. Color is not a physical property of light, like wavelength and frequency, so the
above labels customarily used for the different colors are arbitrary.
From another point of view, light is also a form of energy, sometimes known as radiant
energy. Recall in chapter 8 that we defined wave motion as a way of transferring energy
from one place to another. In fact, it is precisely radiant energy that is transmitted in the
propagation of light.
9.2 The Speed of Light

Light and matter interact together and this interaction causes a delay in the speed of
propagation of light. Consequently, the speed of light is fastest in vacuum where there is
no matter present. The speed of light in vacuum defined as
c = 299,792,458 m/s = 3.0 x 108 m/s
We need not be very exact so we will take the approximate value of 3.0 x 108 m/s for the
speed of light c in empty space, which is independent of wavelength or frequency of
light. As learned in the previous chapter
c =fλ (9.1)
if we call v the speed of light in a medium, then, the ratio
𝑐
n= (9.2)
𝑣
is defined as the index of refraction n in that medium. Since the speed of light in matter is
smaller, then the index of refraction is always greater than one (1.0). The index of refraction
is a property of materials.
Light 120c
The speed of light in matter depends on the wavelength of light. Since the frequency of a
given wave is constant, we find that a greater wavelength give a greater speed (v = fλ). This
dependence of the velocity on the wavelength is called dispersion and materials which
exhibit this phenomenon are dispersive media. Since glass is a dispersive medium, it is
able to separate the different colors of light when white light passes through a glass prism.
The colors with different wavelengths travel with different speeds in glass so that some are
slowed down more than others, causing them to be separated. Another example of
dispersive medium is water in small droplets which cause the familiar rainbow.
9.3 Propagation of Light in Matter
As light travels in a medium, it encounters objects of different dimensions. If the objects
encountered have sizes much larger than the wavelength of light, we can use the
approximation that light travels in straight line and ignore the ability of light as a wave to
bend around corners of obstacles, as in the diffraction of sound waves we hear around
corners. In this particular case, the propagation of light can b represented by straight lines
called rays. A ray is a convenient mathematical abstraction used to give a first order
approximation of the rectilinear propagation of light. In a homogenous medium, the rays,
drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts, are straight lines with arrows representing the
direction of travel of the wave. A wavefront is a surface whose points all move with the
same phase. In two-dimensions, wavefronts can form concentric rings. In three-
dimensions, they can form concentric spheres or parallel planes, depending upon the source
of the wave.
On the other hand, if the wave, as it travels, encounters objects whose dimensions are
comparable to the wavelength of light, then, the wave nature of light must be taken into
account, because things can no longer be explained in terms of rectilinear propagation of
light only.
We will consider in more detail the rectilinear propagation of light only.
9.4 Reflection and Refraction at Plane Surfaces

Reflection, as mentioned in the last chapter, refers to the bouncing of light rays
back into the original medium when it encounters a boundary surface separating two
different media. The boundary surface can be a plane surface or a curved surface. We will
consider plane boundary surfaces only.
The term specular reflection refers to reflection that occurs at a definite angle from
a very smooth surface. Otherwise, the term diffuse reflection is used to refer to the more
complicated case of scattered reflection from a rough surface. We will consider the simpler
case of specular reflections only.
Light 120d
The Law of Reflection states that the

reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence,
and the angle of incidence θ1 is equal to the
angle of reflection θ1’.
The plane of incidence is the plane formed
by the incident ray and the normal line shown
in the figure on the right. The normal line is
the line perpendicular to the boundary
surface at the point where the incident ray
strikes the surface. The angles θ1 and θ1’ are
measured with respect to the normal line as
shown.
As also mentioned in the previous chapter, refraction refers to the bending of light
rays away from their original direction of motion in passing through a boundary surface
separating two different media.
The Law of Refraction, also known as Snell’s Law, states that the refracted ray
lies in the plane of incidence, and
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (9.3)
where n1 and n2 are indeces of refraction of medium 1 and medium 2, defined in eq. (9.2),
and θ2 is the angle of refraction, similarly measured with respect to the normal.
The subscripts on the angles indicate the medium through which the ray travels.
Another important principle is the Law of Reversibility which states that if a reflected or
refracted ray is reversed in direction, it will retrace its original path.
Sample Problem
Two mirrors, M1 and M2, are placed in
contact at an angle of 120° as shown. A ray is
incident at 50° to the normal to M1. In what
direction does the light leave M2?
Light 120e
Solution:
From the law of reflection, the angle of reflection at M1 is also 50°, so the angle made by
the reflected ray to the plate of M1 is 40°. In triangle ABC, the angle at C is 180° - 140° -
120°. The angle of incidence to M2 is 70°, so this is also the angle of reflection.
CHAPTER 10
MODERN
PHYSICS 10
Objectives
 Define the scope of modern physics.
 Know the particle properties of waves.
 Be aware of the wave properties of particles.
 Learn quantum mechanics and its applications to atomic and nuclear physics.
 Understand the phenomena related to radioactivity in general and know the harmful
effects of radiation, in particular.
10.1 Introduction
The advent of modern science paved the way of formulating new laws known as
quantum mechanics – the world of the small scale. Quantum mechanics tells us about the
structure of the atoms, how the energy of atoms can change, and how the subatomic
particles behave. This law also tells us that in the micro scale, there is no distinction
between a wave and a particle. An electron spinning about its axis around the nucleus of
an atom can be both a wave and a particle. Newton’s law of motion on the macro scale
explains why an object falls to the ground, quantum mechanics explains us why an electron
doesn’t fall into a nucleus. There exists an unparalleled concept between the classical
mechanics and quantum mechanics.
The old concept that light is wave in nature was proven by Thomas Young’s (1801)
“double-slit experiment”. This view of light was reinforced by Maxwell’s (1862)
prediction that light carries energy in oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Twenty five
years later, Hertz used sparkling electric circuits to demonstrate the reality of
Modern Physics 122
electromagnetic waves. However, in 1925, Albert Einstein published a novel prize-
winning paper (based on photoelectric experiment) that challenge the wave theory of light
by arguing that light interacts with matter (a particle), not in continuous wave as Maxwell
envisioned, but light is composed of tiny packets of energy known as photons.
The observations of Einstein in photoelectric effect proved that light behaves as a nature,
as particle (see photoelectric effect) From then on, light has been considered as having dual
nature, as wave and as a particle at the same time. This strange behavior is not only
confined to light but to all matter in general and has come to be called the wave-particle
duality of nature.
10.2 The particle Properties of Waves
Max Planck, a German Physicist (1858-1947), explained that when light of a

particular frequency is emitted, the energy of light must be a whole number of a basic unit
of energy called quantum (plural quanta) also known as photon of energy. The amount of
energy in one quantum or photon is directly proportional to the frequency f of the light.
where the factor h, is called Planck’s constant equals to 6.63 x 10-34 joule-sec.
Sample Problem 1
What is the energy in one photon of a red light of frequency 4 x 1014 Hz?
Solution:
E = 6.63 x 10-34 joule-sec (4 x1014 sec-1 )

= 2.652 x 10-19 joules.
10.2.1 Photoelectric Effect
It is the emission of electrons from the metal surface when light shines on it. There
are four experimental observations of Albert Einstein on photoelectric effect, namely
 The time lag between turning on the light and the ejection of the firs electrons was not
affected by the brightness or frequency of the light.
 The effect was easy to observe with violet or ultraviolet light but not on red light.
Modern Physics 123
 The rate at which the electrons were ejected was proportional to the brightness of the
light.
 The maximum energy of the ejected electrons was not affected by the brightness of the
light. However, there was indications that the electrons’ energy did depend on the
frequency of the light.
KEmax = hf – hfo = h(f-fo)
where KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons (photoelectrons)
f = frequency of the incident light
fo = threshold frequency of light
hf = quantum energy
hfo = energy needed to eject the electrons or work function.
Sample Problem 2
The work function for copper is 7.2 x 10-19 joules. What is the maximum amount
of energy of the photoelectrons when light of frequency 1.5 x 1015 Hz shines on copper
surface.
Solution:
KEmax = hf – hfo
= 6.63 x 10-34 joule-sec (1.5 x 1015 sec-1 – 7.2 x 10-19 joules)
= 2.75 x 10-19 joules
10.2.2 Compton Effect
It is the scattering of a photon energy after colliding with a stationary electron.

Arthur Compton, an American physicist (1892-1962) showed what happens when not all
energy of the photon is used to free the electron or to give it kinetic energy. A photon of
frequency f collides with stationary electron releasing it and giving it kinetic energy KE.
Compton showed furthermore that a photon like a particle carries momentum hf/c, (where
c is the speed of light equals to 3 x 108 m/sec) as well as an energy hf. Compton also
Modern
Physics 124
found out that momentum of the photon and electron before and after collision is
conserved. In this kind of interaction, a wave like photon behaves exactly like a particle.
total momentum of photon and total momentum of photon and

electron before collission electron after collision
10.2.3 X-rays
They are electromagnetic radiation of high frequency. It is the reverse of

photoelectric effect. Wilhelm Roantgen (1895), a German physicist discovered the kind of
ray, a mysterious highly penetrating radiation, emitted when accelerated electrons of high
speeed impinge on matter. The X-rays traveled in straight lines, and were not affected by
magnetic fields. Roantgen also found out that x-rays could pass through solid materials,
could ionize the air, and showed no refraction in glass.
KE of the electron = hfmax or Ve = hfmax
Where Ve is the kinetic energy of an electron that has been accelerated through a potential
difference of one volt (V). the energy is measured in an electron volt (eV).
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules
Sample Problem 3
Find the maximum frequency present in the radiation of an X-ray machine whose
operating potential is 50,000 vols.
Solution:
From equation (10.3), we find that
Fmax = Ve/h
= (50,000 eV)( 1.6 x 10-19 joules/eV)/6.63 x 10-34 joules-sec
= 1.2 x 10-19 sec-1
= 1.2 x 1019 Hz
Modern Physics 125
10.3 The Wave Properties of Particles
A moving body behaves in certain ways as though it has a wave nature. Matter
having wave properties, also known as matter wave, was first speculated by Louis de
Broigle in 1924. He hypothesized that a wave is associated with every particle and that the
wavelength of matter wave is inversely proportional to the particle’s momentum. These de
Broigle matter waves behaves just like any other wave that can be reflected, diffracted, and
caused to interfere with other matter waves.
The de Broigle wave associated with every particle of matter has the following
wavelength;
ℎ ℎ
λ= 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
where v is the velocity of the particle with mass m.
Sample Problem 4
Find the de Broigle wavelength of 1,500 kg car moving with a velocity of 20 m/sec.
Solution,
λ = 6.63 x 10-34 joule-sec / (1,500 kg)(20 m/sec)
= 2.21 x 10-38 m
The wave associated with the moving car is very small so it is not normally observed.
Soon after de Broigle’s idea of matter waves was formulated, a number of

physicists notably Heisenberg(for the Uncertainty Principle), and the Schrodinger ( for the
Schrodinger equation), and the reknowed (Born, Pauli, Dirac), constructed a very difficult
but beautiful-theory called Quantum Mechanics.
10.4 Quantum Mechanics
It is the physical theory of the microworld, or the very samll world of the atom,
based on the waved functions with mathematically described matter waves and allow the
Modern Physics 126
computation of probabilities only, doing away with the strict determinism of events. It
was developed specially by Warner Heisenberg (1925), Erwin Schrodinger (1926), and
Paul Maurice Dirac ( 1926), among other physicist.
10.4.1 The Uncertainty Principle
This principle was formulated by Heisenberg, stating that Planck’s constant h sets
a limit on the acuracy of any measurement. According to the uncertainty principle, it is
impossible to measure exactly both the position and momentum of a particle at the same
time, nor the energy and the time during which the particle is that “ Nothing can be exactly
localized or non localized. There must always be uncertainty in what we can know about
anything-- nothing is pure wave or a pure particle”.
Mathematically, the uncertainty principle is expressed as follows;
∆𝑥∆𝑝 = ∆𝑥∆(𝑚𝑣) ≥ ℎ
Where h is the Planck’s Constant, ∆𝑥 is the uncertainty in the position or location of the
particle, and ∆𝑝 = ∆(𝑚𝑣) is the uncertainty in the momentum of the particle.
Equivalently, the uncertainty principle can also be expressed in terms of the product
of the uncertainty in energy ∆𝐸 and the time ∆𝑡 available (not the uncertainty in time) for
the measurement of the energy E of the particle;
∆𝐸∆𝑡 ≥ ℎ
As an example, suppose we want to measure the temperature of a glass of water
exactly. If we immerse a thermometer in water and take a reading of it, we actually fail to
read the exact temperature reading of water. We know that some heat would have to leave
the water to heat the thermometer. Even if we use a smaller thermometer in order to get a
closer temperature reading, again we cannot get the exact reading of the thermometer
because heat energy ( in the form of photon) being absorbed by the thermometer from the
water. If we used an infinitely small thermometer, one that would take no heat from the
water, still the smallest amount of energy (equivalent to one photon) is being absorbed by
the thermometer. Thus, no matter how small the thermometer, we can never measure the
thermal energy to better than within an uncertainty of one quantum of energy.
As another example, suppose the position of a moving particle is exactly

known. Since there is 100% certainty in knowing the particle’s position, the uncertainty
in it’s position is therefore ∆𝑥 = 0. From eq. (10.5) we find that
Modern Physics 127
ℎ ℎ
ΔP = Δ (mv) ≥ = =∞
Δ𝑥 0
The uncertainty in the linear momentum Δp is therefore infinite and the momentum p can
never be specified with any certainty.
Finally, suppose that the particle is in very unstable energy state that it doesn’t
remain there very long but quickly jumps to another energy state. Since the time Δt
available for the measurement of energy is very short, Δt is close to zero (Δt = 0) so that
ℎ ℎ
ΔE ≥ = =∞
1𝑡 0
That is, the uncertainty energy is very large. On the other hand, if the particle is in a stable
energy state that it stays there almost forever, then, an almost infinite time is available for
its measurement so that Δt = ∞. In this case, we find that
ℎ ℎ
ΔE ≥ = =0
1𝑡 ∞
So that the uncertainty ΔE in energy becomes very small and the energy E of the particle
can be known with 100% accuracy.
10.4.2 Schrodinger’s Wave Equation
It is equivalent of Newton’s second law of motion in classical mechanics. It tells what

happens to the wave associated with matter, and described by the wave function, if a force
acts on it. From Schrodinger’s equation, the wave function can be determined which, in
turn, is used in the calculation of probabilities of occurrence of certain events in the atomic
world. Higher mathematics is required to understand the actual form of Schrodinger’s
equation.
10.5 Atomic Physics
The physics of an atom includes its atomic structure, size, and the electron velocity as
it revolves around the nucleus as well as the different spectral wavelength of the electrons
and photons emitted when an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy
Modern Physics 128
level, or the photon energy absorbs when an electron transfer from lower to higher energy
level.
After six years when Einstein won his novel prize winning theoretical explanation of
the photoelectric effect, Ernest Rutherford (1911), a British physicist performed his alpha
particle scattering experiment which showed that the atom was mostly empty space, with
most of its mass packed into the central region – the nucleus. Rutherford directed a beam
of alpha particles ( helium nucleus with +2 charge ) to a thin foil of gold, and were able to
observed deflections and or scattering of alpha particles. He measured the angles at which
the particles were deflected from their straight-line path as they emerged from the gold foil.
These angles of deflections were measured by means of a zinc sulphide screen around the
gold leaf. Rutherford explained that, it was a though you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece
of tissue paper and it came back and hit you. Rutherford also reasoned that the particles
that were only slightly deflected travelled through mostly empty space in the gold foil,
while any particle deflected through a large angle must have experienced a very strong
force by coming closer to a concentration at the positive charge at the centre of an atom.
He discovered the atomic nucleus consisting of positive protons called the protons in which
the alpha particles were repelled to and these protons are separated from the electrons, a
view of an atom which is entirely different from the earlier plum-pudding model of his
former professor Thompson. Thompson believed that an atom consists of protons and
electrons all embedded together in an atom.
10.5.1 Bohr Model of the Atom
Niels Bohr (1913) applied the quantum theory of Planck and Einstein to the nuclear
atom of Rutherford and formulated the well-known planetary model of an atom. He
explained that Planck’s quantized energy corresponded to an electron emitting energy in
going from one allowed orbit around the nucleus to another allowed orbit. Bohr postulated
that electrons move around the nucleus of the atom in only certain allowed orbits. Not all
orbits are allowed but only certain ones. The greater the orbital radius, the higher the energy
of the electron. In these allowed orbits, no energy is emitted. The electron is then said to
be in stationary state. But in going from a higher to a lower energy state, the excess energy
is emitted in the form of radiation. This radiated energy corresponds to Planck’s quantized
energy. On the other hand, in going from a lower to a higher energy state, the electron must
absorb an amount equal to the energy difference between the two states.
At first there was no explanation for the existence of the allowed electron orbits, but
with de Broglie’s formulation of the existence of waves associated with every piece of
matter, it became clear that the allowed orbits correspond to standing waves formed by the
waves associated with electrons. Recall from the chapter dealing with wave motion
Modern Physics 129
that standing waves are formed only from the constructive interference of waves. Electron
waves that interfere destructively do not form allowed orbits because they cancel each
other.
10.5.2 Atomic Excitation
An electron with higher energy level ( i.e farther away from the nucleus) has greater
potential energy than electron at lower energy level. When an electron jumps from lower
to higher energy level, the atom is said to be in the excited state. If the electron is at the
lowest energy level, it is said to be at the ground state.
An atom at the excited state whose electron is at higher energy level and drops to lower
energy level and drops to lower energy level, the atom emits photon energy of energy E.
This energy is equal to:
E = hf
where f is the frequency of the photon. But the speed of any electromagnetic radiation (like
a photon) is equal to the speed of light c = 3.0 x 108 m/sec. Moreover
c=λf
where λ is the wavelength of the photon. The energy of the photon can therefore be
expressed as
E = hc/ λ
A photon in a beam of red light, for example, carries an amount of energy that is directly
proportional to its frequency. Another photon of twice its frequency has twice as much its
photon energy and is found in ultraviolet part of the spectrum. If many atoms in a given
substance are excited, many photons with many frequencies are emitted that will also
correspond to characteristic colours of light from each different elements.
The light emitted in an advertising sign corresponds to the excitations of different gases.
The colours of various flames are due to excitation of different atoms in the flame which
emit the colours characteristic of their energy spacing. A composite of the different colours
makes up its characteristics spectrum.
Emission spectrum – the distribution of wavelengths in the light from a luminous source.
Spectroscope – an optical instrument that separates light into its constituent frequencies in
the form of a spectral lines.
Modern Physics 130
10.6 Nuclear Physics
The nucleus of an atom is composed of nucleons, which are the positively charged
particle known as protons and the electrically neutral particles called neutrons. The mass
of an atom is practically equal to the mass of its nucleus.
The nuclei radius is about 10-15 m. Some nuclei are spherical in shape but most deviate
from the shape in the “football” way and a few in the “doorknob” way. Protons and
neutrons within the nucleus move relatively freely, yet provide a “skin” that gives the
nucleus some properties of a liquid drop. Just as there are energy levels for the orbital
electrons of an atom, there are also energy levels within the nucleus of an atom.
10.6.1 Radioactivity
Isotopes are elements having the same atomic number (the number of protons in the
nucleus) but differ in mass number (the sum of the number of protons and neutrons).
They differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus which makes the nucleus unstable.
What is more amazing is the fact that both positively charged protons and the no charge
neutrons attract other very tightly. Does it violate our knowledge of the law of electricity?
We have learned that same charges repel and that different charges attract each other.
Following this law of electricity, why don’t these protons fly apart in the nucleus of an
atom. Let us try to imagine that we are now in the realm of this small world- the nucleus.
We see that in the micro scale say about a distance of 10-15m, a strong nuclear force exists
to keep these nucleons (protons and neutrons) attract each other. The unequal number of
protons produces unbalanced nuclear force making the nucleus unstable and radioactive.
For nucleus with equal number of protons and neutrons are considered stable nucleus
and therefore not radioactive. This is exactly the reason why some elements are radioactive
and some are not. Therefore proton and neutron ratio has an effect on radioactivity. Nuclei
with more than 92 protons are unstable while nuclei with even numbers of protons and
neutrons are more stable than those with odd numbers.
Sample Problem 5
Arrange the following according to increasing stability: 35Cl17, 4He2, and 22Na11
Solution:
4
He2 is the most stable because of its even number of protons which is 2 and
Modern Physics 131
even number of neutrons which is also 2.
35
Cl17 is the next stable because it has an odd number of protons which is 17 but an
even number of neutrons which is 18.
22
Na11 would be the least stable because it has an odd number of both protons and
neutrons which is 11 each.
10.6.2 Nuclear Radiation
Several isotopes of some elements are unstable, meaning radioactive, giving off nuclear
radiation. These are known as radioactive isotopes. Some are found naturally (natural) and
others are produced during nuclear reactions (synthetic).
The most common types of nuclear radiation are
 alpha particles
 beta particles
 gamma rays
 positrons
 neutrons
Only the first three types of radiation occur in naturally radioactive species.
Alpha particles (or 4He2 ) is identical to nucleus of helium atom, it carries a charge
of +2. When an alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus of an atom, it picks up two
electrons from some other atom or from the electrons in the atmosphere, forming a helium
atom. Its velocity is 10 percent that of the speed of light. It does not have high penetrating
power because of its mass, charge and speed. It can be stopped by a thin sheet of paper and
it cannot penetrate our body. Alpha particles are very harmful once it gets inside our body.
It can injure normal cells, cause gases to ionize very readily. It is very harmful than beta
particles and gamma rays.
Beta particles (-β or 0e-1 ) are identical to the electron. Though there are no electrons
in the nucleus, beta particles are emitted from the nucleus by the transformation of neutron
into proton in the reaction:
neutron proton + beta particle
The speed of emission from the nucleus is ninety percent that of the speed of light, thus
beta particles have greater penetrating power than alpha particles. They are also very
harmful to our body. They can be shielded by 1 cm thick aluminium.
Modern Physics 132
Gamma rays ( γ or 0 γ0 ) are rays of very short wavelength. They are produced as a result
of energy – difference between reactant and product in nuclear reaction. They are also very
harmful to the body since they affect the genes and can cause mutations. Its speed is equal
to the speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s).
Positrons (+β or 0e+1) are found to be positive electrons, each having a charge of +1.
They are produced when a proton in the nucleus is transformed into neutron by the nuclear
reaction:
proton neutron + positron
Neutrons (n or 1n0) have relatively high penetrating power. They have velocities that vary
from 10-15 to 10-1 times the speed of light.
Proton (p or 1H1) are sometimes involved in nuclear reactions not type of radiation but
as a reactant.
10.6.3 Radiation Injury
Injury occurs when radiation interferes with the normal operation of the cell, either by
direct or indirect effects. Direct effects are caused by initial action itself and indirect effects
are caused by the later chemical action products of radiation interactions.
Direct damage occurs as a result of the formation of very reactive atom groups, called
free radicals, within the cell. About 80% of the cell is water. When radiation ionizes water
molecules, two of the products formed hydrogen atom (H) and hydroxyl group (OH) are
very reactive because they have unpaired electrons. Another reaction product in the cell is
hydrogen peroxide (H202) which is also reactive. These reactive groups can interfere with
normal cellular processes by breaking chemical bonds such as the bonds between the
carbon atoms in the DNA molecule. This will result in a break in the DNA molecule which
may prevent the cell from dividing. Free radicals may also cause damage to enzymes
(chemicals which are important for the functioning of the cell) or to membranes (affecting
transport of materials).
Radiation damage to individual cells results almost entirely from the effect on DNA
and can be summarized into three main effects:
 The cell may die.

 The genetic material of the cell may change and changed is passed on new cells.
 Changes may occur in the cell which might lead abnormal cell division.
Radiation acts on human body at the cellular level. Permanent changes are observed.
as a biological changes in tissues and body organs which may be classified as deterministic
or stochastic.
Modern Physics 133
Radiation can be detected in an ionization counter called Geiger counter in which the
radiation causes ions and free electrons to form. These are attracted to charged plates in the
counter. As these particles strike the plates, a count is recorded by the counting device.
10.6.4 Transmutation of Elements
It is the changing of one element into another element because of nuclear reactions.
Natural transmutation occurs when nucleus emits alpha or beta particle so that a
different element is formed. Consider Uranium -238 for example. Uranium has 92 protons
and 146 neutrons. When alpha particle is ejected, the nucleus is reduced by two protons
and two neutrons. The 90 protons and 144 neutrons left behind are then the nucleus of a
new element, which is thorium.
238 234Th 4
U92 90 + He2
Artificial transmutation is synthetically produced radioactivity. It has been found that

bombarding a nucleus with a particle (like alpha particle, a proton, a neutron and the
like), a new nucleus of another element can be formed. The first example of this was
carried out by Ernest Rutherford (1871-1973) in 1919. He reacted an alpha particle with
nitrogen nucleus to cause the nuclear reaction into:
4 14 1 17
He2 + N7 H1 + O8
This was the first example of transmutation, the changing of one element into another
element. Since that time many other artificial transmutations have been carried out.
Rules in Nuclear Reactions
 The mass number of the product must equal those of the mass number of the
reactant or reactants.
 The atomic number of the product or products must equal those of the reactant or
reactants
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting up a heavy nucleus into two light nuclei.
Example:
Deuterium ( proton + neutron ) changing to ordinary hydrogen nucleus.

Modern Physics 134
2 1 1
H1 H1 + n0
Nuclear fusion is the process of joining two light nuclei into a heavy nucleus.
Example:
Proton (nucleus of ordinary hydrogen atom) changing to deuterium nucleus.
1 1 2
H1 + n0 H1
10.6.5 Radioactive Decay
If a nucleus does not have a stable arrangement, it will decay and form a more stable
nuclide.
Knowledge of radioactive decay processes is essential to understanding potential

hazards of radioactive substance. Radioactive decay is the change that takes place in the
nucleus of an atom to make it more stable. It happens spontaneously, that is without any
outside stimulus, and results in the emission of charged particles and rays.
The more stable nuclide which results from radioactive decay is called the progeny or
daughter. The original nuclide is called the parent.
The emissions from unstable nuclei are very important as they can affect other atoms
and molecules, and may produce biological damage. The most common emissions resulting
from radioactive decay includes positrons and X-rays (from electron capture).
The radioactive decay of radioactive substance is random in nature and it is impossible

to estimate exactly when a particular atom is going to decay. However, if large number of
atoms are looked at as a unit, the decay will follow a well-defined statistical pattern, known
as the radioactive decay law, which may be expressed as an exponential equation as shown
below,
N = No e- λT
where:
No = original number of nuclei present
N = the number of nuclei remaining after the decay time T
T = time which has passed
λ = radioactive decay constant, the fraction of atoms which undergo decay in a

unit
time such as a second, minute, hour, days, year etc.
10.6.6 Activity
Modern Physics 135
In health physics, it is more important to know how many disintegration are taking
place in a certain time (and hence how many radiation is being emitted) rather than how
many radioactive atoms remains in the sample. This quantity is called activity and is
defined as the number of disintegration per second. The special unit for activity is becquerel
(Bq), and named after Henri Becquerel, the discoverer of the radioactivity. Activity is
indicated by the symbol A.
A = λN = Ao e- λT = Ao/2n
where:
A = activity at time T
Ao = initial activity
n = T/T1/2 = the number of half life which have elapsed
T = time interval
T1/2 = the half life of the radioactive species
The first unit of activity is curie (Ci) which was originally defined as the quantity of activity
having the same number of atoms decaying per second as one gram of radium-226. The
curie was named after Marie Curie who examined many substances to see whether they are
radioactive. She discovered and named two elements as radium and polonium.
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second (or becquerels).
Sample Problem 6
A Cs-137 source had an activity of 800 MBq on 1st January 1973. What will its activity
be on 1st July 2030? T1/2 = 30.17 years.
Solution
A = Ao/2n
T = time interval between 1st January 1973 and 1st July 2030
= 57.5 years
T1/2 = 30.17 years
n = 57.5/30.17 = 1.91
A = 800 MBq/21.91
A = 213 MBq
10.6.7 Half Life

Modern Physics 136
The rate of decay of radioactive substance is also expressed in terms of half life, which
is the amount of time it takes for half of any given amount of radioactive substance to decay
or disintegrate.
Sample Problem 7
A certain radioactive isotope has a half life of 20 years. Starting with 1 mg of this
isotope, how would remain after 60 years?
Solution,
Time in years amount in mg
0 years 1 mg
20 years 0.5 mg
20 years 0.25 mg
20 years 0.125 mg
That is, after 60 years, the amount of radioactive substance remaining is 0.125 mg.
An alternative solution is by using formula:
Amount remaining = (original amount) (1/2)n
where
n = total time/half-life = 60/20 = 3
Therefore
amount remaining in 60 years = (1.0 mg)(1/2)3 = 0.125 mg
10.6.7 Naturally Occurring Radiation Sources
We are exposed everyday to radiation from our environment. Natural background

radiation has three main sources:
 Cosmic radiation which comes from outside of the earth.

 Terrestrial radiation which comes from the rocks of the earth.
 Radioactivity in our food and drink
The major part of exposure from terrestrial radiation is caused by radon (radon-222) and,
to a lesser extent, by thoron (radon-220). Radon and thoron are gases which form the part
of the uranium and thorium decay chains. Because they are gases they can seep out
Modern Physics 137
from where they are produced in rocks or the building materials of our homes, and then be
inhaled along with their short-lived progeny. The inhalation of radon and its progeny is the
single biggest source of radiation exposure in the world.
The exposure we receive from radioactivity in our food and drink is due mainly to
potassium-40. Whenever we eat or drink, we take naturally occurring potassium-40 into
our bodies where it is build up in body tissue, particularly muscle. Most of us will have a
few kilobecquerel of potassium-40 in our bodies.
Problem Name:
Set No. 10 MODERN PHYSICS Course & Year:
Date:
1. Explain why light is considered as having dual nature (as a wave and as a particle)?
2. Explain the following terms:
a) Quantum mechanics
b) Photon
c) Photoelectric Effect
d) Compton Effect
e) X-rays
f) de Broglie wavelength
g) Uncertainty Principle
h) Schrodinger’s wave equation
3. Find the frequency in one photon of the following:

a) radiowave of frequency 9.0 x 106 Hz
b) X-ray of frequency 12 x 1014 Hz
c) gamma ray of frequency 10 x 1022Hz
138
4. Find the de Broglie wavelength of the following:
a) an electron that strikes the back of the face of a TV screen at 10% the speed of
light.
b)
c) a sodium atom having a mass of 10-26 kg

5. Carry out the following calculations:
a) The half-life of radioactive isotope X is 2 yrs. How many years would it take a
4.0 gram sample of this isotope to decay and have only 0.50 gram remaining.
b) Calculate the half-life of 1.2 mg of a radioactive specie that decays to 0.30 mg

in 40 minutes.
6. Write the complete nuclear reactions of the following, include all mass numbers
and atomic numbers.
a) electron capture by berelium-7
b) 208Po emits an alpha particle
c) 66Cu emits a beta particle
d) 16 O + 1n 4
He + _________
6 4
e) Li + ______ He + 3H
f) 60Co _______ + -β
g) _____ + alpha particle neutron + 6C
h) 148Pr _______ + positron
i) electron capture by 7Be
j) 10B + 1n -
β + ____________
139

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LECTURE GUIDE

The Committee on Physics

All rights reserved, © November 2004

No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner,

CHAPTER 2 VECTORS AND SCALARS

CHAPTER 4 FORCE AND THE LAWS OF MOTION

4.6 Torque and Rotational Motion ………………………………………………... 71a

CHAPTER 6 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

CHAPTER 7 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….. 106

Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………. 120a

CHAPTER 10 MODERN PHYSICS

Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….. 121

Experiment No. 1 Measurements ………………………………………………… 140

 Discuss the measurement of physical quantities.

 Describe the three widely used systems of units.

 Convert units from one system to another.

1.1 Standard Units of Measure

In using a system of measurement, it is necessary and important to distinguish

A unit based on a natural phenomenon is a conceptual unit. Another way to

In 1960, an international organization called the “General Conference on Weight

Table 1 – The Three Basic Physical Quantities and their Units

Physical Quantity Unit of Unit

1.2 Derived Quantities and Units

Some measurements cannot be done by direct measurement. In such case,

Accuracy of measurement is necessary in the performance of an experiment.

Where: A = area, L = length, and W = width.

Given: L = 2.8 m , W = 1.2 m

Solution: A = πr2 = π(d/2)2

= 3.1416 x [35/2 cm]2 = 54.978 cm2

Where V = volume, L = length, W = width, and H = thickness

Given: L = 7.4 m , W = 3.8 m , H = 1.2 m

What is the volume of a rectangular metal 52 cm long, 28 cm wide and 10.5 cm

Average speed is a derived quantity determined by dividing the distance traveled

A runner travels a distance of 120 m in 4 s. what is its average speed?

Required: average speed v

1.3 Significant Figures

Accuracy is measurement may be determined or indicated by means of significant

 All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant

1.4 Rounding Off of numbers

 If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, then the last number to be

 If the number to be dropped is 5, then the preceding number to be retained

1.5 Scientific Notation

 To add or subtract numbers in scientific notation, all the exponents n must be

Consistency of units is very important in solving problems in Physics. Before a

Whenever we solved problems or exercises in physics, the units involved must be

To change one metric unit to another of the same system of measurement, a

Table 2 – Equivalents within the Metric System

10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

Table 3- Equivalents between two systems

English System Metric System

Add: 400 cm + 3.2 km + 4.18 m + 149.6 mm

Solution: A1 = L x W = 25 cm x 18 cm = 450 cm2 = 4.5 cm2

total area A = 2(450 + 126 + 175) cm2 = 1.50 x 10 3 cm2

Nowadays, it is important for everybody to know their heights and weights in

Convert 6 feet and 5 inches to meters.

Change 145 lbs to kg.

A. CONVERSION: Indicate your solutions:

1. 150,000 meters = ______________ kilometers

2. 90 km/hr = ______________ m/s

3. 180 lbs = _______________ kg

2. Find the sum of the following. Express your answers in meters.

42.3 km; 31.6 m; 241.30 cm; 128mm

5. Multiply and divide