SYNOPSIS

The main application of optical fibers has been in telecommunication industries. However, there
is rising application of optical fibers in sensing of different physical and chemical parameters
such as temperature, pressure, magnetic field, current, rotation, acceleration, displacement,
refractive index, chemical concentration, humidity, viscosity and pH etc. These kinds of fiber
optic sensors are finding applications in electrical power industry, industrial process control,
medical sciences, automobiles, defense sector and many more. This is because fiber optic sensors
present various advantages over other types of sensors like optical fibers are purely dielectric, so
these can be easily used in hazardous areas, where conventional electrically powered sensors
would not be safe to use. Moreover, fiber optic sensors are safer for in vivo use because the
signal is optical and these are immune to electromagnetic interference. Further, fiber optic
sensors possess greater geometric versatility and have very short response time. In addition,
remote sensing can be attained by using fiber optic sensors because the signal can be carried over
a long distance. Besides it, optical fibers avoid cross talk, therefore a small and compact multi-
sensing fiber optic probe is feasible. Optical fiber sensing is remarkably proficient and fast
growing technology.
The basic requirement for the sensor is light source, detection system, referencing scheme
and sensor geometry. In a typical fiber optic sensor, light from the source is launched in to one of
the ends of optical fiber, which is guided inside the fiber by the phenomenon of total internal
reflection. The sensing action takes place either within the fiber or external to the fiber. The
measurand (the sample) is placed in contact of the fiber core, which modulates some property
such as intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength etc. of the guided light. By measuring the
change in the property of the light at the output end of the fiber, the information about the change
in the measurand can be found out. For sensing, various techniques such as evanescent wave
absorption spectroscopy, interferometry, Doppler Effect, photolumnisense and surface plasmon
resonance (SPR) are used. In addition to all other sensing techniques, SPR based sensing has
achieved much attention during last thirty years. Collective resonating oscillation of free
electrons may exist on the plasma surface (like, metal), giving rise to a charge density wave
propagating along the plasma surface. This transverse electromagnetic wave, propagating
parallel to the metal-dielectric interface is known as the surface plasmon wave. Since surface

Synopsis-1
plasmon wave is transverse in nature, it can be excited by exponentially decaying evanescent
field of the incident p-polarized light (electric field vector parallel to the incident plane). When
the wave vector and the frequency of the incident p-polarized light coincide with those of the
surface plasmon wave, this light resonantly excites the surface plasmon wave, propagating along
the metal-dielectric interface. The resonance condition depends on the incident angle,
wavelength of the light and the dielectric constants of both the metal as well as the dielectric. A
sharp dip appears in the spectrum of output signal at the resonance angle or at the resonance
wavelength. The angle or the wavelength at which the resonant excitation of surface plasmon
occurs is very sensitive to variations in the refractive index of the dielectric adjacent to the metal.
Hence, the variations in the refractive index of the sensing medium (dielectric) can be detected
by measuring the resonance angle or resonance wavelength.
For observing SPR, Kretschmann’s configuration is most widely used. In Kretschmann’s
configuration, a high refractive index prism is coated with a thin metal film touching the sample
(sensing medium). Surface plasmon waves are excited by evanescent wave from the prism at the
total reflection condition. The SPR phenomenon using Kretschmann’s configuration was first
time demonstrated for biosensing by Liedberg et al. in 1983 [1]. Their experiment released
numerous opportunities in the area of SPR based sensors for chemical and biological
applications. However, in the fiber optic SPR sensor the prism is replaced by depositing the
metal film directly on the core of the optical fiber. For SPR sensing, the method of fixed angle of
incidence and modulated wavelength i.e. wavelength interrogation method is chosen. The
utilization of optical fiber along with surface plasmon resonance for sensing applications was
first time done by Jorgenson and Yee [2]. Since then fiber optic SPR sensor has been an
interesting research subject and a number of devices have been reported on fiber optic SPR
sensors [3-6]. However with time, a large number of theoretical and experimental research
investigations have been carried out to improve the performance of the fiber optic SPR sensor [7-
29]. Now a days, some new types of fiber optic sensors such as micro and nano structured fiber
sensors are attracting a number of researchers due to outstanding progress in the fields of surface
plasmon resonance and photonic crystal fiber technology. In continuation to this, we have carried
out the theoretical analysis of different materials based fiber optic SPR sensors to enhance the
sensitivity of the fiber optic sensor.

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 Chapter 1 of the thesis gives general introduction about fiber optic sensors. As the surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) forms the subject of the thesis, this chapter covers SPR based fiber
optic sensors in greater detail. It reviews various fiber optic sensors for the measurement of
different physical and chemical parameters as well as discusses the phenomenon of surface
plasmon resonance. A section of this chapter is also dedicated to the recent SPR based fiber optic
sensors for various sensing applications.
Gold (Au) and silver (Ag) metals are mainly utilized for SPR sensor. However, Ag based
SPR sensor is not chemically much stable because Ag is very prone to oxidation. The problem of
oxidation of Ag is automatically eliminated by coating another metal on it. Zynio et al. reported a
SPR sensor based on resonant bimetallic layers of Ag-Au (Ag as an inner layer and Au as an
outer layer) [30]. In addition of protecting Ag against oxidation by the outer Au layer, this SPR
sensor based on bimetallic layers showed high values of both sensitivity and detection accuracy.
However, both of these metals have various significant disadvantages like occurrence of band to
band transitions in the visible spectral region for Au films and very thin films of deposited Au
and Ag are not continuous but agglomerate as islands [31]. Apart from this, the SPR sensors with
a single metallic layer/ bimetallic layers have their SPR wavelength in the visible range and
therefore not permitting the sensing in the infrared spectral region, which needs attention to
many environmental and security applications. It has been possible to obtain the surface plasmon
resonance with transparent conducting metal oxide thin films. Recently, Indium tin oxide (ITO)
has been reported to be a better substitute of noble metals (Au and Ag) for producing surface
plasmons [32,33]. Highest available transmissivity for visible light combined with the lowest
electrical resistivity, reflection spectra in IR region and wide band gap semiconductor makes ITO
as most widely used transparent conducting metal oxide. In addition to this, ITO thin films are
continuous (i.e. no agglomeration as islands) and no involvement of band to band transitions.
Villar et al. have shown that surface plasmon resonances can be produced with ITO coated
optical fibers [34]. In order to enhance the sensitivity of ITO based SPR sensor further, Chapter
2 presents the theoretical analysis of SPR based fiber optic sensor with bi layers of ITO (as an
inner layer)-Au (as an outer layer). In the SPR based fiber optic sensor, the sensing system
consisting of a fiber core-ITO-Au-sensing medium is considered. The plastic cladding around the
core from the middle portion of a step index multimode plastic clad silica (PCS) fiber is removed
and is then coated with a thin ITO layer, which is then further coated with Au layer. These bi

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layers of ITO-Au are finally surrounded by the sensing medium. Liquids of different refractive
indices are assumed as the sensing mediums. The light from a broadband source is launched into
one of the ends of the optical fiber with proper optics and the transmitted light is detected at the
other end of the optical fiber. The surface plasmon resonance produced by coupling of
evanescent light to surface plasmons is used as the sensing mechanism. The wavelength
interrogation method is used for the analysis of SPR based fiber optic sensor. In this method, the
wavelength of the light from the broadband source is varied and the corresponding transmitted
power through the optical fiber is measured. The proposed SPR based fiber optic sensor with bi
layers of ITO-Au is shown to possess high sensitivity with two resonance dips, one in the visible
and other in the near infrared region of spectrum, opposite to the single metal layer based SPR
sensor with one and only resonance dip. The reason of occurrence of two resonance dips can be
understood by the double character of ITO. In the region of high reflectance (wavelengths higher
than 1500 nm), the imaginary part of refractive index of ITO is higher while it is lower for the
low reflectance region (wavelengths lower than 1500 nm) [34]. This low reflectance region i.e.
low imaginary part of refractive index of ITO is responsible for the generation of double
resonance dips. Moreover, these two differentiated SPR dips have been obtained from the same
device within 510 nm to 870 nm spectrum. Besides it, increase in ITO layer thickness decreases
the sensitivity of both left and right resonance dips for all values of thickness of Au layer. This
happens because the thick ITO layer permits less interaction between surface plasmon mode and
fiber mode, resulting in little absorption of light power by the sensing medium around resonance
wavelength. This forms the ground of increase in normalized transmitted power and as a result
decreases the sensitivity of the sensor. Furthermore, for a fixed thickness value of ITO layer, the
sensitivity of left resonance dip increases with the increase in Au layer thickness while that of
right resonance dip decreases with the increase in Au layer thickness. The optimized values of
thicknesses of ITO and Au layers of SPR based fiber optic sensor are found to be 100 nm and 35
nm respectively. The 100 nm ITO-35 nm Au layers based SPR sensor has been shown to possess
1929 nm/RIU and 929 nm/RIU sensitivities for left and right resonance dips respectively.
Among various transparent conducting oxides, Indium oxide (In2O3) is a potential material
for sensing applications due to its highest available transmissivity for visible light combined with
the lowest electrical resistivity, reflection spectra in IR region and wide band gap semiconductor,
making it one of the most widely used transparent conducting oxides [35]. Recently, In2O3 has

Synopsis-4
been reported to be a better replacement of noble metals for producing surface plasmons [36].
Chapter 3 describes the SPR based fiber optic sensor with Indium oxide (In2O3) theoretically. In
the sensor, the sensing system comprising of a fiber core-In2O3-sensing medium is considered.
The sensitivity of the sensor is studied for various thickness values of In2O3 layer. The In2O3
layer based sensor possesses high sensitivity with resonance dip in the near infrared region of
spectrum allowing the sensing in the infrared spectral region, which needs attention to many
environmental and security related applications. The sensitivity of the sensor decreases with the
increase in the thickness of In2O3 layer. The 170 nm thick In2O3 layer based fiber optic SPR
sensor comprises high sensitivity of 4600 nm/RIU.
The metal nanoparticles (much smaller than the wavelength of light) are supposed to have
better sensing performances than materials in the micro or larger scales and reveal tremendous
optical properties because of the collective excitation of conduction electrons [37]. A metal-
dielectric interface on the nanoparticles produce significant changes in the optical properties,
which make them size and shape dependent. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) refers
to metallic nanoparticles and takes place when the wave vector and the frequency of the incident
light are resonant with the collective oscillation of conduction electrons in metallic nanoparticles
[38]. The LSPR wavelength is reliant on nanoparticle material, size, shape and surrounding
medium refractive index [39,40]. Therefore, the sensitivity of LSPR sensor is controlled/
optimized by the change of the sizes and shapes of nanoparticles. Chapter 4 discusses the
theoretical investigations of LSPR based fiber optic sensor with nanoparticles. Nanoparticles of
four materials: Indiums tin oxide (ITO), gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) have been
considered individually and the nanoparticles are assumed to be spherical in shape with various
radii. In the LSPR based fiber optic sensor, the sensing system consisting of fiber core-
nanoparticles (of one material at a time)-sensing medium is assumed. The sensitivity of LSPR
based fiber optic sensor with each nanoparticle layer individually for various thickness values
and with different particle sizes is studied. The sensitivity of LSPR based fiber optic sensor
increases with the increase in the thickness of nanoparticles layer for all four materials. Also, for
a fixed value of thickness of nanoparticles layer, the sensitivity of LSPR based fiber optic sensor
further increases as the particle size of nanoparticles increases. This can be explained in terms of
the variation in absorption of light due to the change in particle size of the nanoparticles [41].
The decrease in particle size results in decrease in collision wavelength, that in turn increases the

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imaginary part of the dielectric function of metallic nanoparticles and hence the imaginary part
of propagation constant of surface plasmon wave. The optimized values of thickness and particle
size of nanoparticles layers for all four materials individually are found to be 60 nm and 20 nm
respectively. The sensitivity of LSPR based fiber optic sensor is obtained to be 6240 nm/RIU,
4525 nm/RIU, 3550 nm/RIU and 3340 nm/RIU for 60 nm thick nanoparticles layer with fixed 20
nm particle size of ITO, Au, Ag and Cu nanoparticles respectively. Containing sensitivity of
6240 nm/RIU, the 60 nm thick ITO nanoparticles layer (with 20 nm particle size) based LSPR
sensor has been shown to comprise better sensing performance than Au, Ag and Cu
nanoparticles based LSPR sensors.
The noble metals are not appropriate for sensing of samples having low refractive indices
(such as gases) as the SPR sensors based on these metals offer small sensitivity. Besides, their
SPR resonance dips arise in UV region. Chapter 5 elaborates the theoretical analysis of SPR
based fiber optic sensor with nanocomposite. Numerous nanocomposites comprising
nanoparticles of gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) with their varying volume fractions
embedded in host dielectric matrices of titanium oxide (TiO 2) and indium nitride (InN) are
considered for the study. The sensitivity of Au/Ag/Cu-InN nanocomposites based SPR sensor for
all thickness values of nanocomposites with any volume fraction of nanoparticles is higher than
that of Au/Ag/Cu-TiO2 nanocomposites. Further, the sensitivity of the sensor increases with
increase in both thickness of nanocomposites and volume fraction of metal nanoparticles.
Moreover, for a fixed nanocomposite thickness and fixed volume fraction of metal nanoparticles,
the sensitivity of sensor is superior for Au nanoparticles based nanocomposites to that of Ag and
Cu nanoparticles. The rationale that Au nanoparticles show higher sensitivity than Ag/Cu
nanoparticles is attributed to the large value of real part of dielectric function of Au at all
wavelengths [42]. Thus, Au nanoparticles in any nanocomposite enhance the shift between
resonance wavelengths for a given change of refractive index of the sensing medium and
therefore the sensitivity of the sensor increases. The SPR based fiber optic sensor with 70 nm
thick Au-InN nanocomposite containing volume fraction of 0.85 illustrates high sensitivity of
2875 nm/RIU.
In recent times, research on plasmonics has been extended to infrared (IR) spectral region
beyond the visible region. This leads to explore some new materials which could satisfy the SPR
condition at lower plasma frequencies. Recently, Indium nitride (InN) has been found to be a

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fascinating semiconducting material having band gap around 0.7-1.1 eV because of its numerous
advanced properties over other group-III nitrides, metals and transparent conducting oxides. InN
is a potential candidate for plasmonics based sensing applications not only in IR but also in THz
regimes because of its smaller magnitudes of real permittivity than metals [43]. Further, InN
possesses lower value of plasma frequency compared to that of metals, displaying greater
confinement of surface plasmon waves to the interface and greater field enhancement in IR and
THz regions. In addition, Lu et al. reported the utilization of InN as a suitable material for
biosensing due to its high superficial electron concentration [44]. Chapter 6 of the thesis reports
the theoretical study of surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic sensor with InN. Depending
upon various parameters values of InN, two SPR sensors viz “Sensor A” and “Sensor B” have
been analyzed theoretically. Sensors A and B are found to display maximum sensitivities of 4493
nm/RIU and 3107 nm/RIU for 70 nm and 55 nm thick InN layers respectively. Both sensors A
and B reveal their SPR resonance dips in the near IR region of spectrum permitting the sensing
in IR spectral region. The 70 nm thick InN layer based fiber optic SPR sensor with Sensor A
parameters values has been shown to acquire high sensitivity of 4493 nm/RIU.
Chapter 7 summarizes all the results reported in the thesis.

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The above work has resulted in the following publications:

Journals
[1] Sharma N.K., Rani M., Sajal V., “Surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic sensor with
double resonance dips”, Sensors and Actuators B, vol. 188, pp. 326-333, 2013.
[2] Rani M., Sharma N.K., Sajal V., “Surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic sensor
utilizing Indium oxide”, Optik, vol. 124, pp. 5034-5038, 2013.
[3] Rani M., Sharma N.K., Sajal V., “Localized surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic
sensor with nanoparticles”, Optics Communications, vol. 292, pp. 92-100, 2013.
[4] Rani M., Shukla S., Sharma N.K., Sajal V., “Theoretical study of nanocomposites based
fiber optic SPR sensor”, Optics Communications, vol. 313, pp. 303-314, 2014.
[5] Rani M., Shukla S., Sharma N.K., Sajal V., “Theoretical analysis of surface plasmon
resonance based fiber optic sensor using indium nitride”, (communicated, 2014).

Conference Proceedings
[1] Rani M., Sharma N.K., “ITO based fiber optic SPR sensor”, AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 1536, pp.
1117-1118, 2013.

Conferences
[1] Rani M., Sharma N.K., “Simulation of Cobalt based fiber optic surface plasmon resonance
sensor”, International Conference on Optics & Optoelectronics ICOL-2014, Dehradun, March
05-08, 2014.

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